On March 1, 1881, Emperor Alexander II was assassinated by members of the Russian revolutionary organization Narodnaya Volya. This terrorist act led to the collapse of all reforms conceived by the ruler. Alexander the Third became the new Tsar, who served the Fatherland faithfully from 1881 to 1894.
Conservative dictator
Alexander the Third entered the tape of historical events under the nickname “Peacemaker.” This is because his political views revealed the essence of his good-neighborly behavior towards other countries. The foreign policy of Alexander III was marked by a clear position against wars and international conflicts. That is why, under Alexander III, the Russian Empire never fought with anyone. During this period, the domestic policy of Alexander III was distinguished by deep conservatism.
On March 8, 1881, the Council of Ministers of the Russian Empire decided to abandon the constitution as amended by Loris-Melikov. This meant that the past emperor's desire for a constitutional limitation of autocracy was destroyed. On this occasion, on April 29, 1881, Alexander the Third proclaimed the manifesto “On the Inviolability of Autocracy.”
Alexander the Third: briefly about career growth
Alexander the Third was born on March 10, 1845 according to the old calendar in the city of St. Petersburg. His parents were Alexander II and Empress Maria Alexandrovna. Tsar Alexander III was the second child in the family.
The future Emperor of Russia, like all great rulers, studied military engineering and received an appropriate education. Preserved rare photo Alexander the Third with his father and brothers.
In 1865, Alexander the Third received the official status of Tsarevich, after which his first steps in the political field began. The mentors of young Alexander were such famous persons of that time as the historian S. Solovyov, the literary historian J. Grot, the commander M. Dragomirov and others.
Before ascending the throne, the future Tsar Alexander III was a chieftain Cossack troops. He commanded the military district of St. Petersburg and the Guards Corps. From the beginning of 1868, he was appointed adviser to the state apparatus and the Cabinet of Ministers.
After the assassination of his father, Alexander II, in 1881, the career of the new ruler began. The foreign policy of Alexander III was distinguished by insight and foresight; he was the most tolerant ruler in the entire history of Russia. It was during his reign that the Russian Empire abandoned the practice of secret treaties with foreign states, which adversely affected the national interests of the country.
Domestic policy of Alexander the Third
In August 1881, the “Regulations on measures to protect state security and public peace” were adopted. Based on this resolution, the empire became able to declare a state of emergency in any locality, and each resident could also be subject to arrest.
Local administrative authorities had privileged rights to close educational institutions, various enterprises, local governments, and even state printed publications. The provision that came into force was valid for three years, at the end of this period it was renewed in accordance with the established regulations.
This is how the Russian Empire lived until 1917. Additions to the reforms of 1882-1893 destroyed all the positive aspects of the adopted reforms of 1863-1874. Counter-reforms limited press freedom in the state and also created a ban on local government and democratic views.
At the end of the 19th century, it became clear that Emperor Alexander III had abolished almost all democratic institutions in the country.
Russia during the period of reforms
The reorganization activities of 1860-1870 gave impetus to the development of the capitalist system in the Russian Empire. The market developed due to cheapness work force, which in parallel led to an increase in the number of the working class. The second half of the 19th century was marked in the history of Russia by the fact that the country's population increased by 51%.
During the post-reform period, it developed rapidly entrepreneurial activity. This rapid growth of entrepreneurship was explained by the fact that many private owners appeared. People were engaged in trade, industry, railroad construction and other types of business. Cities were landscaped and their infrastructure improved. The creation of a railway network influenced the prosperity of the state's domestic market. Thanks to this, new places for trade were developed, conditions for a unified national economic complex arose.
The emergence of commercial organizations
One of the distinctive features of the post-reform period in the Russian Empire was the development of commercial organizations. In 1846, the first joint-stock bank was opened in St. Petersburg. Already in 1881, the number of active commercial structures numbered more than 30 units. General financial condition commercial enterprises amounted to 97 million rubles, which soon led to the fact that insurance communities and exchanges began to operate.
The industrial component of Russia developed unevenly, both in areas of concentration and in individual industries. Industry was determined by a high degree of concentration of production. At the end of the 70s in the Russian Empire there were 5% of large enterprises, which provided 60% of all industrial gross output. At this stage, it became obvious that the country was gaining financial independence. Between 1866 and 1890, the number of enterprises doubled, the number of employees tripled, and the total volume finished products- five times.
The reign of Alexander the Third from the point of view of protectionism
Investors from abroad had a huge interest in Russia during the post-reform period. After all, there are a lot of resources, raw materials, and most importantly, cheap labor here. Foreign investment from 1887 to 1913 amounted to about 1,758 million rubles. However, these investment flows have had mixed effects on the country's economic growth. At first glance, the huge financial flow had a positive effect on the capitalist development of the state. However, on the other hand, it was necessary to make some sacrifices and concessions. Unfortunately, foreign investment has not been able to significantly influence the growth of the Russian economy. The Russian Empire did not become a colony or even a semi-colony. This characteristic conduct of politics led to the fact that capitalism developed mainly due to the activity of domestic entrepreneurs.
The Birth of Capitalist Societies
As a result of the reforms carried out by Alexander the Third, the capitalization of agricultural industries sharply increases. However, the pace is hampered by remnants of feudalism. In the Russian Empire, two main categories of capitalists emerged. The first included monopolists whose success lay in the development of family firms. In the course of economic reforms they degenerated into joint stock companies with a limited number of owners of industrial shares.
In a word, it was hereditary entrepreneurship. The most successful entrepreneurs were people from the secular bourgeoisie who took an active part in the Moscow commercial and industrial market.
The birth of a new class
Among the rumors were such entrepreneurial families as the Prokhorovs, Morozovs, Ryabushinskys, Knops (popularly called “cotton kings”), the Vogau community and others. Some family clans gave unique names to their companies, which inadvertently emphasized what interests they represented. Organization "I. Konovalov and his son" was engaged in the production and sale of underwear and other clothing. The Moscow company "Brothers Krestovnikov" specialized in spinning and chemical production. The organization "Aprikosov and His Sons" was associated with the production of sweets.
The next category of entrepreneurs represented a small circle of people from the financial oligarchy. This included mainly St. Petersburg residents. All these people came from the departments of large commercial banks and monopolies. The list of oligarchs includes such names as Ivan Evgrafovich Adadurov, one of the main representatives of the board of the Russian Commercial and Industrial Bank; Eduard Evdokimovich Vakhter - representative of the board of a private bank in St. Petersburg; Eric Ermilovich Mendez is the head of the board of the Bank of Russia for foreign trade.
Bourgeoisie at the state level
In the Russian Empire there were also provincial representatives of capitalists who were also engaged in trade. During the period of industrial reforms in the late 80s of the 19th century, two classes of capitalist society were formed in the empire - bourgeois and workers. The industrial bourgeoisie was always several orders of magnitude higher than the working class. Bourgeois society pushed into the background the previously formed one, which consisted of representatives of merchant capital.
At the beginning of the 20th century, the number of large industrialists was 1.5 million, and this at a time when the total population of Imperial Russia numbered 126.5 million people. The smallest part of the population, namely the bourgeoisie, accounted for about 75% of the profits from the entire financial and industrial turnover of the country. This layer of society was evidence of inequality and the economic dominance of big capital. With all this, the bourgeois class did not have sufficient influence on state policy.
Fight of opposites
Since the government of the country was still based on the principles of absolutism, trading enterprises were under the strict control of the state apparatus. Over many years of relationship, they managed to find a common language with each other, so the evolution of capitalism in Russia still took place. Bourgeois communities were content with their banks and industrial enterprises were under state provision. This meant that it was the state apparatus that carried out various industrial orders and indicated sales markets, and also controlled cheap labor.
As a result, this brought incredible profits to both parties. The tsarist government used all means to protect the bourgeoisie from the revolutionary-minded working class. This happened at the level of all relevant structures. Thus, peasant society and the proletariat for a long time lived under the repressive yoke of the tsarist government.
Consolidation of the bourgeois class
The general situation of the country in the post-reform period led to the consolidation of the bourgeois class soon being accomplished. This fact became entrenched in such a way that the unification of bourgeois society, as a separate class, acquired unshakable historical importance and a role that was determined by political conservatism and inertia.
Despite the fact that at the end of the 19th century Russia was still considered a predominantly agrarian country (over 75% of the total population was engaged in agriculture), capitalization was rapidly gaining momentum. In the early 80s, the industrial revolution ended, which resulted in the formation of the industrial and technical base of Russian capitalism.
From now on royal Russia has become a country with a bias towards foreign economic protectionism. Such a significant political move foreshadowed an even greater strengthening of tsarism and the bourgeoisie in the 90s of the 19th century.
After the death of Emperor Alexander II in March 1881, his second son began to rule Russia. Initially, he was supposed to make a career in the military field, but after the death of his heir (elder brother) Nicholas, he had to forget about his military career and take his place on the throne.
Historians portray this ruler as a typical Russian powerful man who was more inclined to war than to subtle and careful planning of the state course. The peculiarities of his reign are the preservation of autocracy and the signing of peace agreements.
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Main events
The reign of Alexander 3 was remembered as one of the most peaceful, because the emperor sought to preserve friendly relations with all neighbors and, if possible, act as a peacemaker in conflicts. Although there were some military victories. The main events of the emperor's reign by year are briefly as follows:
- 1881: capture of Ashgabat, resumption of the work of the “Union of Three Emperors”;
- 1882: A.F. Mozhaisky designed and launched an airplane for the first flight, factory legislation is being developed;
- 1883: Plekhanov created the “Emancipation of Labor” group in Geneva;
- 1884: introduction of new university statutes and opening of parochial schools in villages;
- 1885: annexation Central Asia and the Russian-Afghan conflict;
- 1887: Russian-German peace treaty concluded;
- 1888: a university was opened in Tomsk;
- 1889: the positions of judges in rural districts were abolished, the position of zemstvo chief was introduced;
- 1891: beginning construction of the Great Siberian Route;
- 1891-1892: Volga famine;
- 1892: a new Customs Charter was adopted, a new “City Regulation” was approved, a secret Russian-French military convention was concluded;
- 1893: the law “On Customs Tariff” was adopted, the beginning of the Russian-German “customs war”.
The main events show that the king's activities were aimed mainly at his father's counter-reforms.
Years of reign Alexandra III
Domestic policy
Russia under Alexander 3 was divided into supporters of two parties: liberal, advocating reform, and monarchist, opposing democracy. Unlike his father, the son took a course towards strengthening of autocracy and rejected the very model of constitutional Russia.
Main directions
In Russia, administrative regulation of the social sphere has been preserved. All enemies of the royal power were persecuted, arrested and exiled. Despite the counter-reforms, the state developed dynamically, and its social and economic indicators grew. Main directions domestic policy Alexandra 3 steel:
- Taxation - new increased duties on imported goods, direct taxes were introduced, and the rates of old ones increased. An inheritance tax was introduced and the tax on industrial enterprises, land and real estate was increased, which primarily affected wealthy people. In turn, serious relaxations were introduced for the peasants: the size of the annual redemption was reduced, the poll tax was abolished, and the Peasant Land Bank was established.
- Social sphere - encouragement of industrial industry increased the number of workers in factories, and the number of hired workers increased.
- Labor legislation - in 1882, the Factory Inspectorate was created, a law on child labor was adopted (it became prohibited until the age of 12), a reduction in working hours for teenagers was introduced, ban on night work for minors. Acts were approved on the rules of employment and on the relations of workers in the team. The relationship between the employer and the worker was regulated through the mandatory signing of a work contract and payments according to the paybook.
- Local self-government - zemstvos and cities were endowed with greater rights, the zemstvo chief also became a justice of the peace.
- Legal proceedings – minors and students were not allowed to attend court hearings. It was forbidden to publish transcripts and reports, as well as to allow the public to attend proceedings in which religious and moral feelings could be offended. Serious crimes were sent to trial chambers.
- Education - universities were deprived of their right to be autonomous due to the frequent revolutionary views and movements that originated here. The new edition of the University Charter came into force.
Thus, the main directions of Alexander’s domestic policy were reduced to the settlement of social issues, taxation and education.
Tasks
Many progressive Russian citizens saw the Tsar as someone who would continue reforms and lead Russia to a constitution. However, the reforms of Alexander 3 destroyed these hopes. His first speech was marked by the fact that the tsar declared the meaninglessness of constitutional plans, which clearly indicated the course of autocracy.
He set himself the task of preventing the development of the revolutionary movement in Russia. The Emperor did not recognize the reforms, dismissed some officials who advocated reforms, and adopted a Manifesto on autocratic power. Russian governors were given special rights in the struggle for imperial power. An equally important task was the introduction of counter-reforms of the zemstvo and judiciary.
The policy of autocracy and reactionary reforms also affected the educational sphere. According to the adopted circular, the children of footmen and other servants were prohibited from attending gymnasiums, and schools in villages were replaced by parochial institutions. Was carried out strict censorship of all printed publications.
Important! The harsh reforms of the internal policy of Alexander 3 became the main cause of deep discontent in Russian society, which created excellent soil for the growth and aggravation of social contradictions.
Counter-reforms
All the reforms of the previous emperor were aimed at constitutional politics and gave greater rights to peasants and other ordinary people. His son was categorically against such changes in society, and as soon as he took the throne, he began to carry out counter-reforms, including:
- Zemstvo - the position of zemstvo chief is introduced, they are appointed by the Minister of Internal Affairs. Only people of noble origin had the right to occupy such a position, and their job was to control the peasants in the administrative part.
- Urban - the number of voters is declining due to an increase in property qualifications, and any law of the Duma must be approved by the governor. The number of meetings of the Duma was limited, which essentially led to the government managing the city.
- Judicial - jurors had to have sufficient educational qualifications to occupy such a position, which increased the number of nobles among them.
- Print and educational – introduced strict control over educational institutions, the autonomy of universities was prohibited, the teaching staff was controlled by the government. A special police force was created to supervise schoolchildren and students.
Thus, economic reforms, adopted laws, acts and manifestos brought the Russian Empire to the level of 1861, which could not have a favorable effect on the mood in society.
Monument to Alexander III in St. Petersburg near the Marble Palace
Foreign policy
The peaceful foreign policy of Alexander 3, despite the short period of his reign, led to the unofficial title of “Peacemaker” being assigned to him.
He set the main external task maintaining peace with neighbors and other states, and finding and strengthening relationships with prospective allies. Despite the peaceful course, the emperor planned to strengthen Russia's influence in all directions.
Main directions
The main directions of Alexander 3's foreign policy concentrated on several areas, which is clearly visible in the table.
| Directions | Actions |
| Europe | A peace treaty was concluded with Germany in 1887 and a customs war began with it in 1890. Peace treaty with France in 1891. The Russian-French Convention in 1892 and the formalization of the official union in 1893. |
| Balkans | Support for Bulgaria after its declaration of independence in 1879. The secret relations between Romania and Bulgaria led to the severance of all diplomatic relations with the latter. Restoring the alliance with Turkey. Signing a peace treaty with Austria and Germany, which in a year will turn into the Triple Alliance. Beginning of rapprochement with France to prevent war with Germany in the late 1880s. |
| Asia | The area of the state was increased by the annexation of Kazakhstan, the Khiva and Kokand Khanates, as well as the Bukhara Emirate by more than 400,000 square meters. km. |
| East | Due to upcoming treaties and the unification of a number of countries against Japan, the Russian Empire is turning into its enemy in Far East. In order to increase its power and, in case of danger, to resist aggressive Japan, Russia begins to build the Siberian Railway. |
Russia's peaceful actions have not always ended successfully, but not because of wrong actions, but because of hostile neighbors. The main directions of the foreign policy of Alexander 3 led to increasing the area of the state peacefully and 13 years of peace for the country.
Question 1. What circumstances had a decisive influence on the internal policy of Alexander III?
Answer. The future emperor’s military training played a certain role, but the decisive factor was the terrorists’ hunt for his father, not only the murder itself, but also the previous six attempts. The new ruler decided to strangle the revolution at all costs.
Question 2. Highlight the main directions of the domestic policy of Alexander III.
Answer. Main directions:
1) fight against the revolutionary movement;
2) cutting back on reforms;
3) tightening national policy;
4) new policy in the field of education;
5) attempts to resolve the Peasant Question;
6) the beginning of labor legislation.
Question 3. Compare the internal policies of Alexander II and Alexander III. What do you see as the fundamental differences? Is it possible to find common features?
Answer. Alexander II began his reign as a liberal, only towards the end of it he switched to conservative measures; Alexander III immediately showed himself to be a conservative and even revised some of his father’s reforms. However, they both carried out reforms, only the transformations of Alexander II were incomparably larger-scale and affected a much larger number of spheres of life of Russians.
Question 4. What innovations of the previous reign were revised by Alexander III and why?
1) in 1884, a new university charter was introduced, according to which universities were deprived of their autonomy, and the ministry was given the opportunity to control the content of their programs. Universities were recognized as breeding grounds for sedition, so the government decided to revise one of the provisions of the education reform.
2) On June 5, 1887, an order was issued by the Minister of Education, which the liberals called the law on “cook’s children.” It made it difficult in every possible way for children from the lower strata of society to enter gymnasiums, especially universities. The government considered that revolutionaries were mainly educated people from the poorest strata of the population, and therefore one of the provisions of the education system reform was revised.
3) “Regulations on measures to protect state order and public peace” made it possible to actually cancel the results of judicial reform for a certain time in a certain territory. This was done so that terrorists could not escape responsibility, because the courts sometimes acquitted them. The case of Vera Ivanovna Zasulich was resonant. She seriously wounded St. Petersburg mayor F.F. Trepov for giving the order to flog the political prisoner of the populist A.S. Bogolyubov. The jury agreed that it was Zasulich (who was arrested on the spot) who shot Trepov, but found her not guilty. This decision met with broad approval in the capital's society, strangers hugged in the streets and congratulated each other. It was to prevent this from happening again that the “Regulation” was adopted.
4) It was extremely difficult for Jews to enter gymnasiums, especially universities. The Orthodox Church was declared the support of the state, the provisions of the education reform were revised precisely to please the church.
5) The termination of the temporarily obliged position of the peasants revised one of the main provisions of the peasant reform, because the temporarily obliged were not much different from the serfs and the reform actually did not work.
Question 5. Assess the social policy of Alexander III. What do you see as its advantages and disadvantages?
Answer. The social policy of Alexander III generally made life easier for both peasants and workers. It included, of course, whole line positive measures, such as the termination of the temporary obligation position, the gradual abolition of the poll tax, and unsuccessful attempts to streamline relations between workers and their employers. The negative was that they did not solve the fundamental problems of workers and peasants. The measures taken to resettle peasants were not enough to solve the problem of land shortage (the set of measures was not at all as large-scale as the Stolypin program). But workers in general did not receive social guarantees.
Question 6. Assess the national policy of Alexander III.
Answer. In the area of national policy, Alexander III strengthened Russification and suppressed any manifestations of national movements in most of the outskirts (with the exception, perhaps, of Finland). This reflected the general direction of his domestic policy. For him, national liberation movements were no different from revolutionary uprisings (especially since uprisings on the outskirts actually often included demands for social reforms), and the fight against such uprisings in Russia was the main task of this emperor.
Question 7. Do you agree with the statement that the period of the reign of Alexander III was a period of counter-reforms, that is, a period of elimination of the reforms of the previous reign?
Answer. Indeed, the reign of Alexander III became a period of counter-reforms, but this did not mean that the reforms of the previous reign were curtailed. They continued to act, but some of them were adjusted. It is this adjustment that can be called counter-reforms, because it seriously changed Russia and led to the triumph of conservatives.
On March 1, 1881, Emperor Alexander II Nikolaevich died at the hands of the Narodnaya Volya, and his second son Alexander ascended the throne. At first he was preparing for a military career, because... the heir to power was his elder brother Nikolai, but in 1865 he died.
In 1868, during a severe crop failure, Alexander Alexandrovich was appointed chairman of the committee for the collection and distribution of benefits to the hungry. Before he ascended the throne, he was the ataman of the Cossack troops and the chancellor of the University of Helsingfors. In 1877 he took part in Russian-Turkish war as a squad leader.
The historical portrait of Alexander III was more reminiscent of a mighty Russian peasant than the sovereign of an empire. He had heroic strength, but was not distinguished by mental abilities. Despite this characteristic, Alexander III was very fond of theater, music, painting, and studied Russian history.
In 1866 he married the Danish princess Dagmara, in Orthodoxy Maria Feodorovna. She was smart, educated, and in many ways complemented her husband. Alexander and Maria Feodorovna had 5 children.
Domestic policy of Alexander III
The beginning of the reign of Alexander III occurred during the period of struggle between two parties: liberal (wanting the reforms begun by Alexander II) and monarchical. Alexander III abolished the idea of Russian constitutionality and set a course for strengthening autocracy.
On August 14, 1881, the government adopted a special law “Regulations on measures to protect state order and public peace.” To combat unrest and terror, states of emergency were introduced, punitive measures were used, and in 1882 the secret police appeared.
Alexander III believed that all the troubles in the country came from the freethinking of his subjects and the excessive education of the lower class, which was caused by his father’s reforms. Therefore, he began a policy of counter-reforms.
Universities were considered the main source of terror. The new university charter of 1884 sharply limited their autonomy, student associations and the student court were banned, access to education for representatives of the lower classes and Jews was limited, and strict censorship was introduced in the country.
changes in zemstvo reform under Alexander III:
In April 1881, the Manifesto on the independence of the autocracy was published, compiled by K.M. Pobedonostsev. The rights of zemstvos were severely curtailed, and their work was brought under the strict control of governors. Merchants and officials sat in the City Dumas, and only rich local nobles sat in the zemstvos. Peasants lost the right to participate in elections.
Changes in judicial reform under Alexander III:
In 1890, a new regulation on zemstvos was adopted. Judges became dependent on the authorities, the competence of the jury was reduced, and magistrates' courts were practically eliminated.
Changes in peasant reform under Alexander III:
The poll tax and communal land use were abolished, compulsory land purchases were introduced, but redemption payments were reduced. In 1882, the Peasant Bank was established, designed to issue loans to peasants for the purchase of land and private property.
Changes in military reform under Alexander III:
The defense capability of border districts and fortresses was strengthened.
Alexander III knew the importance of army reserves, so infantry battalions were created and reserve regiments were formed. A cavalry division was created, capable of fighting both on horseback and on foot.
To conduct combat in mountainous areas, mountain artillery batteries were created, mortar regiments and siege artillery battalions were formed. A special railway brigade was created to deliver troops and army reserves.
In 1892, river mine companies, fortress telegraphs, aeronautical detachments, and military dovecotes appeared.
Military gymnasiums were transformed into cadet corps, and non-commissioned officer training battalions were created for the first time to train junior commanders.
A new three-line rifle was adopted for service, and a smokeless type of gunpowder was invented. The military uniform has been replaced with a more comfortable one. The procedure for appointment to command positions in the army was changed: only by seniority.
Social policy of Alexander III
“Russia for Russians” is the emperor’s favorite slogan. Only the Orthodox Church is considered truly Russian; all other religions were officially defined as “other faiths.”
The policy of anti-Semitism was officially proclaimed, and the persecution of Jews began.
Foreign policy of Alexander III
The reign of Emperor Alexander III was the most peaceful. Only once did Russian troops clash with Afghan troops on the Kushka River. Alexander III protected his country from wars, and also helped to extinguish hostility between other countries, for which he received the nickname “Peacemaker.”
Economic policy of Alexander III
Under Alexander III, cities, factories and factories grew, domestic and foreign trade grew, the length of railways increased, and construction of the great Siberian Railway began. In order to develop new lands, peasant families were resettled to Siberia and Central Asia.
At the end of the 80s, the state budget deficit was overcome; revenues exceeded expenses.
Results of the reign of Alexander III
Emperor Alexander III was called “the most Russian Tsar.” He defended the Russian population with all his might, especially on the outskirts, which contributed to the strengthening of state unity.
As a result of the measures taken in Russia, there was a rapid industrial boom, the exchange rate grew and strengthened Russian ruble, the well-being of the population has improved.
Alexander III and his counter-reforms provided Russia with a peaceful and calm era without wars and internal unrest, but also gave birth to a revolutionary spirit in the Russians, which would break out under his son Nicholas II.