The prerequisites for the formation of the Old Russian state were the collapse of tribal ties and the development of a new method of production. The Old Russian state took shape in the process of the development of feudal relations, the emergence of class contradictions and coercion.
Among the Slavs, a dominant layer gradually formed, the basis of which was the military Nobility of the Kyiv princes - the squad. Already in the 9th century, strengthening the position of their princes, the warriors firmly occupied leading positions in society.
It was in the 9th century. In Eastern Europe, two ethnopolitical associations were formed, which ultimately became the basis of the state. It was formed as a result of the unification of the glades with the center in Kyiv.
Slavs, Krivichi and Finnish-speaking tribes united in the area of Lake Ilmen (center in Novgorod). In the middle of the 9th century. this association began to be ruled by a native of Scandinavia, Rurik (862-879). Therefore, the year 862 is considered the year of formation of the ancient Russian state.
The presence of Scandinavians (Varangians) on the territory of Rus' is confirmed by archaeological excavations and records in chronicles. In the 18th century German scientists G.F. Miller and G.Z. Bayer proved the Scandinavian theory of the formation of the ancient Russian state (Rus).
M.V. Lomonosov, denying the Norman (Varangian) origin of statehood, associated the word “Rus” with the Sarmatians-Roxolans, the Ros River, flowing in the south.
Lomonosov, relying on “The Legend of the Princes of Vladimir,” argued that Rurik, being a native of Prussia, belonged to the Slavs, which were the Prussians. It was this “southern” anti-Norman theory of the formation of the ancient Russian state that was supported and developed in the 19th and 20th centuries. historians.
The first mentions of Rus' are attested in the “Bavarian Chronograph” and date back to the period 811-821. In it, the Russians are mentioned as a people within the Khazars inhabiting Eastern Europe. In the 9th century Rus' was perceived as an ethnopolitical entity on the territory of the glades and northerners.
Rurik, who took control of Novgorod, sent his squad led by Askold and Dir to rule Kiev. Rurik's successor, Varangian Prince Oleg(879-912), who took possession of Smolensk and Lyubech, subjugated all the Krivichi to his power, and in 882 he fraudulently lured Askold and Dir out of Kyiv and killed them. Having captured Kyiv, he managed to unite by force of his power the two most important centers of the Eastern Slavs - Kyiv and Novgorod. Oleg subjugated the Drevlyans, Northerners and Radimichi.
In 907, Oleg, having gathered a huge army of Slavs and Finns, launched a campaign against Constantinople (Constantinople), the capital of the Byzantine Empire. The Russian squad devastated the surrounding area and forced the Greeks to ask Oleg for peace and pay a huge tribute. The result of this campaign was peace treaties with Byzantium that were very beneficial for Rus', concluded in 907 and 911.
Oleg died in 912, and his successor was Igor(912-945), son of Rurik. In 941 he attacked Byzantium, which violated the previous treaty. Igor's army plundered the shores of Asia Minor, but was defeated in a naval battle. Then in 945, in alliance with the Pechenegs, he launched a new campaign against Constantinople and forced the Greeks to once again conclude a peace treaty. In 945, while trying to collect a second tribute from the Drevlyans, Igor was killed.
Igor's widow Duchess Olga(945-957) ruled due to the childhood of his son Svyatoslav. She brutally took revenge for the murder of her husband by ravaging the lands of the Drevlyans. Olga organized the sizes and places of collecting tribute. In 955 she visited Constantinople and was baptized into Orthodoxy.
Svyatoslav(957-972) - the bravest and most influential of the princes, who subjugated the Vyatichi to his power. In 965 he inflicted a number of heavy defeats on the Khazars. Svyatoslav defeated the North Caucasian tribes, as well as the Volga Bulgarians, and plundered their capital, the Bulgars. The Byzantine government sought an alliance with him to fight external enemies.
Kyiv and Novgorod became the center of formation of the ancient Russian state, and the East Slavic tribes, northern and southern, united around them. In the 9th century both of these groups united into a single ancient Russian state, which went down in history as Rus'.
Kievan Rus is an exceptional phenomenon of European medieval history. Occupying a geographically intermediate position between the civilizations of the East and West, it became a zone of the most important historical and cultural contacts and was formed not only on a self-sufficient internal basis, but also under the significant influence of neighboring peoples.
Formation of tribal alliances
The formation of the state of Kievan Rus and the origins of the formation of modern Slavic peoples lie in the times when the Great Migration of the Slavs began in the vast territories of Eastern and South-Eastern Europe, which lasted until the end of the 7th century. The previously unified Slavic community gradually disintegrated into eastern, western, southern and northern Slavic tribal unions.
In the middle of the 1st millennium, the Ant and Sklavin unions of Slavic tribes already existed on the territory of modern Ukraine. After the defeat in the 5th century AD. the Huns tribe and the final disappearance of the Western Roman Empire, the alliance of Antes began to play a prominent role in Eastern Europe. The invasion of the Avar tribes did not allow this union to form into a state, but the process of forming a state was not stopped. colonized new lands and, uniting, created new alliances of tribes.
At first, temporary, random associations of tribes arose - for military campaigns or defense from unfriendly neighbors and nomads. Gradually, associations of neighboring tribes close in culture and way of life arose. Finally, territorial associations of a proto-state type were formed - lands and principalities, which later became the cause of such a process as the formation of the state of Kievan Rus.
Briefly: composition of Slavic tribes
Most modern historical schools connect the beginnings of self-awareness of the Russian, Ukrainian and Belarusian peoples with the collapse of the great Slavic ethnically unified society and the emergence of a new social formation - a tribal union. The gradual rapprochement of the Slavic tribes gave rise to the state of Kievan Rus. The formation of the state accelerated at the end of the 8th century. On the territory of the future power, seven political unions were formed: the Dulibs, the Drevlyans, the Croats, the Polyans, the Ulichs, the Tiverts, and the Siverians. One of the first to emerge was the Dulib Union, uniting the tribes inhabiting the territories from the river. Goryn in the east to the West. Buga. The most advantageous geographical position was enjoyed by the Polyan tribe, which occupied the territory of the middle Dnieper region from the river. Grouse in the north to the river. Irpin and Ros in the south. The formation of the ancient state of Kievan Rus took place on the lands of these tribes.
The emergence of the rudiments of government
In the conditions of the formation of tribal unions, their military-political significance grew. Most of the loot captured during military campaigns was appropriated by tribal leaders and warriors - armed professional warriors who served the leaders for a reward. A significant role was played by meetings of free male warriors or public gatherings (veche), at which the most important administrative and civil issues were resolved. There was a separation into a layer of the tribal elite, in whose hands power was concentrated. This layer included boyars - advisers and close associates of the prince, the princes themselves and their warriors.
Separation of the Polyan Union
The process of state formation took place especially intensively on the lands of the Polyansky tribal principality. The importance of Kyiv, its capital, grew. The supreme power in the principality belonged to the descendants of the Polyansky
Between the VIII and IX centuries. In the principality, real political preconditions arose for the emergence on its basis of the first, which later received the name Kievan Rus.
Formation of the name "Rus"
The question “where did the Russian land come from” asked has not found a clear answer to this day. Today, several scientific theories about the origin of the name “Rus” and “Kievan Rus” are widespread among historians. The formation of this phrase goes back to the deep past. In a broad sense, these terms were used to describe all East Slavic territories; in a narrow sense, only the Kyiv, Chernigov and Pereyaslav lands were taken into account. Among the Slavic tribes, these names became widespread and were later entrenched in various toponyms. For example, the names of the rivers are Rosava. Ros, etc. Those Slavic tribes that occupied a privileged position in the lands of the Middle Dnieper region also began to be called. According to scientists, the name of one of the tribes that was part of the Polyansky Union was Dew or Rus, and later the social elite of the entire Polyansky Union began to call themselves Rus. In the 9th century, the formation of ancient Russian statehood was completed. Kievan Rus began its existence.
Territories of the Eastern Slavs
Geographically, all tribes lived in the forest or forest-steppe. These natural zones turned out to be favorable for economic development and safe for life. It was in the middle latitudes, in forests and forest-steppes, that the formation of the state of Kievan Rus began.
The general location of the southern group of Slavic tribes significantly influenced the nature of their relations with neighboring peoples and countries. The territory of residence of the ancient Rus was on the border between East and West. These lands are located at the crossroads of ancient roads and trade routes. But unfortunately, these territories were open and unprotected by natural barriers, making them vulnerable to invasion and raids.
Relationships with neighbors
Throughout the VII-VIII centuries. The main threat to the local population was the newcomers of the East and South. Of particular importance for the glades was the formation of the Khazar Khaganate - a strong state located in the steppes of the Northern Black Sea region and in the Crimea. The Khazars took an aggressive position towards the Slavs. First they imposed tribute on the Vyatichi and Siverians, and later on the Polyans. The fight against the Khazars contributed to the unification of the tribes of the Polyansky tribal union, which both traded and fought with the Khazars. Perhaps it was from Khazaria that the title of ruler, Kagan, passed to the Slavs.
The relations of the Slavic tribes with Byzantium were important. Repeatedly, the Slavic princes fought and traded with the powerful empire, and sometimes even entered into military alliances with it. In the west, relations between the East Slavic peoples were maintained with the Slovaks, Poles and Czechs.
Formation of the state of Kievan Rus
The political development of the Polyansky reign led to the emergence of a state formation at the turn of the 8th-9th centuries, which was later assigned the name “Rus”. Since Kyiv became the capital of the new power, historians of the 19th-20th centuries. they began to call it “Kievan Rus”. The formation of the country began in the Middle Dnieper region, where the Drevlyans, Siverians and Polyans lived.
He had the title Kagan (Khakan), equivalent to the Russian Grand Duke. It is clear that such a title could only be worn by a ruler who, in his social status, stood above the prince of the tribal union. The strengthening of the new state was evidenced by its active military activities. At the end of the 8th century. The Rus, led by the Polyansky prince Bravlin, attacked the Crimean coast and captured Korchev, Surozh and Korsun. In 838 the Rus arrived in Byzantium. This is how diplomatic relations with the Eastern Empire were formalized. The formation of the East Slavic state of Kievan Rus was a great event. It was recognized as one of the most powerful powers of the time.
The first princes of Kievan Rus
Representatives of the Kievich dynasty, which includes the brothers, reigned in Rus'. According to some historians, they were co-rulers, although, perhaps, Dir reigned first, and then Askold. In those days, squads of Normans appeared on the Dnieper - Swedes, Danes, Norwegians. They were used to guard trade routes and as mercenaries during raids. In 860, Askold, leading an army of 6-8 thousand people, carried out a sea campaign against Constantinople. While in Byzantium, Askold became acquainted with a new religion - Christianity, was baptized and tried to bring a new faith that Kievan Rus could accept. Education and the history of the new country began to be influenced by Byzantine philosophers and thinkers. Priests and architects were invited from the empire to Russian soil. But these activities of Askold did not bring great success - the influence of paganism was still strong among the nobility and commoners. Therefore, Christianity came later to Kievan Rus.
The formation of a new state determined the beginning of a new era in the history of the Eastern Slavs - an era of full-fledged state and political life.
Denial of the greatness of Russia is a terrible robbery of humanity.
Berdyaev Nikolay Alexandrovich
The origin of the ancient Russian state of Kievan Rus is one of the biggest mysteries in history. Of course, there is an official version that gives many answers, but it has one drawback - it completely rejects everything that happened to the Slavs before 862. Are things really as bad as they write in Western books, when the Slavs are compared to semi-wild people who are not able to govern themselves and for this they were forced to turn to an outsider, a Varangian, so that he could teach them reason? Of course, this is an exaggeration, since such a people cannot take Byzantium by storm twice before this time, but our ancestors did it!
In this material we will adhere to the basic policy of our site - presentation of facts that are known for certain. Also on these pages we will point out the main points that historians use under various pretexts, but in our opinion they can shed light on what happened on our lands in that distant time.
Formation of the state of Kievan Rus
Modern history puts forward two main versions according to which the formation of the state of Kievan Rus occurred:
- Norman. This theory is based on a rather dubious historical document - “The Tale of Bygone Years”. Also, supporters of the Norman version talk about various records from European scientists. This version is basic and accepted by history. According to it, the ancient tribes of the eastern communities could not govern themselves and called upon three Varangians - the brothers Rurik, Sineus and Truvor.
- anti-Norman (Russian). The Norman theory, despite its general acceptance, looks quite controversial. After all, it does not answer even a simple question: who are the Varangians? Anti-Norman statements were first formulated by the great scientist Mikhail Lomonosov. This man was distinguished by the fact that he actively defended the interests of his Motherland and publicly declared that the history of the ancient Russian state was written by the Germans and had no basis in logic. The Germans in this case are not a nation as such, but a collective image that was used to call all foreigners who did not speak Russian. They were called dumb, hence the Germans.
In fact, until the end of the 9th century, not a single mention of the Slavs remained in the chronicles. This is quite strange, since quite civilized people lived here. This question is discussed in great detail in the material about the Huns, who, according to numerous versions, were none other than Russians. Now I would like to note that when Rurik came to the ancient Russian state, there were cities, ships, their own culture, their own language, their own traditions and customs. And the cities were quite well fortified from a military point of view. This somehow loosely connects with the generally accepted version that our ancestors at that time ran around with a digging stick.
The ancient Russian state of Kievan Rus was formed in 862, when the Varangian Rurik came to rule in Novgorod. An interesting point is that this prince carried out his rule of the country from Ladoga. In 864, the associates of the Novgorod prince Askold and Dir went down the Dnieper and discovered the city of Kyiv, in which they began to rule. After the death of Rurik, Oleg took custody of his young son, who went on a campaign against Kyiv, killed Askold and Dir and took possession of the future capital of the country. This happened in 882. Therefore, the formation of Kievan Rus can be attributed to this date. During Oleg's reign, the country's possessions expanded through the conquest of new cities, and international power also strengthened as a result of wars with external enemies, such as Byzantium. There were good relations between the Novgorod and Kyiv princes, and their minor conflicts did not lead to major wars. Reliable information on this matter has not survived, but many historians say that these people were brothers and only blood ties restrained bloodshed.
Formation of statehood
Kievan Russia was a truly powerful state, respected in other countries. Its political center was Kyiv. It was a capital that had no equal in its beauty and wealth. The impregnable fortress city of Kyiv on the banks of the Dnieper has long been a stronghold of Rus'. This order was disrupted as a result of the first fragmentations, which damaged the power of the state. It all ended with the invasion of the Tatar-Mongol troops, who literally razed the “mother of Russian cities” to the ground. According to the surviving records of contemporaries of that terrible event, Kyiv was destroyed to the ground and lost forever its beauty, significance and wealth. Since then, the status of the first city did not belong to it.
An interesting expression is “mother of Russian cities,” which is still actively used by people from different countries. Here we are faced with another attempt to falsify history, since at the moment when Oleg captured Kyiv, Rus' already existed, and its capital was Novgorod. And the princes got to the capital city of Kyiv itself, descending along the Dnieper from Novgorod.
Internecine wars and the reasons for the collapse of the ancient Russian state
Internecine war is that terrible nightmare that tormented the Russian lands for many decades. The reason for these events was the lack of a clear system of succession to the throne. In the ancient Russian state, a situation arose when after one ruler there remained a huge number of contenders for the throne - sons, brothers, nephews, etc. And each of them sought to realize their right to rule Russia. This inevitably led to wars, when supreme power was asserted with weapons.
In the struggle for power, individual contenders did not shy away from anything, even fratricide. The story of Svyatopolk the Accursed, who killed his brothers, is widely known, for which he received this nickname. Despite the contradictions that reigned within the Rurikovichs, Kievan Rus was ruled by the Grand Duke.
In many ways, it was the internecine wars that led the ancient Russian state to a state close to collapse. This happened in 1237, when the ancient Russian lands first heard about the Tatar-Mongols. They brought terrible troubles to our ancestors, but internal problems, disunity and the unwillingness of princes to defend the interests of other lands led to a great tragedy, and for 2 long centuries Rus' became completely dependent on the Golden Horde.
All these events led to a completely predictable result - the ancient Russian lands began to disintegrate. The date of the beginning of this process is considered to be 1132, which was marked by the death of Prince Mstislav, popularly nicknamed the Great. This led to the fact that the two cities of Polotsk and Novgorod refused to recognize the authority of his successor.
All these events led to the collapse of the state into small fiefs, which were controlled by individual rulers. Of course, the leading role of the Grand Duke remained, but this title was more like a crown, which was used only by the strongest as a result of regular civil strife.
Key events
Kievan Rus is the first form of Russian statehood, which had many great pages in its history. The main events of the era of Kyiv's rise include the following:
- 862 - the arrival of the Varangian Rurik in Novgorod to reign
- 882 – Prophetic Oleg captured Kyiv
- 907 – campaign against Constantinople
- 988 – Baptism of Rus'
- 1097 – Lyubech Congress of Princes
- 1125-1132 - reign of Mstislav the Great
It seems very difficult to accurately determine the time period with which the emergence of the Old Russian state is associated. It is known that this event was preceded by a long period of formation and development of tribal relations in the communities inhabiting the East European Plain.
Already in the first millennium of the new era, Slavic agricultural tribes began to develop the territory of future Rus'. In the fifth century, during the process of formation in society, several dozen separate principalities or unions were formed. These were unique political associations, which later transformed into a slaveholding or early feudal state. From the Tale of Bygone Years the location and name of these reigns becomes known. So, the Polyans lived near Kyiv, the Radimichi - along the Sozh River, the Northerners - in Chernigov, the Vyatichi - near Dregovichi occupied the Minsk and Brest regions, the Krivichi - the cities of Smolensk, Pskov and Tver, the Drevlyans - Polesie. In addition to the plain, the Proto-Balts (ancestors of the Estonians and Latvians) and the Fino-Ugrians inhabited the plain.
In the seventh century, more stable political formations were formed, and cities emerged - centers of principalities. This is how Novgorod, Kyiv, Polotsk, Chernigov, Smolensk, Izborsk, Turov appeared. Some historians are inclined to connect the emergence of the Old Russian state with the formation of these cities. This is partly true. However, an early feudal state with a monarchical form of government emerged a little later, in the ninth and tenth centuries.
The emergence and development of the Old Russian state among the East Slavic peoples is associated with the founding of the ruling dynasty. From chronicle sources it is known that in 862 Prince Rurik ascended the Novgorod throne. In 882, the two main centers of Southern and Northern Rus' (Kyiv and Novgorod) were united into one state. The new administrative-territorial entity was named Kievan Rus. became its first ruler. During this period, a state apparatus appeared, order was strengthened, and princely rule became a hereditary prerogative. This is how the Old Russian state emerged.
Later, other northerners, the Drevlyans, the Ulichs, the Radimichi, the Vyatichi, the Tivertsy, the Polyans, and others, also became subordinate to Kievan Rus.
Historians are inclined to believe that the emergence of the Old Russian state was caused by the active growth of trade and economic relations. The fact is that a waterway ran through the lands of the East Slavic peoples, which was popularly called “from the Varangians to the Greeks.” It was he who played a significant role in bringing these two principalities together to achieve common economic goals.
The main function of the Old Russian state was to protect the territory from external attack and implement an active foreign policy of a military orientation (campaigns against Byzantium, the defeat of the Khazars, etc.).
It falls during the reign of Ya. the Wise. This period is characterized by the presence of an established system of public administration. The squad and boyars were under the authority of the prince. He had the right to appoint posadniks (to manage cities), governors, mytniks (to collect trade duties), and tributaries (to collect land taxes). The basis of the society of the Old Russian principality was made up of both urban and rural residents.
The emergence of a state is a long and complex process. Kievan Rus was heterogeneous in its ethnic composition and multinational. Along with it, it also included Baltic and Finnish tribes. And subsequently it gave growth and development to three Slavic peoples: Ukrainians, Russians and Belarusians.
The prerequisites for the formation of the Old Russian state were the collapse of tribal ties and the development of a new method of production. The Old Russian state took shape in the process of the development of feudal relations, the emergence of class contradictions and coercion.
Among the Slavs, a dominant layer gradually formed, the basis of which was the military nobility of the Kyiv princes - the squad. Already in the 9th century, strengthening the position of their princes, the warriors firmly occupied a leading position in society.
It was in the 9th century. In Eastern Europe, two ethnopolitical associations were formed, which ultimately became the basis of the state. It was formed as a result of the unification of the glades with the center in Kyiv.
Slavs, Krivichi and Finnish-speaking tribes united in the area of Lake Ilmen (center in Novgorod). In the middle of the 9th century. this association began to be ruled by a native of Scandinavia, Rurik (862-879). Therefore, the year of formation of the Old Russian state is considered to be 862.
The presence of Scandinavians (Varangians) on the territory of Rus' is confirmed by archaeological excavations and records in chronicles. In the 18th century. German scientists G.F. Miller and G.Z. Bayer proved the Scandinavian theory of the formation of the Old Russian state (Rus).
M.V. Lomonosov, denying the Norman (Varangian) origin of statehood, associated the word “Rus” with the Sarmatians - Roxolans, the Ros River, flowing in the south.
Lomonosov, relying on “The Tale of the Princes of Vladimir,” argued that Rurik, being a native of Prussia, belonged to the Slavs, which were the Prussians. It was this “southern” anti-Norman theory of the formation of the Old Russian state that was supported and developed in the 19th-20th centuries. historians.
The first mentions of Rus' are attested in the “Bavarian Chronograph” and date back to the period 811-821. In it, Russians are mentioned as a people inhabiting Eastern Europe. In the 9th century. Rus' was perceived as an ethnopolitical entity on the territory of the glades and northerners.
Rurik, who took control of Novgorod, sent his squad led by Askold and Dir to rule Kiev. Rurik's successor, the Varangian prince Oleg (879-912), who took possession of Smolensk and Lyubech, subjugated all the Krivichs to his power, and in 882 he fraudulently lured Askold and Dir out of Kyiv and killed them. Having captured Kyiv, he managed to unite by force of his power two most important centers - Kyiv and Novgorod. Oleg subjugated the northerners and Radimichi.
In 907, Oleg, having gathered a huge army of Slavs and Finns, launched a campaign against Constantinople (Constantinople), the capital of the Byzantine Empire. The Russian squad devastated the surrounding area, forcing the Greeks to ask Oleg for peace and pay a huge tribute. The result of this campaign was peace treaties with Byzantium that were very beneficial for Rus', concluded in 907 and 911.
Oleg died in 912 and was succeeded by Igor (912-945), the son of Rurik. In 941 he made a campaign against Byzantium, which violated the previous treaty. Igor's army plundered the shores of Asia Minor, but was defeated in a naval battle. Then in 945, in alliance with the Pechenegs, Prince Igor launched a new campaign against Constantinople and forced the Greeks to once again conclude a peace treaty. In 945, while trying to collect a second tribute from the Drevlyans, Igor was killed.
Igor's widow - Princess Olga (945-957) - ruled the state during the early childhood of her son Svyatoslav. She brutally took revenge for the murder of her husband by ravaging the lands of the Drevlyans. Olga organized the sizes and places of collecting tribute. In 955 she visited Constantinople and was baptized into Orthodoxy.
Svyatoslav (957-972) - the bravest and most influential of the princes, who subjugated the Vyatichi to his power. In 965 he inflicted a number of heavy defeats on the Khazars. Svyatoslav defeated the North Caucasian tribes, as well as the Volga Bulgarians, and plundered their capital, the Bulgars. The Byzantine government sought an alliance with him to fight external enemies.
Kyiv and Novgorod became the center of formation of the Old Russian state, and the East Slavic tribes, northern and southern, united around them. In the 9th century. both of these groups formed the Old Russian state, which went down in history as Rus'.