The organization and holding of the Vienna Congress became a significant event both for European states and for the entire world practice in general. Let's consider some issues of its implementation in more detail.
Objectives: The Congress of Vienna was originally declared to be convened to determine the fate of the French Emperor Napoleon Bonaparte, and to develop and implement measures to prevent similar situations in the future. However, the adviser to the Austrian Chancellor Metternich Friedrich Gentz, who was Secretary General Congress of Vienna, in February 1815, wrote: “Loud phrases about “restructuring social order, update political system Europe”, “Permanent peace based on a fair distribution of power”, etc. and so on. were pronounced to calm the crowd and to impart to this solemn assembly some appearance of dignity and grandeur, but the real purpose of the Congress was to divide the inheritance of the vanquished among the victors.” And, indeed, all participants in the Congress sought to grab as much as possible for themselves at any cost, regardless of their contribution to the defeat of Napoleon.
Time of the Congress of Vienna: from September 1814 to June 1815.
Composition and number of participants: there were 216 delegates from the European winning countries at the Congress. The Russian delegation was headed by Emperor Alexander I, Great Britain - Keslreagh, and a little later - Wellington, Austria - Francis I, Prussia - Hardenberg, France - Charles-Maurice Talleyrand. Leading role in decision critical issues Alexander I and the Austrian Chancellor Metternich played at the Congress. In addition, despite the fact that Talleyrand represented defeated France, he managed to successfully defend its interests on a number of issues.
Plans of the participants of the Vienna Congress: All delegations came to the Congress in Vienna with certain plans.
- 1. Alexander I, whose troops were in the center of Europe, was not going to give up what he had conquered. He wanted to create the Duchy of Warsaw under his own auspices, giving it its own constitution. In exchange for this, in order not to offend his ally Frederick William III, Alexander hoped to transfer Saxony to Prussia.
- 2. Austria planned to regain the lands conquered from it by Napoleon, and to prevent a significant strengthening of Russia and Prussia.
- 3. Prussia really wanted to annex Saxony and retain Polish lands.
- 4. England hoped to maintain the status quo in Europe, prevent the strengthening of Russia and receive guarantees of the existence of the old, pre-Napoleonic regime in France.
- 5. France, not counting on any territorial acquisitions, did not want the predominance of some European countries over others.
During the negotiations during the Congress of Vienna, a number of important scandalous events occurred:
- · Firstly, England, France and Prussia entered into a secret agreement on January 3, 1815, which contained the obligation of the three powers to jointly prevent Saxony from joining Prussia on any terms. In addition, they agreed not to allow any redistribution of existing borders, that is, annexation of territories to a particular country or separation from them.
- · Secondly, almost immediately after its conclusion, the above-mentioned secret agreement received scandalous publicity, which, naturally, influenced the work of the Vienna Congress. This happened in Paris during the historical period known as the "100 days". Having landed in France with a small group of soldiers and officers loyal to him, Napoleon entered Paris on March 19, 1815. One of three copies of the secret treaty was discovered in the office of the escaped Louis XVIII. At the direction of Napoleon, it was urgently transported to Alexander I, who handed it over to Metternich. Thus, all other delegations became aware of the “secret” conspiracy of some participants in the Vienna Congress.
- · Thirdly, the very fact of the short-term restoration of Napoleon's empire was unexpected and unforeseen.
- · Fourthly, important event was the final defeat of Napoleon at Waterloo and the return of the royal Bourbon dynasty to Paris.
Results of the Congress of Vienna: The Congress of Vienna was unique in its significance historical event. Its results can be summarized as follows:
1. A few days before Waterloo, namely on June 9, 1815, representatives of Russia, Austria, Spain, France, Great Britain, Portugal, Prussia and Sweden signed the Final General Act of the Congress of Vienna. According to its provisions, the inclusion of the territory of the Austrian Netherlands (modern Belgium) into the new Kingdom of the Netherlands was authorized, but all other Austrian possessions returned to Habsburg control, including Lombardy, the Venetian region, Tuscany, Parma and the Tyrol. Prussia received part of Saxony, a significant territory of Westphalia and the Rhineland. Denmark, a former ally of France, lost Norway to Sweden. In Italy, the power of the Pope over the Vatican and the Papal States was restored, and the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies was returned to the Bourbons. The German Confederation was also formed. Part of the Duchy of Warsaw created by Napoleon became part of the Russian Empire under the name the Kingdom of Poland, and the Russian emperor also became the Polish king.
In addition, the General Act contained special articles that related to relations between European countries. For example, rules were established for the collection of duties and navigation on the border and international rivers Mozyl, Meuse, Rhine and Scheldt; the principles of free navigation were determined; the annex to the General Act spoke of the prohibition of trade in blacks; In all countries, censorship was tightened and police regimes were strengthened.
2. After the Congress of Vienna, the so-called “Vienna System” developed international relations».
It was at the Congress of Vienna that three classes of diplomatic agents were established, which are still in use today; a unified procedure for the reception of diplomats was determined, and four types of consular offices were formulated. Within the framework of this system, the concept of great powers was formulated for the first time (then primarily Russia, Austria, Great Britain), and multichannel diplomacy finally took shape.
- 3. The decision was made to create the Holy Alliance.
- 4. The formation of the Holy Union is the main result of the Congress of Vienna in 1815
Alexander I came up with the idea of creating the Holy Union of European States, as he understood that the decisions of the Congress should be formalized organizationally.
The founding document of the Holy Alliance was the Act of the Holy Alliance, developed by Alexander I himself and signed in Paris on September 26, 1815 by the Russian and Austrian emperors and the Prussian king.
The purpose of creating the Holy Alliance was: on the one hand, to play the role of a deterrent against national liberation and revolutionary movements, and on the other, to unite, if necessary, all its participants in defense of the inviolability of borders and existing orders. This was reflected in the Act of the Holy Alliance, which declared that due to the great changes in European countries over the course of three recent years the members of the sacred Union decided that “in any case and in every place they will begin to give each other benefits, reinforcements and assistance for the preservation of faith, peace and truth.”
However, according to many historians, the content of this act was highest degree indefinite and extensible and practical implications it was possible to make a wide variety of things out of it, but its general spirit did not contradict, but rather favored, the reactionary mood of the governments of that time. Not to mention the confusion of ideas belonging to completely different categories, in it religion and morality completely displace law and politics from the areas that undoubtedly belong to the latter. Built on the legitimate basis of the divine origin of monarchical power, it establishes a patriarchal relationship between sovereigns and peoples, and the former are charged with the obligation to rule in the spirit of “love, truth and peace,” and the latter must only obey: the document does not at all talk about the rights of the people in relation to power mentions.
The purpose of the Union was mutual assistance in suppressing revolutionary anti-monarchist protests in Europe - echoes of anti-Christian French Revolution- and strengthening the foundations of Christian statehood. Alexander I intended, through such a Union, to also eliminate the possibility of military clashes between monarchical Christian states. The monarchs who entered into an alliance vowed to maintain the inviolability of borders in Europe and to subordinate the entire order of mutual relations to “the lofty truths inspired by the eternal law of God the Savior”, “to be guided by no other rules than the commandments of the holy faith” and “to regard ourselves as members of a single people” Christian." The Act of the Holy Alliance was symbolically signed in Orthodox holiday Exaltation of the Holy Cross. High spiritual meaning The Holy Alliance is also reflected in the unusual edition of the union treaty, which is not similar either in form or in content to international treatises: “In the name of the Most Holy and Indivisible Trinity! Their Majesties, the Emperor of Austria, the King of Prussia and the Emperor of All Russia, as a result of the great events that have marked the last three years in Europe, especially as a result of the blessings that God's Providence has been pleased to pour out on the states, whose government has placed its hope and respect in the One God, having felt inner conviction of how necessary it is for the present powers to subordinate the image of mutual relations to the higher truths inspired by the eternal law of God the Savior, they solemnly declare that the subject of this act is to reveal to the face of the universe their unshakable determination, both in the management of the states entrusted to them, and in political relations to all other governments, to be guided by no other rules than the commandments of this holy faith, the commandments of love, truth and peace, which were not limited to their application solely to private life, must, on the contrary, directly govern the will of the kings and guide all their actions , as a single means of affirming human decisions and rewarding their imperfections. On this basis, Their Majesties have agreed in the following articles...”
In the first years after the creation of the Holy Alliance, despite the existing differences in the views of its participants, European states on many issues foreign policy acted in concert, especially in the fight against free thought and democratization of the masses. At the same time, they closely watched each other and hatched their own plans.
In general, during the existence of the Holy Alliance, several of its congresses took place:
- 1. Aachen Congress (September 20 - November 20, 1818).
- 2. Congresses in Troppau and Laibach (1820-1821).
- 3. Congress in Verona (October 20 - November 14, 1822).
The Congress of Vienna, convened in Europe by representatives of the leading European states, had great value. After the Congress of Vienna, the so-called “Vienna System of International Relations” emerged and a decision was made to create the Holy Alliance.
At the very beginning of the Congress of Vienna, its main participants almost quarreled among themselves over the division of those lands in Europe, which they considered their rightful reward for their contribution to the victory over Napoleon.
Russia actively sought satisfaction of its territorial claims, playing exclusively important role on final stage Napoleonic wars. It demanded that other countries recognize the legality of Finland joining it in 1809 and Bessarabia in 1812. The difficulty of this issue was that all these acquisitions were made with the approval of Napoleonic France, with which Russia was in allied relations at that time. But most importantly, Russia laid claim to the territory of the Grand Duchy of Warsaw, created by Napoleon in 1807. All major states objected to this. Prussia and Austria - because in this case we were talking about Polish lands that were transferred to these countries under treaties of the 18th century. about the divisions of Poland. Great Britain and France - because they believed that this would lead to an imbalance of power in favor of Russia.
Sharp disagreements arose between Austria and Prussia in connection with the latter's intention to seize Saxony - a relatively small German state, the whole fault of which was that it was a loyal ally of Napoleonic France: Saxony continued to fight on its side even when all its other allies had already left.
In the end, Russia and Prussia managed to come to an agreement among themselves. Prussia agreed to transfer the territory of the Grand Duchy of Warsaw to Russia in exchange for agreeing to support its claims to Saxony. However, other states stubbornly refused to make any concessions.
The contradictions reached such intensity that it seemed that a split between yesterday's allies was inevitable. On January 3, 1815, Great Britain, France and the Austrian Empire entered into a secret military alliance, actually directed against Russia and Prussia. There was a smell of a new war in Europe.
Napoleon Bonaparte, who closely followed political events, decided to take advantage of the favorable moment to restore his power in France. In March 1815, he escaped from the island of Elba, where his allies had exiled him after his abdication, landed in France and tried to regain his throne. He was supported by the army and wide sections of the population dissatisfied with the Bourbon restoration. Arriving in Paris, Napoleon occupied the Tuileries Palace, from where Louis XVIII had just fled in panic. Here he discovered a copy of the secret treaty of the three powers that had been accidentally left behind. Rejoicing at his luck, Napoleon handed it over to Alexander I in the hope of driving a wedge between the countries of the former anti-French coalition. However, he underestimated the sanity of the Russian emperor. Alexander, having familiarized himself with this document, limited himself to an ironic remark about the “weakness, frivolity and ambition” of European monarchs. He did not slacken his efforts to recreate an anti-French coalition to fight Napoleon. In his opinion, the Napoleonic empire, rising from the ashes, posed a much greater danger to Russia than the intrigues of the allies.
On March 13 (25), 1815, Great Britain, Austria, Russia and Prussia signed a new treaty in Vienna alliance treaty for the purposes of the war with Napoleon. The rest of the European states, including the government of Louis XVIII, received an invitation to join him. Russian troops were sent to Europe, but they did not have time to take part in hostilities. The denouement came quickly: in the battle of June 18, 1815 at Waterloo in the Netherlands, Napoleon was defeated and abdicated the throne again. This time, by agreement between the allies, he was exiled to the ends of the earth, away from Europe - to the island of St. Helena in the southern part Atlantic Ocean, where he died in 1821.
Napoleon's attempt to regain the throne (known as the "Hundred Days") was very costly for France. On November 8 (20), 1815, the allies concluded a new peace treaty with her, according to which she lost a number of fortresses on the eastern border, as well as Savoy and Nice, and pledged to pay 700 million francs. indemnities. In addition, for a period of 3 to 5 years, France was subject to occupation by a 150,000-strong Allied army, which it itself had to support.
These actions of Napoleon and the fear of the “usurper” that gripped European courts helped smooth out the contradictions between the powers and pushed them to mutual concessions. As a result, Russia received the Grand Duchy of Warsaw, Poznan remained part of Prussia, Galicia was retained by Austria, and Krakow was proclaimed a “free city.” As part of Russia, Polish lands received the status of an autonomous Kingdom (Kingdom) of Poland. In addition, participants in the Congress of Vienna recognized Russia's rights to Finland and Bessarabia. In both cases this was done in violation of historical law. The territory of the Duchy of Warsaw never belonged to Russia, and even in ethnically(language, religion) it had little to do with her. The same can be said about Finland, which has long been the possession of the Swedish kings. As part of Russia, it was an autonomous Grand Duchy (principality) of Finland.
As compensation for the loss of Finland, Sweden, as an active participant in the wars against Napoleonic France, received Norway. This country was in a union with Denmark for several centuries. What did Denmark do wrong before the allies? The fact that until the last moment she maintained an alliance with Napoleon, although the most shrewd European monarchs managed to break off relations with him in time.
The dispute between Prussia and Austria over Saxony was settled amicably. Prussia eventually received part of Saxony, although it counted on its entire territory. But this was strongly opposed by Austria, which wanted to maintain a small, as they said then, buffer state between itself and Prussia. According to the views of that time, the presence of small states along the perimeter of their borders was considered by the major powers as the most important guarantee own safety. Prussia was quite content with this solution to the controversial issue, since it additionally received vast territories: Westphalia and the Rhineland in western Germany, part of the Polish lands, including Poznan and Thorn, as well as Swedish Pomerania and the island of Rügen.
Austria also did not remain offended. Part of the Grand Duchy of Warsaw was returned to her, as well as possessions on the Balkan Peninsula, previously taken away by Napoleon. But Austria received the main reward for its contribution to the war against Napoleonic France in Northern Italy. She has been there since the beginning of the 18th century. owned Lombardy (capital Milan). Now in addition to this she received the territory of the Venetian Republic, including Dalmatia. The small states of central Italy - Tuscany, Parma, Modena, etc. - were returned to Austrian control.
The small Sardinian kingdom (capital Turin), captured by the French back in the 90s of the 18th century, was restored as an independent state. Savoy and Nice, previously annexed by France, were returned to him. In recognition of its merits, it received the territory of the Genoese Republic, which was abolished at one time by the French and was never restored at the end of the Napoleonic Wars.
The fate of the largest republics of the Middle Ages - Genoese and Venetian - abolished by Napoleon and not restored by the Congress of Vienna at the end of the Napoleonic Wars, was shared by the Republic of the United Provinces (Holland). Its territory, together with the Southern Netherlands, as well as Luxembourg, became part of the rather large Kingdom of the Netherlands. Such a state did not exist before. Its territory in the 15th century. belonged to the Duchy of Burgundy in the 16th–18th centuries. - in turn to the Austrian, Spanish and again the Austrian Habsburgs. The Kingdom of the Netherlands was supposed to serve as a buffer between France and the German states, which saw in it an additional guarantee of their security.
Only the Swiss Confederation escaped the common fate of these republics of the Middle Ages and the beginning of the modern era. Abolished by the French Republic and restored by Napoleon as a protectorate, it was retained by the Congress of Vienna and given the status of a neutral state.
The principle of legitimism in its historical interpretation fully triumphed in Spain, where the Bourbon dynasty was restored, and in southern Italy. In 1813, the Neapolitan king Murat, one of Napoleon's military leaders, married to his sister, broke with his father-in-law and joined the anti-French coalition, hoping to retain the royal crown. The European powers did not touch him for some time. But when, during Napoleon’s “hundred days,” Murat did not show zeal in the fight against the “usurper,” he was deposed, arrested and executed. And the Kingdom of Naples was returned to the legitimate Bourbon dynasty (an offshoot of the Spanish Bourbons), which had ruled the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies since the 18th century.
European monarchs decided not to restore the Holy Roman Empire to the German people. In fact, they came to terms with many of the territorial changes that Napoleon carried out in Germany. In particular, they did not live up to the hopes of the rulers of the hundreds of small estates he abolished. Most of them dissolved into Austria, Prussia or other larger German states.
At the Congress of Vienna, it was decided to form a new confederation within the borders of the Holy Roman Empire called the German Confederation. If in the Holy Roman Empire the relations between the head (emperor) and the members of the Empire (individual states) were of a feudal nature - the emperor was a lord, and the heads of individual states were his vassals - then in the German Confederation relations between members of the confederation were built on the basis of a treaty. It was signed by 34 monarchies and 4 free cities (Bremen, Hamburg, Lubeck and Frankfurt am Main). In accordance with this Treaty, a Union Diet (assembly) was created, which constantly met in Frankfurt. Each of the members of the German Confederation was represented in it by delegates. The Chairman of the Sejm was an Austrian representative. His decisions were made unanimously. There were no executive institutions, and there was no independent budget. Members of the German Confederation retained the right to pursue an independent foreign policy and sign any treaties with foreign states, as long as they were not directed against members of the union.
The German Confederation inherited a number of archaic features from the Holy Roman Empire. Part of the Prussian (East Prussia, Poznan) and Austrian possessions (Hungary, Northern Italy, etc.) were not part of the union. Meanwhile, participation in the union of Hanover (hereditary possession English kings), Holstein (a German duchy under the rule of the Danish kings) and Luxembourg (belonging to the Dutch king) provided the opportunity for foreign states to interfere in its affairs. Germany existed in this form until the mid-19th century.
These decisions on territorial issues were for the most part enshrined in the Final Act of the Congress of Vienna. It also contained a Declaration on Freedom of Riverways. As an annex to it, the Declaration on the Prohibition of the Slave Trade and the Regulations on the Ranks of Diplomatic Representatives were adopted.
But not all the issues that caused concern to the powers and were discussed during the Congress were reflected in the Final Act. In particular, it said nothing about the French and Dutch colonies captured by Great Britain during the war. Ultimately, she managed to retain the island of Malta in the Mediterranean Sea, the Cape Colony in southern Africa and the island of Ceylon.
The Final (General) Act was signed on May 28 (June 9), 1815 by representatives of Austria, Great Britain, Russia, France, Prussia, Sweden, Spain and Portugal. Subsequently, all other European states joined it. Bavaria was the last to sign it in May 1820.
As for the political and ideological issues of the structure of Europe, the monarchs who gathered at the Congress of Vienna showed a certain willingness to take into account the spirit of the times and the moods of the people. Moreover, these qualities were demonstrated primarily by the Russian emperor. Alexander I personally prevented the desire of his “brothers,” as it was customary to address each other among European monarchs, to restore absolutist orders in Europe and in their countries. He persistently advised Louis XVIII to give the French people a liberal constitution, to preserve the legislation under which the French had lived for the last quarter of a century. It must be said that Louis XVIII followed this advice and “bestowed” on his subjects a constitution - a Charter, which enshrined civil equality, basic social, economic and political freedoms. Until the middle of the 19th century. The Charter served as a model for liberal constitutions in many European countries.
Even the Prussian king promised at the Congress of Vienna to introduce a constitution in his state in the near future. True, he did not fulfill his promise. Only the Austrian Emperor and the Spanish King stubbornly refused to bind themselves to such promises.
As a result, after the Congress of Vienna, the principle of constitutional government became more widespread than ever before. The monarchs of Europe turned out to be more liberal in their domestic policies than Napoleon, this heir and executor of the revolution, who in the area domestic policy proved himself to be a real despot. After 1815, constitutions were in force not only in Great Britain (where an unwritten constitution had previously been formed, i.e., a set of fundamental laws, political procedures and customs limiting the power of the king), but also in France, the Kingdom of the Netherlands, Sweden, and Norway. Soon after the Congress of Vienna, constitutions in the image and likeness of the French Charter were introduced in a number of West German states (in Bavaria and Baden - in 1818, Württemberg - in 1819, Hesse-Darmstadt - in 1820, etc.). Alexander I granted constitutions to the Kingdom of Poland and the Grand Duchy of Finland, which enjoyed autonomy within the Russian Empire. The struggle for the introduction of constitutions unfolded in Spain, Prussia and the Italian states. True, it took the revolutions of the early 20s in Spain, Portugal, Italy, Greece, as well as the revolutions of 1830 and 1848–1849, for the principle of constitutional government to be accepted by the majority of European states. Nevertheless, after the Congress of Vienna, Europe became much more liberal and freer politically than before it.
In the fall of 1814, representatives of all European powers gathered in Vienna for international congress to resolve a complex set of issues left as a legacy from the era of the French Revolution and the Napoleonic Wars. At the same time, each of the great powers sought to ensure only their own interests, and together they imposed their will on weaker states. The main issues were resolved by agreement between representatives of the great powers - Great Britain, Austria, Prussia and Russia. They quickly agreed on the new borders of France, but for a long time they could not overcome differences over Poland and Saxony.
Endless discussions at the Congress of Vienna were interrupted by Napoleon's return to power. Having fled from the Elbe in the spring of 1815 and landed in France with a small detachment, he soon victoriously entered Paris at the head of an army dissatisfied with the return of the Bourbons. These were Napoleon's famous "Hundred Days". The emperor waited for some time, hoping to conclude a favorable agreement with the powers, and then launched an offensive in Belgium. The short-term war ended on June 18, 1815 near the Belgian village Waterloo, where Prussian and English troops, with the participation of local militia, defeated Napoleon's army.
Meanwhile, the Congress of Vienna practically completed its work. The powers managed to reach a compromise on the very complex issue, which in reality meant another division of Poland. On June 8, 1815, a constitution was proclaimed German Confederation, which replaced the Holy Roman Empire of the German nation, and the next day the solemn signing of the General Act of the Congress of Vienna took place.
- Article 1 stipulated that the Kingdom of Poland “shall forever join the Russian Empire.” Austria and Prussia also received their share of the Polish inheritance.
- Prussian possessions in western Germany were united into a vast province called Rhine Prussia. Material from the site
- Holland and Belgium formed the single kingdom of the Netherlands.
- Most of the territories of Northern Italy were united into the Lombardo-Venetian kingdom, which was transferred under the control of the Austrian emperor.
- Austria established its control over other Italian states and acquired predominant influence in Italy.
- The British secured Malta and many colonies captured during many years of war.
- France was returning to the borders of 1790, and its territory was subject to occupation by the Allied forces.
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The organization and holding of the Vienna Congress became a significant event both for European states and for the entire world practice in general. Let's consider some issues of its implementation in more detail.
Objectives: The Congress of Vienna was originally declared to be convened to determine the fate of the French Emperor Napoleon Bonaparte, and to develop and implement measures to prevent similar situations in the future. However, Friedrich Gentz, an adviser to the Austrian Chancellor Metternich, who was the General Secretary of the Congress of Vienna, wrote in February 1815: “Loud phrases about “restructuring the social order, updating the political system of Europe,” “Permanent peace based on a fair distribution of forces,” etc. d. and so on. were pronounced in order to calm the crowd and give this solemn meeting some appearance of dignity and grandeur, but the true goal of the Congress was to divide the inheritance of the vanquished among the victors” 11 Protopopov A.S., Kozmenko V.M., Elmanova N.S. History of international relations and foreign policy of Russia (1648-2000). Textbook for Universities / Ed. A.S. Protopopova. - M.: Aspect Press, 2001. - P.75.. And, indeed, all participants in the Congress sought to grab as much as possible at any cost, regardless of their contribution to the defeat of Napoleon 22 there..
Time of the Congress of Vienna: from September 1814 to June 1815.
Composition and number of participants: there were 216 delegates from the European winning countries at the Congress. The Russian delegation was headed by Emperor Alexander I, Great Britain - Keslreagh, and a little later - Wellington, Austria - Francis I, Prussia - Hardenberg, France - Charles-Maurice Talleyrand. The leading role in resolving the most important issues at the Congress was played by Alexander I and the Austrian Chancellor Metternich. In addition, despite the fact that Talleyrand represented defeated France, he managed to successfully defend its interests on a number of issues.
Plans of the participants of the Vienna Congress: All delegations came to the Congress in Vienna with certain plans.
1. Alexander I, whose troops were in the center of Europe, was not going to give up what he had conquered. He wanted to create the Duchy of Warsaw under his own auspices, giving it its own constitution. In exchange for this, in order not to offend his ally Frederick William III, Alexander hoped to transfer Saxony to Prussia.
2. Austria planned to regain the lands conquered from it by Napoleon, and to prevent a significant strengthening of Russia and Prussia.
3. Prussia really wanted to annex Saxony and retain Polish lands.
5. France, not counting on any territorial acquisitions, did not want the predominance of some European countries over others.
During the negotiations during the Congress of Vienna, a number of important scandalous events occurred:
· Firstly, England, France and Prussia entered into a secret agreement on January 3, 1815, which contained the obligation of the three powers to jointly prevent Saxony from joining Prussia on any terms. In addition, they agreed not to allow any redistribution of existing borders, that is, annexation of territories to a particular country or separation from them.
· Secondly, almost immediately after its conclusion, the above-mentioned secret agreement received scandalous publicity, which, naturally, influenced the work of the Vienna Congress. This happened in Paris during the historical period known as the "100 days". Having landed in France with a small group of soldiers and officers loyal to him, Napoleon entered Paris on March 19, 1815. One of three copies of the secret treaty was discovered in the office of the escaped Louis XVIII. At the direction of Napoleon, it was urgently transported to Alexander I, who handed it over to Metternich. Thus, all other delegations became aware of the “secret” conspiracy of some participants in the Vienna Congress.
· Thirdly, the very fact of the short-term restoration of Napoleon's empire was unexpected and unforeseen.
· Fourthly, an important event was the final defeat of Napoleon at Waterloo and the return of the royal Bourbon dynasty to Paris.
Results of the Congress of Vienna: In terms of its significance, the Congress of Vienna was a unique historical event. Its results can be summarized as follows:
1. A few days before Waterloo, namely on June 9, 1815, representatives of Russia, Austria, Spain, France, Great Britain, Portugal, Prussia and Sweden signed the Final General Act of the Congress of Vienna. According to its provisions, the inclusion of the territory of the Austrian Netherlands (modern Belgium) into the new Kingdom of the Netherlands was authorized, but all other Austrian possessions returned to Habsburg control, including Lombardy, the Venetian region, Tuscany, Parma and the Tyrol. Prussia received part of Saxony, a significant territory of Westphalia and the Rhineland. Denmark, a former ally of France, lost Norway to Sweden. In Italy, the power of the Pope over the Vatican and the Papal States was restored, and the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies was returned to the Bourbons. The German Confederation was also formed. Part of the Duchy of Warsaw created by Napoleon became part of the Russian Empire under the name the Kingdom of Poland, and the Russian emperor also became the Polish king.
In addition, the General Act contained special articles that related to relations between European countries. For example, rules were established for the collection of duties and navigation on the border and international rivers Mozyl, Meuse, Rhine and Scheldt; the principles of free navigation were determined; the annex to the General Act spoke of the prohibition of trade in blacks; In all countries, censorship was tightened and police regimes were strengthened.
2. After the Congress of Vienna, the so-called “Vienna system of international relations” emerged.
It was at the Congress of Vienna that three classes of diplomatic agents were established, which are still in use today. 11 The first class includes ambassadors and papal legates (nuncios); to the second - envoys (internunniums); to the third - chargés d'affaires; a unified procedure for the reception of diplomats was determined, and four types of consular offices were formulated. Within the framework of this system, the concept of great powers was formulated for the first time (then primarily Russia, Austria, Great Britain), and multichannel diplomacy finally took shape.
3. The decision was made to create the Holy Alliance.
IN last days On March 1814, Allied troops triumphantly entered Paris. This meant the complete defeat of Napoleonic France and the final end of many years of European wars. Napoleon himself soon abdicated power and was exiled to Elba, and the victorious allies sat down at the negotiating table to remake the map of European countries.
For this purpose, the Congress of Vienna was convened, which took place in Austria in 1814-1815. It was attended by representatives of Russia, England, Austria, Prussia, France and Portugal.
The main issues considered were the following: the redistribution of Europe in favor of the victorious countries, the restoration of monarchical power in Europe and the prevention of any possibility of Napoleon returning to power.
In France, representatives of the Bourbon dynasty were restored to their rights, and the throne was taken by Louis XVIII, the closest heir of the executed man. In addition, the winners wanted the restoration of the previous system - the feudal noble-absolutist one. Of course, after all the political achievements of the French Revolution, this goal was utopian, but nevertheless, for many years, Europe entered a regime of conservatism and reaction.
The main problem there was a redistribution of lands, especially Poland and Saxony. Russian Emperor Alexander I wanted to annex Polish lands to the territory of Russia, and give Saxony to the power of Prussia. But representatives of Austria, England and France did their best to prevent such a decision. They even signed a secret agreement against the territorial aspirations of Prussia and Russia, so at the first stage such a redistribution did not take place.
In general, the Congress of Vienna showed that the main superiority of forces was observed in Russia, Prussia, England and Austria. By bargaining and quarreling among themselves, representatives of these countries carried out the main redistribution of Europe.
In the spring of 1815, Napoleon managed to escape from Elba, landed in France and began a new military campaign. However, his soldiers were soon completely defeated at Waterloo, and the Congress of Vienna in 1815 began to work at an accelerated pace. Now its participants tried to make final decisions on the territorial structure of Europe as quickly as possible.
At the beginning of July 1815, the General Act of Congress was signed, according to which France was deprived of all previously conquered lands. What was now called the Kingdom of Poland went to Russia. The Rhineland, Posen, Westphalia and most of Saxony were ceded to Prussia. Austria annexed Lombardy, Galicia and Venice to its territory, and in the principalities (German Confederation) this country became the most influential. Of course, this affected the interests of the Prussian state.
In Italy, the Sardinian kingdom was restored, annexing Savoy and Nice, while establishing the rights of the Savoy dynasty. Tuscany, Modena and Parma came under the rule of Austrian representatives. Rome again came under the rule of the Pope, to whom all previous rights were returned. The Bourbons took the throne in Naples. The Kingdom of the Netherlands was formed from Holland and Belgium.
The small German states that Napoleon abolished were, for the most part, never restored. Their total number has decreased by almost ten times. However, the fragmentation of Germany, which now had 38 states, remained as before.
The colonial lands that it took from Spain, France and Holland went to England. and Ceylon, Guiana, and the Ionian Islands were now finally secured by the British kingdom.
A confederation of nineteen Swiss cantons was formed, which declared “perpetual neutrality.” Norway was transferred to the power of Sweden, removing it from Denmark.
But at the same time, all European states, without exception, feared the excessive strengthening of Russia, since it was this country that played the role of victor over Napoleonic troops.
The Vienna Conference ended there, but in the fall of 1815, Alexander I decided to strengthen the new European order and establish the leading role of Russia and England. On his initiative, an agreement was signed on the creation of which included Austria, Prussia and Russian empire. According to the agreements, these states promised to help each other in the event of revolutions or popular uprisings.
The Congress of Vienna and its decisions had a decisive influence on the entire European system. Only after 1917, when the First War ended World War, European territory will again be redrawn.