There are two levels of knowledge: empirical and theoretical.

The empirical (from the gr. Emreria - experience) level of knowledge is knowledge obtained directly from experience with some rational processing of the properties and relations of the object being known. It is always the basis, the basis for the theoretical level of knowledge.

The theoretical level is knowledge obtained through abstract thinking.

A person begins the process of cognition of an object with its external description, fixes its individual properties and aspects. Then he goes deep into the content of the object, reveals the laws to which it is subject, proceeds to explain the properties of the object, combines knowledge about individual aspects of the object into a single, holistic system, and the resulting deep, versatile, specific knowledge about the object is a theory that has a certain internal logical structure.

It is necessary to distinguish the concepts of “sensual” and “rational” from the concepts of “empirical” and “theoretical”. “Sensual” and “rational” characterize the dialectic of the process of reflection in general, while “empirical” and “theoretical” relate to the sphere only scientific knowledge.

Empirical knowledge is formed in the process of interaction with the object of research, when we directly influence it, interact with it, process the results and draw a conclusion. But obtaining individual empirical facts and laws does not yet allow us to build a system of laws. In order to understand the essence, it is necessary to move to the theoretical level of scientific knowledge.

The empirical and theoretical levels of knowledge are always inextricably linked and mutually determine each other. Thus, empirical research, revealing new facts, new observational and experimental data, stimulates the development of the theoretical level and poses new problems and challenges. In turn, theoretical research, by considering and specifying the theoretical content of science, opens up new prospects for explaining and predicting facts and thereby orients and guides empirical knowledge. Empirical knowledge is mediated by theoretical knowledge - theoretical knowledge indicates exactly which phenomena and events should be the object of empirical research and under what conditions the experiment should be carried out. Theoretically, the limits within which the results at the empirical level are true and within which empirical knowledge can be used in practice are also found and indicated. This is precisely the heuristic function of the theoretical level of scientific knowledge.

The boundary between the empirical and theoretical levels is quite arbitrary; their independence from each other is relative. The empirical turns into the theoretical, and what was once theoretical, at another, higher stage of development, becomes empirically accessible. In any sphere of scientific knowledge, at all levels, there is a dialectical unity of the theoretical and empirical. The leading role in this unity of dependence on the subject, conditions and existing, obtained scientific results belongs to either the empirical or the theoretical. The basis for the unity of the empirical and theoretical levels of scientific knowledge is the unity scientific theory and research practice.

Basic methods of scientific knowledge

Each level of scientific knowledge uses its own methods. Thus, at the empirical level, such basic methods as observation, experiment, description, measurement, and modeling are used. Theoretically - analysis, synthesis, abstraction, generalization, induction, deduction, idealization, historical and logical methods, and the like.

Observation is a systematic and purposeful perception of objects and phenomena, their properties and connections in natural conditions or under experimental conditions for the purpose of understanding the object under study.

The main functions of surveillance are:

Recording and recording facts;

Preliminary classification of facts already recorded on the basis of certain principles formulated on the basis of existing theories;

Comparisons of recorded facts.

With the complication of scientific knowledge, the goal, plan, theoretical principles, and understanding of the results acquire more and more weight. As a result, the role of theoretical thinking in observation increases.

Observation is especially difficult in the social sciences, where its results largely depend on the ideological and methodological attitudes of the observer and his attitude towards the object.

The observation method is limited by the method, since with its help it is only possible to record certain properties and connections of an object, but it is impossible to reveal their essence, nature, and development trends. Comprehensive observation of the object is the basis for the experiment.

An experiment is a study of any phenomena by actively influencing them by creating new conditions that correspond to the goals of the study, or by changing the process in a certain direction.

Unlike simple observation, which does not involve active influence on the object, experiment is an active intervention of the researcher into natural phenomena, during the processes that are being studied. An experiment is a type of practice in which practical action is organically combined with theoretical work of thought.

The significance of the experiment lies not only in the fact that with its help science explains the phenomena of the material world, but also in the fact that science, relying on experience, directly masters certain phenomena being studied. Therefore, experiment serves as one of the main means of connecting science with production. After all, it allows you to verify the correctness of scientific conclusions and discoveries, new patterns. Experiment serves as a means of research and invention of new devices, machines, materials and processes in industrial production, a necessary stage in the practical testing of new scientific and technical discoveries.

The experiment is widely used not only in natural sciences, but also in social practice, where he plays important role in knowledge and management of social processes.

The experiment has its own specific features compared to other methods:

The experiment makes it possible to study objects in the so-called pure form;

The experiment allows you to study the properties of objects under extreme conditions, which contributes to a deeper penetration into their essence;

An important advantage of the experiment is its repeatability, due to which this method acquires a special significance in scientific knowledge. special meaning and value.

Description is an indication of the characteristics of an object or phenomenon, both significant and non-essential. The description, as a rule, is applied to single, individual objects for a more complete acquaintance with them. Its goal is to provide the most complete information about the object.

Measurement is a certain system of fixing and recording the quantitative characteristics of the object under study using various measuring instruments and devices. With the help of measurement, the ratio of one quantitative characteristic of an object to another, homogeneous with it, taken as a unit of measurement, is determined. The main functions of the measurement method are, firstly, recording the quantitative characteristics of the object; secondly, classification and comparison of measurement results.

Modeling is the study of an object (original) by creating and studying its copy (model), which, in its properties to a certain extent, reproduces the properties of the object under study.

Modeling is used when direct study of objects is for some reason impossible, difficult or impractical. There are two main types of modeling: physical and mathematical. On modern stage In the development of scientific knowledge, a particularly large role is given to computer modeling. A computer that operates special program, is able to simulate the most real processes: oscillations market prices, orbits spaceships, demographic processes, other quantitative parameters of the development of nature, society, and the individual.

Methods of the theoretical level of knowledge.

Analysis is the division of an object into its component parts (sides, characteristics, properties, relationships) with the aim of comprehensively studying them.

Synthesis is the combination of previously identified parts (sides, characteristics, properties, relationships) of an object into a single whole.

Analysis and synthesis are dialectically contradictory and interdependent methods of cognition. Cognition of an object in its specific integrity presupposes its preliminary division into components and consideration of each of them. This task is performed by analysis. It makes it possible to highlight the essential, that which forms the basis for the connection of all aspects of the object being studied. That is, dialectical analysis is a means of penetrating into the essence of things. But, playing an important role in cognition, analysis does not provide knowledge of the concrete, knowledge of the object as a unity of the diverse, the unity of various definitions. This task is performed by synthesis. So, analysis and synthesis are organically interconnected and mutually determine each other at every stage of the process of theoretical knowledge.

Abstraction is a method of abstracting from some properties and relationships of an object and at the same time focusing the main attention on those that are the direct subject of scientific research. Abstraction promotes the penetration of knowledge into the essence of phenomena, the movement of knowledge from phenomenon to essence. It is clear that abstraction dismembers, coarsens, and schematizes the integral moving reality. However, this is precisely what allows a more in-depth study of individual aspects of the subject “in its pure form.” And that means penetrating into their essence.

Generalization is a method of scientific knowledge that records the general characteristics and properties of a certain group of objects, makes the transition from the individual to the special and general, from the less general to the more general.

In the process of cognition, it is often necessary, based on existing knowledge, to draw conclusions that constitute new knowledge about the unknown. This is done using methods such as induction and deduction.

Induction is a method of scientific knowledge when, based on knowledge about the individual, a conclusion about the general is drawn. It is a method of reasoning that establishes the validity of a proposition or hypothesis. In real knowledge, induction always appears in unity with deduction and is organically connected with it.

Deduction is a method of cognition when, based on general principle logically, from some positions as true, new true knowledge about the individual is necessarily deduced. With the help of this method, the individual is cognized on the basis of knowledge of general laws.

Idealization is a method of logical modeling through which idealized objects are created. Idealization is aimed at the processes of conceivable construction of possible objects. The results of idealization are not arbitrary. In the extreme case, they correspond to individual real properties of objects or allow their interpretation based on data from the empirical level of scientific knowledge. Idealization is associated with a “thought experiment”, as a result of which, from a hypothetical minimum of some signs of the behavior of objects, the laws of their functioning are discovered or generalized. The limits of the effectiveness of idealization are determined by practice.

Historical and logical methods are organically connected. The historical method involves considering the objective process of development of an object, its real history with all its turns and features. This is a certain way of reproducing in thinking the historical process in its chronological sequence and specificity.

The logical method is a method by which one mentally reproduces a real historical process in its theoretical form, in a system of concepts.

The task of historical research is to reveal the specific conditions for the development of certain phenomena. The task of logical research is to reveal the role that individual elements systems play a part in the development of the whole.

There are two levels of scientific knowledge: empirical and theoretical.
“This difference is based on the dissimilarity, firstly, of the methods (methods) of the cognitive activity itself, and secondly, of the nature of the scientific results achieved”.
Some general scientific methods are used only at the empirical level (observation, experiment, measurement), others - only at the theoretical level (idealization, formalization), and some (for example, modeling) - at both the empirical and theoretical levels.

Empirical level of scientific knowledge characterized by direct exploration of real-life, sensory-perceptible objects. The special role of empirics in science lies in the fact that only at this level of research we deal with the direct interaction of a person with the natural or social objects being studied. Living contemplation (sensory cognition) predominates here; the rational element and its forms (judgments, concepts, etc.) are present here, but have a subordinate significance. Therefore, the object under study is reflected primarily from its external connections and manifestations, accessible to living contemplation and expressing internal relationships. At this level, the process of accumulating information about the objects and phenomena under study is carried out by conducting observations, performing various measurements, and delivering experiments. Here, the primary systematization of the obtained factual data is also carried out in the form of tables, diagrams, graphs, etc. In addition, already at the second level of scientific knowledge - as a consequence of the generalization of scientific facts - it is possible to formulate some empirical patterns.

Theoretical level of scientific knowledge characterized by the predominance of the rational moment - concepts, theories, laws and other forms and “mental operations”. The absence of direct practical interaction with objects determines the peculiarity that the object is this level Scientific knowledge can only be studied indirectly, in a thought experiment, but not in a real one. However, living contemplation is not eliminated here, but becomes a subordinate (but very important) aspect of the cognitive process.
At this level, the most profound essential aspects, connections, patterns inherent in the objects and phenomena being studied are revealed by processing the data of empirical knowledge. This processing is carried out using systems of “higher order” abstractions - such as concepts, inferences, laws, categories, principles, etc. However, at the theoretical level we will not find a fixation or abbreviated summary of empirical data; theoretical thinking cannot be reduced to the summation of empirically given material. It turns out that theory does not grow out of empirics, but as if next to it, or rather, above it and in connection with it.”
The theoretical level is a higher level in scientific knowledge. “The theoretical level of knowledge is aimed at the formation of theoretical laws that meet the requirements of possibility and necessity, i.e. operate everywhere and always.” The results of theoretical knowledge are hypotheses, theories, laws.
Highlighting in scientific research These two different levels should not, however, be separated from each other and opposed. After all, the empirical and theoretical levels of knowledge are interconnected. The empirical level acts as the basis, the foundation of the theoretical. Hypotheses and theories are formed in the process of theoretical understanding of scientific facts and statistical data obtained at the empirical level. In addition, theoretical thinking inevitably relies on sensory-visual images (including diagrams, graphs, etc.) with which it deals empirical level research.
In turn, the empirical level of scientific knowledge cannot exist without achievements at the theoretical level. Empirical research is usually based on a certain theoretical construct, which determines the direction of this research, determines and justifies the methods used.
According to K. Popper, the belief that we can begin scientific research with “pure observations” without having “something resembling a theory” is absurd. Therefore, some conceptual perspective is absolutely necessary. Naive attempts to do without it can, in his opinion, only lead to self-deception and the uncritical use of some unconscious point of view.
The empirical and theoretical levels of knowledge are interconnected, the boundary between them is conditional and fluid. Empirical research, revealing new data through observations and experiments, stimulates theoretical knowledge (which generalizes and explains them), and poses new, more complex tasks. On the other hand, theoretical knowledge, developing and concretizing its own new content on the basis of empirics, opens up new, broader horizons for empirical knowledge, orients and directs it in the search for new facts, contributes to the improvement of its methods and means, etc.
The third group of methods of scientific knowledge includes methods used only within the framework of research of a specific science or a specific phenomenon. Such methods are called private scientific methods. Each special science (biology, chemistry, geology, etc.) has its own specific methods research.
At the same time, private scientific methods, as a rule, contain various combinations certain general scientific methods of cognition. Particular scientific methods may include observations, measurements, inductive or deductive inferences, etc. The nature of their combination and use depends on the research conditions and the nature of the objects being studied. Thus, specific scientific methods are not divorced from general scientific ones. They are closely related to them and include the specific application of general scientific cognitive techniques for studying a specific area of ​​the objective world. At the same time, particular scientific methods are also connected with the universal, dialectical method, which seems to be refracted through them.

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Theoretical level of knowledge and its methods

Theoretical knowledge reflects phenomena and processes from their universal internal connections and patterns, comprehended through rational processing of empirical knowledge data.

Task: achieving objective truth in all its specificity and completeness of content.

Characteristic signs:

the predominance of the rational moment - concepts, theories, laws and other forms of thinking; sensory cognition is a subordinate aspect of self-direction (study of the process of cognition itself, its forms, techniques, conceptual apparatus).

Methods: allow you to carry out a logical study of the collected facts, develop concepts and judgments, and draw conclusions.

1. Abstraction– abstraction from a number of properties and relationships of less significant objects, while simultaneously highlighting more significant ones, is a simplification of reality.

2. Idealization– the process of creating purely mental objects, making changes to the object being studied in accordance with the goals of the study ( ideal gas).

3. Formalization– displaying the results of thinking in precise concepts or statements.

4. Axiomatization– they are based on axioms (Euclidean axioms).

5. Deduction– the movement of knowledge from the general to the particular, ascent from the abstract to the concrete.

6. Hypothetico-deductive– derivation (deduction) of conclusions from hypotheses, true values which are unknown. Knowledge is probabilistic. Includes the relationship between hypotheses and facts.

7. Analysis- decomposition of a whole into its component parts.

8. Synthesis– combining the obtained results of element analysis into a system.

9. Math modeling – real system is replaced by an abstract system ( mathematical model, consisting of a set of mathematical objects) with the same relationships, the problem becomes purely mathematical.

10. Reflection– scientific research activity, considered in a broad cultural and historical context, includes 2 levels – substantive (activity is aimed at understanding a specific set of phenomena) and reflexive (cognition turns on itself)

Theoretical knowledge is most adequately reflected in thinking(an active process of a generalized and indirect reflection of reality), and here the path passes from thinking within an established framework, according to a model, to increasing isolation, a creative understanding of the phenomenon under study.

The main ways of reflecting the surrounding reality in thinking are the concept (reflects the general, essential aspects of the object), judgment (reflects the individual characteristics of the object); inference (a logical chain that gives rise to new knowledge).

Structural components of theoretical knowledge: problem (question that requires an answer), hypothesis (an assumption made on the basis of a number of facts and requiring verification), theory (the most complex and developed form of scientific knowledge, provides a holistic explanation of the phenomena of reality). The generation of theories is the ultimate goal of research.

The quintessence of theory is law. It expresses the essential, deep connections of the object. The formulation of laws is one of the main tasks of science.

Despite all the differences, the empirical and theoretical levels of scientific knowledge are connected. Empirical research, revealing new data through experiments and observations, stimulates Theoretical knowledge (which generalizes and explains them, poses new, more complex tasks). On the other hand, theoretical knowledge, developing and concretizing its own new content on the basis of empirics, opens up new broader horizons for empirical knowledge, orients and directs it in the search for new facts, and contributes to the improvement of its methods and means.

It turns out that theory does not grow out of empirics, but as if next to it, or rather, above it and in connection with it.” The theoretical level is a higher level in scientific knowledge. “The theoretical level of knowledge is aimed at the formation of theoretical laws that meet the requirements of universality and necessity, i.e. operate everywhere and always.” The results of theoretical knowledge are hypotheses, theories, laws. While distinguishing these two different levels in scientific research, one should not, however, separate them from each other and oppose them. After all, the empirical and theoretical levels of knowledge are interconnected. The empirical level acts as the basis, the foundation of the theoretical. Hypotheses and theories are formed in the process of theoretical understanding of scientific facts and statistical data obtained at the empirical level. In addition, theoretical thinking inevitably relies on sensory-visual images (including diagrams, graphs, etc.), with which the empirical level of research deals.

Decision theory- an interdisciplinary area of ​​research of interest to practitioners and related to mathematics, statistics, economics, philosophy, management And psychology; studies how real decision makers choose decisions and how optimal decisions can be made.

A decision is the result of a specific activity of a decision maker or a team. Making and making decisions is a creative process that includes:

developing and setting goals; studying the problem based on the information received; selection and justification of efficiency criteria (effectiveness) and possible consequences of decisions made; discussion with specialists various options solving a problem (task); selection and formulation of the optimal solution; decision-making; specification of the solution for its implementers.

Management technology considers a management decision as a process consisting of 3 stages: preparation of a decision; decision-making; implementation of the solution. In preparation management decision An economic analysis of the situation is carried out at the micro- and macro-level, including search, collection and processing of information, as well as problems that require solutions are identified and formulated. At the decision-making stage, alternative solutions and courses of action are developed and assessed based on multivariate calculations; selection of criteria for choosing the optimal solution; choice and acceptance the best solution. At the stage of implementation of the decision, measures are taken to concretize the decision and bring it to the attention of the executors, the progress of its implementation is monitored, the necessary adjustments are made, and the result obtained from the implementation of the decision is assessed. Each management decision has its own specific result, so the goal management activities consists in finding forms, methods, means and tools that could help achieve optimal results in specific conditions and circumstances. Management decisions can be justified based on economic analysis and multivariate calculations, and intuitive ones, which, although they save time, contain the possibility of errors and uncertainty. Decisions made must be based on reliable, current and predictable information, analysis of all factors influencing decisions, taking into account the anticipation of its possible consequences. The amount of information that needs to be processed to develop effective management decisions is so great that it has long exceeded human capabilities. It is the difficulties of managing modern large-scale projects that have led to the widespread use of electronic computer technology, the development automated systems management, which required the creation of a new mathematical apparatus and economic and mathematical methods. Methods for making decisions aimed at achieving the intended goals can be different:

a method based on the manager’s intuition, which is due to his previously accumulated experience and amount of knowledge in a specific field of activity, which helps to choose and accept correct solution; a method based on the concept of “common sense”, when a manager, making decisions, justifies them with consistent evidence, the content of which is based on his accumulated practical experience; a method based on a scientific-practical approach, offering choice optimal solutions based on processing large amounts of information, helping to justify decisions made. This method requires the use of modern technical means and, above all, electronic computer technology. The problem of choosing a solution presupposes the need for a comprehensive assessment by the decision maker himself of the specific situation and the independence of his adoption of one of several options for possible decisions.

Since the decision maker has the ability to choose decisions, he is responsible for their implementation. In a management system, the principle of selecting a decision to be made from a specific set of decisions must be observed. The more choice, the more efficient management. When choosing a management decision, the following requirements are imposed on it: validity of the decision; optimal choice; legality of the decision; brevity and clarity; specificity in time; targeting to performers; efficiency of execution. Decision making involves the use of the following factors: hierarchy; targeted cross-functional teams; formal rules and procedures; plans; horizontal connections.

the use of hierarchy in decision making is carried out with the aim of coordinating activities and strengthening centralization in management. use of focused cross-functional teams in adoption. Such task forces are usually created on a temporary basis. Their members are selected from various departments and levels of the organization. The purpose of creating such groups is to use the special knowledge and experience of group members to make specific and difficult decisions. The use of formal rules and procedures in decision making is effective way coordination of actions. However, instructions and rules make the control system rigid, which slows down innovation processes and makes it difficult to amend plans in response to changing circumstances. The use of plans in decision making is aimed at coordinating the activities of the organization as a whole. Planning is an important type of management activity on which managers spend a significant part of their time. During the preparation of plans, a process of combining interests and goals between different levels of management is carried out. Control system and accounting at best, they are adapted to solving management problems, and plans are developed on their basis. Managers constantly monitor the implementation of planned indicators and have the opportunity to adjust them with appropriate justification for such a need before senior managers companies. The use of direct (direct) horizontal connections in decision-making without recourse to senior management promotes decision-making in a shorter time frame and increases responsibility for the implementation of decisions made.

Modern science is disciplinary organized. It consists of various areas of knowledge that interact with each other and at the same time have relative independence. If we consider science as a whole, then it belongs to the type of complex developing systems, which in their development generate more and more new relatively autonomous subsystems and new integrative connections that control their interaction. In the structure of scientific knowledge, they distinguish primarily two levels of knowledge - empirical And theoretical. They correspond to two interrelated, but at the same time specific types of cognitive activity: empirical and theoretical research.

Moreover, the indicated levels of scientific knowledge are not identical to the sensory and rational forms of knowledge in general. empirical knowledge can never be reduced only to pure sensibility. Even the primary layer of empirical knowledge - observational data - is always recorded in a certain language: moreover, this is a language that uses not only everyday concepts, but also specific scientific terms. But empirical knowledge cannot be reduced to observational data. It also involves the formation, based on observational data, of a special type of knowledge - a scientific fact. A scientific fact arises as a result of very complex rational processing of observational data: their comprehension, understanding, interpretation. In this sense, any facts of science represent the interaction of the sensory and the rational. Forms of rational knowledge (concepts, judgments, conclusions) dominate in the process of theoretical development of reality. But when constructing a theory, visual model representations are also used, which are forms of sensory knowledge, because representations, like perception, are forms of living contemplation.

The distinction between the empirical and theoretical levels should be made taking into account the specifics of cognitive activity at each of these levels. According to academician I.T. Frolov, the main criteria by which these levels differ are the following: 1) the nature of the subject of research, 2) the type of research tools used and 3) features of the method.

Differences by subject are that empirical and theoretical research can understand the same objective reality, but its vision, its representation in knowledge will be given in different ways. Empirical research is fundamentally focused on studying phenomena and the relationships between them. At the level of theoretical knowledge, essential connections are identified in their pure form. The essence of an object is the interaction of a number of laws to which this object is subject. The task of the theory is precisely to recreate all these relationships between laws and thus reveal the essence of the object.

Differences by type of means used research lies in the fact that empirical research is based on the direct practical interaction of the researcher with the object being studied. It involves making observations and experimental activities. Therefore, the means of empirical research necessarily include instruments, instrumental installations and other means of real observation and experiment. In theoretical research, there is no direct practical interaction with objects. At this level, an object can only be studied indirectly, in a thought experiment, but not in a real one.

According to their characteristics, empirical and theoretical types of knowledge vary in methods research activities . As already mentioned, the main methods of empirical research are real experiment and real observation. An important role is also played by methods of empirical description, focused on the objective characteristics of the phenomena being studied, as cleared as possible from subjective layers. As for theoretical research, special methods are used here: idealization (method of constructing an idealized object); a thought experiment with idealized objects, which seems to replace a real experiment with real objects; methods of theory construction (ascent from the abstract to the concrete, axiomatic and hypothetico-deductive methods); methods of logical and historical research, etc. So, the empirical and theoretical levels of knowledge differ in the subject, means and methods of research. However, isolating and considering each of them independently is an abstraction. In reality, these two layers of knowledge always interact. Isolating the categories “empirical” and “theoretical” as means of methodological analysis makes it possible to find out how scientific knowledge is structured and how it develops.

There is a movement from ignorance to knowledge. Thus, the first stage of the cognitive process is to determine what we do not know. It is important to clearly and strictly define the problem, separating what we already know from what we do not yet know. The problem

(from the Greek problema - task) is a complex and controversial issue that requires resolution. The second step is the development of a hypothesis (from the Greek hypothesis - assumption). Hypothesis -

This is a scientifically based assumption that requires testing. If a hypothesis is proven by a large number of facts, it becomes a theory (from the Greek theoria - observation, research). Theory

is a system of knowledge that describes and explains certain phenomena; such as, for example, evolutionary theory, relativity theory, quantum theory, etc.

When choosing the best theory, the degree of its testability plays an important role. A theory is reliable if it is confirmed by objective facts (including newly discovered ones) and if it is distinguished by clarity, distinctness, and logical rigor.

Scientific facts It is necessary to distinguish between objective and scientific data. Objective fact - this is a really existing object, process or event that took place. For example, the death of Mikhail Yuryevich Lermontov (1814-1841) in a duel is a fact. Scientific fact

is knowledge that is confirmed and interpreted within the framework of a generally accepted system of knowledge. Assessments are opposed to facts and reflect the significance of objects or phenomena for a person, his approving or disapproving attitude towards them. IN scientific facts

Usually the objective world is recorded as it is, and the assessments reflect the subjective position of a person, his interests, the level of his moral and aesthetic consciousness.

Most of the difficulties for science arise in the process of transition from hypothesis to theory. There are methods and procedures that allow you to test a hypothesis and prove it or reject it as incorrect. Method

(from the Greek methodos - the path to the goal) is called a rule, technique, way of cognition. In general, a method is a system of rules and regulations that allow one to study an object. F. Bacon called the method “a lamp in the hands of a traveler walking in the dark.” Methodology

• is a broader concept and can be defined as:
• a set of methods used in any science;

general doctrine of method. Since the criteria of truth in its classical scientific understanding are, on the one hand, sensory experience and practice, and on the other, clarity and logical distinctness, all can be divided into empirical (experienced, practical ways knowledge) and theoretical (logical procedures).

Empirical methods of cognition

basis empirical methods are sensory cognition (sensation, perception, representation) and instrument data. These methods include:

• observation— purposeful perception of phenomena without interfering with them;
• experiment— study of phenomena under controlled and controlled conditions;
• measurement - determination of the ratio of the measured quantity to
• standard (for example, meter);
• comparison— identification of similarities or differences between objects or their characteristics.

There are no pure empirical methods in scientific knowledge, since even simple observation requires preliminary theoretical foundations - choosing an object for observation, formulating a hypothesis, etc.

Theoretical methods of cognition

Actually theoretical methods rely on rational cognition (concept, judgment, inference) and logical inference procedures. These methods include:

• analysis- the process of mental or real division of an object, phenomenon into parts (signs, properties, relationships);
• synthesis - combining the aspects of the subject identified during the analysis into a single whole;
• - combining various objects into groups based on common features(classification of animals, plants, etc.);
• abstraction - distraction in the process of cognition from some properties of an object for the purpose of in-depth study of one specific aspect of it (the result of abstraction is abstract concepts such as color, curvature, beauty, etc.);
• formalization - display of knowledge in a sign, symbolic form (in mathematical formulas, chemical symbols, etc.);
• analogy - inference about the similarity of objects in a certain respect based on their similarity in a number of other respects;
• modeling— creation and study of a proxy (model) of an object (for example, computer modeling of the human genome);
• idealization- the creation of concepts for objects that do not exist in reality, but have a prototype in it ( geometric point, ball, ideal gas);
• deduction - movement from the general to the specific;
• induction- movement from the particular (facts) to a general statement.

Theoretical methods require empirical facts. So, although induction itself is a theoretical logical operation, it still requires experimental verification of each particular fact, therefore it is based on empirical knowledge, and not on theoretical one. Thus, theoretical and empirical methods exist in unity, complementing each other. All of the methods listed above are methods-techniques (specific rules, action algorithms).

Wider methods-approaches indicate only the direction and general method problem solving. Method approaches can include many different techniques. These are the structural-functional method, the hermeneutic method, etc. The extremely general methods-approaches are the philosophical methods:

• metaphysical— viewing an object askew, statically, out of connection with other objects;
• dialectical- disclosure of the laws of development and change of things in their interrelation, internal contradiction and unity.

Absolutization of one method as the only correct one is called dogmatics(for example, dialectical materialism in Soviet philosophy). An uncritical accumulation of various unrelated methods is called eclecticism.