In ancient times, there was a state in the lower reaches of the Yangtze and Yellow Rivers, which united into an empire in the 3rd century BC. In terms of territory, population and cultural achievements, China was a huge country. China in the Middle Ages was already distinguished by the fact that more than 100 million people lived in it by the beginning of the 13th century, which is significantly more than in all of Europe.
There are several periods in the history of China when these periods were called by the names of the then reigning emperors Tang, Song, and Ming.
At the end of the 6th century, after civil strife and fragmentation, the country was finally united. China traded during the Tang Dynasty with countries located to the west of it. Because the Silk Road went there, ending at the Mediterranean Sea.
Along with merchants, pilgrims and missionaries widely used this route. At this time, Buddhism was spreading in China, along with Confucianism and other religions. The main feature of China was religious tolerance and the mutual influence of different religions.
The emperors, seeking to control the Great Silk Road, annexed the western regions. A wave of rebellions swept across China in the 9th century. Increased taxes and abuse of power caused peasant unrest. Started peasant war, its leader was the salt merchant Huang Chao.
Khitan tribes conquered the northern regions of the empire. It was only at the beginning of the 10th century during the Song Dynasty that the country was united again.
The reign of the Song Dynasty was the heyday of China. At this time, the emperors had to constantly suppress revolts of the nobility, peasant uprisings, and repel threats.
China in the Middle Ages: the capture of the country by the Mongols
The entire north of the country was captured by nomads in the 12th century. At the northern borders of the state at the beginning of the 13th century, the state of the Mongols was formed. They first conquered northern regions China, taking advantage of the empire's enmity with its neighbors. The entire country was conquered by the Mongols by the end of the 13th century. The Mongol Khan Kublai settled in Beijing and assumed the title of emperor and the Yuan dynasty. It was the most terrible time for China: the country was devastated, the population was dying.
The revolt against the Mongols began in the middle of the 14th century. One of the leaders conquered Beijing and became emperor. He founded the Ming Dynasty, which ruled the country until the 17th century. The emperor called himself the Son of Heaven. He considered himself a mediator between God, Heaven and the Celestial Land. The Ming Dynasty Emperor pursued an active foreign policy. Under him, the borders of China were expanded, adding Tibet and Indochina.
China in the Middle Ages, in short, developed without the strong shocks and cataclysms that occurred in Europe. Regarding the time frame, it should be noted that the medieval period began in China much earlier, even before our era.
China, like all eastern countries, was very different from European countries. Firstly, he was a strong eastern despotism. Secondly, if in Europe there were many large landowners from among the highest nobility, then in China all the land belonged to the state. There were, of course, large private land holdings here too. But there were not as many of them as in European states, and they were of little interest to the authorities.
The basis of the state, as in other countries of the East, in China was the community. Almost 90% of the population were peasants and worked the land. The authorities took special care of them, since peasants were the main taxpayers. China had a very wise system of land allotments. Every able-bodied Chinese received the same plot of land.
From the 3rd century BC. and until the 6th century a deep crisis continued in China. In 589, the warlord Yang Jian was able to restore the unity of China. He was declared emperor. This is how the Sui Dynasty was founded.
China in the Middle Ages developed without long wars and ruinous internecine clashes, but often experienced changes in power. In VII, during a palace coup, the Sui dynasty was replaced by the Tang dynasty. Its rulers were engaged in active aggressive activities. As a result of victorious wars, China gained control of the Great Silk Road and established power over Tibet, Korea and Indochina.
Medieval Chinese society was characterized by a large apparatus of officials and a huge, strong army on which power rested. All officials were always appointed only from the center of the empire. Another feature of China during this period was the numerous peasant uprisings. Their main reason was increased taxes. The authorities usually agreed to fulfill the demands of the rebels.
During the Middle Ages, great economic changes took place in China. Water mills began to be used in agriculture, and peasants cultivated the land with a large variety of plows. The Chinese begin to produce porcelain and make sugar.
Towards the end of the Middle Ages, towards XVII century, China was a powerful country with a well-developed system of governance.
China in the Middle Ages was a huge country, comparable in territory, population, cultural achievements with all of Europe. Nomads constantly attacked the country from the north, but China each time revived its former power. In the history of medieval China, several periods are distinguished, named after the dynasties of emperors that ruled at that time.
Tang Dynasty
At the end of the 6th century. the country was reunited after a long period of fragmentation and civil strife. Under the dynasty Tan China traded a lot with countries located to the west of it. The Great Silk Road led there, ending at the Mediterranean Sea. In an effort to control it, the emperors annexed areas in the west of the country. Chinese troops even invaded Central Asia, but in 751 they were defeated by the Arabs at Talas.
The Great Silk Road was actively used by merchants, pilgrims, and missionaries. By that time, Buddhism had spread widely in China, coexisting peacefully with traditional Chinese Confucianism and other religions. A characteristic feature of China was religious tolerance and even mutual influence of different religions.
In the 9th century. A wave of rebellious nobles swept across China. Increasing taxes and abuses in their collection caused peasant uprisings. The Tang Dynasty lost power. During the period of unrest and strife after its fall, the northern regions of the empire were conquered by the Khitan tribes.
Dynasties Song managed to reunite almost the entire country. Although the Song period was the heyday of China, the emperors constantly had to repel external threats, suppress peasant uprisings and revolts of the nobility. The empire paid a huge tribute to its northern neighbors in silver and silk. In the 12th century nomads captured the entire north of the country.
Yuan Dynasty
At the beginning of the 13th century. the state of the Mongols was formed at the northern borders of China. Taking advantage of the empire’s enmity with its neighbors, the Mongols first conquered the north of China, and by 1279 the entire country. Mongol Khan Kublai moved his headquarters to the Chinese city of Beijing, took the title of emperor and founded a new dynasty Yuan.
The conquest was accompanied by the devastation of the country and the death of a significant part of the population. But soon the Mongols restored the previous system of governing the empire.
During the Mongol rule, European merchants, diplomats and missionaries visited China more than once. The most famous of them was Marco Polo. These travels reflected the West's interest in various contacts with the Far East.
In the middle of the 14th century. An uprising against the Mongols began. One of its leaders in 1368 occupied Beijing and became emperor. The dynasty he founded Min ruled the country until the middle of the 17th century.
Development of China in the Middle Ages
In these centuries, we can talk about the process of rapid growth of cities. The urban population is increasing, amounting to over 10% in the southern regions, and new type The city is a trade and craft suburb. IN major cities, such as Kaifeng, Changsha, Hangzhou, Fuzhou, Quanzhou, each had a population of more than half a million people, and the population of Hangzhou by the end of the Song numbered approximately 1.2 million. An important change in city life was the abolition of closed, enclosed neighborhoods. Thanks to this, trade, in addition to the market, also covered city streets. In the city craft trade, workshops still existed.
They have become even more detailed and more numerous than before. But their character changed little: they remained under the strict control of the authorities, performed fiscal functions, and consolidated the internal inequality of various categories of workers. Development of China in the Middle Ages.
Trade grew rapidly: in the second half of the 11th century. its volume increased by approximately 1/3. At the same time, a number of new features are observed: trade activity in connection with the foreign policy situation is increasingly moving to the southeast of the country, large merchant companies are appearing, expanding trade assortment, trade taxes acquire the character of a system and become a significant source of treasury income.
Foreign trade is also developing: in the North, border and transit trade with Liao and Western Xia, in the Southeast, maritime trade. The latter especially flourished after the formation of the Southern Song Empire. In the XIIXIII centuries. she was, perhaps, less dependent than ever on the diplomatic ambassadorial exchange that accompanied and conditioned her. IN major ports the southeast coast of China were then established to manage merchant ships. Development of China in the Middle Ages.
The development of trade was facilitated by the improvement of the monetary economy. In the 19th centuries. Copper and iron coins are cast in hitherto unprecedented quantities. They are spreading even outside of China. At the same time, the use of precious metals increased and the first real banknotes appeared, which, undoubtedly, was a major achievement in finance.
In addition, the dominance of the Jurchens over a large part of the country, although they adopted much from Chinese customs and culture, brought with it a certain element of inequality. This was manifested in the fact that the Jurchens had a special military-administrative communal organization, captured or received the best lands, and paid taxes 10 times less than the Chinese.
Sources: myexcursion.ru, antiquehistory.ru, doklad-referat.ru, www.slideshare.net, fb.ru
Persistent diversity, incomplete processes of class formation, preservation of remnants of patriarchal-tribal and slave relations, uneven economic and social development different areas of a vast territory make it difficult to accurately identify the time period from which the beginning of the medieval history of traditional China can be dated. Even in Ancient China, large private land ownership was taking shape, based on various forms of exploitation of land-poor and landless peasants who had not lost their freedom. The exploitation of the tax-paying peasantry by the state through the collection of rent-taxes is also becoming widespread.
When periodizing history of China in the Middle Ages it is necessary to take into account the periodic changes of reigning dynasties and the formation of large empires. The state was directly influenced by the frequent popular uprisings at that time, which led to various changes in the social class structure, as well as in political and legal institutions.
Collapse of the Han Empire in the 3rd century. as a result of the concentration of land in the hands of private owners and powerful popular movements of the 2nd-3rd centuries. led to a century of internal turmoil. The subsequent restoration of state unity was associated with the processes of centralization in Northern China, where it was founded Jin dynasty(265-420). Most of the land was declared imperial, i.e. state property, and independent peasants - tax holders of state plots:
- tax-payers of the first category - men and women from 16 to 60 years of age who received “allotments for use” and “taxable allotments”, the harvest from which was entirely transferred to the state as a tax and payment for land;
- Taxpayers of the second category - all other members of peasant families from 13 to 15 and from 61 to 65 years old, who received plots of half the size.
Those who had not reached tax age and those who had exceeded it did not receive any allotments. Tax-paying peasants who received state allotments also bore labor duties.
The reform did not mean an equal redistribution of land. Officials, for example, depending on their rank, received land plots from 1 to 5 thousand mu, which were not subject to taxes and duties and had to be cultivated by tenant farmers (from 1 to 15 households for each official, depending on the latter’s rank).
A new version of the allotment system (the “equal fields” system) was introduced in 485 in Northern China under Northern Wei Dynasty, and then in the 6th and 7th centuries, with Sui Dynasty and who replaced her Tang Dynasty. This system was subsequently extended to all of China. Peasants from 15 to 70 years old received from the state land plots with a specific purpose - for sowing grain, hemp, planting mulberry trees. Most of the land intended for sowing grain was provided only for temporary use and was taken by the state from the peasant after he exceeded tax age or in the event of death. Another small part of the land plot was inherited.
The allotment system meant not only strengthening traditional system exploitation of the tax-paying peasantry. It contributed to the spread of the actual attachment of peasants to the land through the rural community with its mutual responsibility and collective tax liability to the state treasury.
This system not only did not affect the existing large private landholdings, but also contributed to its expansion.
Tang legislation formally prohibited the sale of plots, but numerous reservations (the plot could be sold if the family moved, for the purpose of performing funeral rites, etc.) contributed to the growth of concentration of land among private individuals, which later intensified when these formal prohibitions were actually lifted. This increased the property inequality of peasants and their dependence on private landowners.
An inevitable manifestation of the growth of large land ownership in the Tang Empire was the trend of clan separatism. This trend intensified due to the introduction of the positions of military governors (jiedushi), vested with enormous military powers to combat the incessant raids of nomads, etc. Governors turned over time into all-powerful governors, large landowners, who had little regard for the central government.
The system of allotment land use suffered a complete collapse in the 8th century. in connection with the massive dispossession of peasants and a decrease in reserves of government lands intended for distribution to the rural population. In order to somehow restore the disturbed balance and prevent a social explosion, in 780 a new “two-time tax” system was introduced in China, in which all households, strictly depending on their property status, were divided into categories and had to pay a tax according to the size of their land ownership . At the same time, bans on sales were lifted, land redistributions were cancelled, which created new opportunities for the growth of large-scale land ownership based on the exploitation of land-poor and landless peasant tenants and various categories of dependent workers.
Starting from the second half of the 8th century. About half of the total number of farmers in China existed by cultivating other people's land and were subject to private exploitation. The other half was made up of a wide layer of independent small producers who gave their surplus product in the form of a tax to the state.
Mass dispossession of small landowners led to social explosions, uprisings, and wars, during which the ruling dynasties died. As a result, it was cyclically restored specific gravity independent peasant farms, the traditional system of their exploitation.
At the end of the 13th century. China was conquered by the Mongols. In 1279, rule was established Mongol Yuan dynasty. The Mongol conquest led to dire consequences for the economy and culture of China, but did not undermine the foundations of the traditional economic system. The Mongols put into their service a Chinese organization designed to extract taxes from the tax-paying peasantry. It is interesting to note that it was at this time that the number of slaves and quitrent slaves in China sharply increased.
Under the pressure of the national liberation struggle and the powerful peasant movement of the 14th century. Mongol rule fell. The country has established a new All China Ming Dynasty(1368-1644), which did its best to maintain a balance of public and private land ownership.
In the 17th century China was invaded by the Manchus, who established the Manchu dynasty there, which ruled until the revolution of 1911-1913. Before the revolution, slavery also existed in China, which was abolished at that time by legislation.
The class structure of China in the Middle Ages
Throughout the medieval history of China, self-government bodies were maintained in the lower territorial units. Community elders kept order and the cultivation of the land. All residents of the village community were bound by mutual responsibility thanks to the ten-yard system created for collecting taxes, carrying out labor duties, etc.
The Ming Empire included appanage principalities assigned to the sons and grandsons of the emperor. They had neither administrative nor judiciary, and under some Ming emperors they had only military powers. A certain portion of local taxes went to them.
In a special position in the empire were some self-governing provinces inhabited by representatives of other peoples. The local chiefs of these territories, located along the southwestern borders of China, remained rulers after they were confirmed by the Chinese Emperor. They were thus included in a special group of local officials who, following the example of Chinese officials, were assigned ranks, but were not paid a salary by the emperor.
Court in medieval China
In medieval China, court cases were considered both in the judicial authorities themselves and in administrative bodies performing judicial functions. In Ming China, a relatively orderly hierarchical judicial ladder had developed, with the emperor himself at the highest level and the elected village elder at the lowest.
Most cases were resolved in district administrations-yamenya, where the district chief held court.
If there was insufficient evidence, the case was either postponed or transferred to a special investigative judge for criminal cases, who, in terms of his official rank, was equal to the district chief. Cases related to serious crimes - murder, grand theft, extortion - were received to a region or province where they operated special judicial and government bodies:
- “the department of administrative affairs”, which exercised control over the correct execution of administrative affairs;
- the “military affairs department,” where military affairs were investigated;
- "department for the consideration of judicial cases", i.e. on the affairs of other people.
This stage was, in principle, the final stage for the consideration of most court cases. Only if the case was not finally resolved in the region or province was it sent to one or another metropolitan judicial investigative body. Here decisions were made on behalf of the emperor, to whom all death sentences were reported. The emperor had the right to declare and also commute punishment.
Army of a medieval state in China
The principles of army organization changed at different stages of the development of the medieval state in China under the influence of both domestic and foreign political factors.
To Tan Men under the age of 60 were considered liable for military service and were recruited to serve in the army, as well as to perform other duties. Desertion and evasion of a military campaign to the battlefield were punishable by death.
From the 8th century emperors increasingly began to resort to the services mercenary army, maintain cavalry staffed from Turks, Uyghurs, etc. Wang Anshi’s reforms in the 11th century, the main purpose of which was to create a strong centralized state, instead of hiring, conscription of troops was introduced, with the help of which a regular army was created, supported by the state. Recruitment also existed in later times.
In the Ming Empire the old system of “district troops” and border garrisons was preserved, the main composition of which was formed from military settlers who had an allotment and served until old age, and sometimes until death.
At all times, regular troops relied on the support of local military detachments and community formations designed to maintain order. Consisting mainly of wealthy peasants, these detachments were especially active during peasant unrest. The Ming emperors widely resorted to auxiliary military formations of the allied states, which they either hired or forced to serve in front-line areas.
During the Ming, the army grew continuously, in the 17th century. it numbered 4 million people. Regional military formations were located across provinces and in vital military areas. From the basic military formations, special troops were periodically selected and specially trained to serve in the capital, among which stood out detachments of the personal imperial guard, called upon to guard the imperial palace. Another special category military associations consisted of escort troops assigned to each prince.
For control purposes, all military units were distributed among five military districts, led by the main military commissariats located in the capital. The heads of the main military commissariats, who exercised control over the military-territorial districts, were part of the government.
There was no permanent commander-in-chief in the army. In the event of the outbreak of hostilities, one of the highest military ranks or dignitaries was appointed general or even generalissimo. Gradually, however, a system of permanent tactical command developed, with personnel concentrated along borders, ports and other strategic points.
Cheboksary College
food and commerce technologies
ABSTRACT
in the discipline "World History"
on the topic: China in the Middle Ages
student group PK-5-17
Guryanova Alexandra
Supervisor:
A.G. Botnikova
Cheboksary
C possession:
Introduction
Tang Dynasty
Song Dynasty
Yuan Dynasty
Conclusion
Introduction
China in the Middle Ageswas a huge country, comparable in territory, population, and cultural achievements to all of Europe. Nomads constantly attacked the country from the north, but China each time revived its former power.
In the history of medieval China, there are several periods, named after the dynasties of emperors that ruled at that time.
Tang Dynasty
Tang era (Li Dynasty 李 ) ( 18 June 618 - 4 June 907 , whale. 唐朝 , Tanchao ) - Chinese imperial dynasty , based Li Yuan . His son, the emperor Li Shimin , after the final suppression of the peasant uprisings and separatist feudal forces began to pursue progressive policies. It is the Tang era that is traditionally considered in China to be the period of the country’s greatest power, when it was ahead of other contemporary countries in the world in its development.
The Li dynasty was founded by Li Yuan, a large landowner originally from the northern borderland of China, inhabited by the Tabgach people - sinicized descendants of the Toba steppe inhabitants, at one time characterized by the orientalist L. Gumilyov as an ethnic group “equally close to China and the Great Steppe.” Li Yuan, together with his son Li Shi-min, prevailed in the civil war, the reason for which was the harsh and reckless policy of the last Sui emperor Yang-di (“Fair War”), and soon after his death in 618 he ascended the throne in Chang’an under the dynastic name Gaotzu. He was subsequently removed from power by Li Shimin, but the dynasty he founded survived and was in power until 907 with a short break in 690-705 (the reign of Empress Wu Zetian, distinguished during the special Zhou era).
From the very beginning, the Li dynasty relied on combining the original Chinese and steppe principles. The founder of the dynasty himself, whom L. Gumilev compares in this regard with Alexander the Great, was a man well acquainted with the peoples of the Great Steppe, their morals and customs; so were many people from his circle. The first part of Tang reign saw a period of intense cultural exchange between the two regions; The steppe gave Tang China an advanced army in the form of heavy armored cavalry, in turn, the descendants of the nomads were captivated by its wealth and ancient, sophisticated culture. For the nomads, the Tang emperor simultaneously acted as the khan/khagan of the Tabgach people, their equal; It is precisely this perception, in particular, that is enshrined in the epitaph of the Turkic Khan Kul-Tegin, who refers to himself and his people as “kul” (vassals, slaves) of the Tabgach Kagan and the Tabgach people, and not Chinese subjects.
The imperial idea of unifying China and the Steppe under the rule of the Tang emperor determined the domestic and foreign policy of the state for centuries. At the same time, over time, the Tang (Tabgach) court began to be perceived by the ethnic Chinese (Han), who constituted the numerical majority in the Empire, as something alien, and its policy towards the “barbarians,” in particular, patronage of Buddhism, as unacceptable. According to L. Gumilyov, it was the consistent implementation of this idea of “combining the incongruous” that led the Tang to its rapid rise and prosperity, and to an equally rapid and bloody fall.
Song Dynasty
Song Empire (Chinese ex.宋朝 , pinyin: Sòng Cháo, pal.: Song Chao) - a state in China that existed from 960 to 1279. The ruling dynasty was Zhao (趙 ), after the family name of the sovereigns.
Base empire put an end to the fragmentation of China that had continued since the fall of the Tang Dynasty (唐朝 ) in 907. The emergence of the empire was preceded by the Age of Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms (五代十国 ). The turning point in the history of the dynasty is the year 1127, when the troops of the Jurchen state of Jin captured the capital of the empire, Bianliang. The imperial house was taken captive to Manchuria, but one of the sons of the abdicated monarch managed to escape south to Jiangnan. He moved the capital to Lin'an, and his commander Yue Fei stopped the further advance of the Jurchens to the south. Thus, Song history is divided into the Northern and Southern periods, respectively, before and after the transfer of the capital.
Southern Song's struggle against the Jin state
After the peace treaty of 1141, the Jin Empire did not give up hope of conquering all of China, and the Song at times dreamed of revenge. In 1161, the Jin ruler Hailing Wang gathered an army of 300,000 and invaded Song, but the Chinese burned the Jin fleet with flamethrowers. Ground troops The Jurchens were also defeated. In 1208 the war resumed, the Sun lost several battles and were forced to make peace. In 1217, the Jin invaded the Song, captured many cities, but failed to capture the De'an fortress, defended by the talented military leader Chen Gui. In response, the Chinese captured southern Shandong. In 1234, the Song contingent took part in the siege of Kaifeng. The Jin Empire fell, but as a result, the Song Empire found itself alone with the warlike and merciless Mongols.
Mongol invasion
Mongol conquest of the Southern Song Empire
The first conflicts with the Mongols took place in the 1230s. But decisive action began in 1258 - Khan Mongke launched a large-scale offensive. The Chinese army was defeated, but many cities offered fierce resistance. In 1259, Mongke died and the Mongols retreated. However, Mongke's successor Kublai made the conquest of the Song his main goal. He set out on a campaign in 1267, but his army was shackled by the heroic defense of the cities of Xiangyang and Fancheng, which lasted for five years. In 1275, the Song army was destroyed at Dingjiazhou, and Lin'an fell the following year. In 1279, the remnants of the Song fleet were destroyed in Yaishan, and by 1280 all of China was captured by the Yuan dynasty.
Yuan Dynasty
Empire (in Chinese tradition- dynasty) Yuan (Ikh Yuan mong. Their Yuan Uls, Great Yuan State, Dai Ön Yeke Mongghul Ulus. Dai Ön Yeke Mongghul Ulus; Chinese ex.元朝 , pinyin: Yuáncháo; Vietnamese Nhà Nguyên (Nguyên triều), House (Dynasty) of Nguyen) - Mongol state, the main part of whose territory was China (1271-1368). Founded by the grandson of Genghis Khan, the Mongol Khan Kublai Khan, who completed the conquest of China in 1279. The dynasty fell as a result of the Red Turban Revolt of 1351-1368. The official Chinese history of this dynasty was recorded during the subsequent Ming Dynasty and is called "Yuan Shi".
Later Yuan
Last years The Yuan dynasty was marked by riots and famine among the population. Over time, the heirs of Kublai Khan lost all their influence on other lands of the former Mongol Empire, and the Mongols outside the Middle Kingdom saw them as Chinese. Gradually they lost influence in China. The reigns of the Yuan emperors during this period were short, filled with intrigue and rivalry. Uninterested in government, they were separated from both the army and the common people. China was torn by strife and unrest; criminals ravaged the country without encountering resistance from the weakened Yuan armies.
Despite the merits of his reign, Shidebala ruled for only two years (1321-1323); his reign ended as a result of a coup d'etat by five princes. They placed Yesun Temur on the throne, and after an unsuccessful attempt to calm the princes, he was also killed. Until the reign of Yesun Temür, China was relatively free from major rebellions following the reign of Kublai Kublai. At the beginning of the 14th century, the number of uprisings grew. The emergence of these uprisings and their subsequent suppression were aggravated by the government's financial difficulties. The government was forced to take some measures to increase revenues, such as selling positions, increasing taxes, and cutting spending on some items.
When Yesun Temur died in Shandu in 1328, Tugh Temur was recalled to Dadu by the commander El-Temur. He was installed as emperor at Dadu, while Yesun Temur's son Rajapika assumed the throne at Shandu with the support of Daulet Shah, a favorite of the late emperor. With the support of princes and officials in Northern China and some other members of the dynasty, Tugh Temür eventually defeated the Rajapika civil war (1329). Then Tug-Temur abdicated the throne in favor of his brother Khoshila, supported by the Chagataid Eljigidey, and announced Dadu's intention to welcome him. However, Khoshila suddenly died 4 days after the banquet with Tugh Temur. Presumably, he was poisoned by El-Temur, and Tugh-Temur was returned to the throne. Tugh-Temur sent his representatives to the western Mongol khanates - Golden Horde and the Hulaguid state, so that he would be recognized as the supreme ruler Mongol peace. However, by and large, in the last three years of his reign, Tugh-Temur was only a puppet of the powerful El-Temur. The latter carried out a purge, eliminating those who supported Xoshila, and transferred power to military leaders whose despotic rule clearly marked the decline of the dynasty.
While the bureaucracy was controlled by El-Temur, Tugh-Temur is known for his cultural contributions. He took a number of measures to promote Confucianism and promote Chinese cultural values. He patronized Chinese language and founded the Academy of Literature (Chinese:奎章阁 学士院 ). The Academy was responsible for collecting and publishing a number of books, but its most important achievement was the compilation of a huge institutional collection called Jingshi Dadian (Chinese: Jingshi Dadian).经 世大典 ). He supported Zhu Xi's neo-Confucianism and converted to Buddhism.
After the death of Tugh Temur in 1332 and the subsequent death of Irinjibal at the end of the same year, the 13-year-old Tughon Temur, the last of Kublai's nine heirs, was recalled from Guangxi and assumed the throne. Bayan eliminated opposition to the young emperor, then closed the Hanlin Academy and canceled exams for the position, and in 1340 he was executed as a result of intrigue. Then he showed himself as an active politician: he resumed examinations, lowered taxes and continued the construction of the Grand Canal. When he was also executed in 1355 as a result of court intrigue, the central government lost control of the country. A number of Mongol commanders in the north pursued an independent policy (including Bolod Temur, Tsagan Temur and Khukh Temur).
In the second half of Togon-Temur's reign, the country suffered a series of floods, mass famine, epidemics, and in the area of public policy, dissatisfaction with inflation and forced labor (including on the construction of a canal). This contributed to the rise of the national liberation movement based on eschatological sentiments. In 1351 it resulted in the so-called. Rise of the Red Turbans. In 1356, one of the rebel leaders, Zhu Yuanzhang (the future Hongwu Emperor), occupied Nanjing and created a state apparatus, extending his power to southern China and eliminating competitors. After this, civil strife among the Mongol rulers in northern China in the 1360s attracted the attention of Zhu Yuanzhang, and in 1368, under the blows of his troops, Beijing fell, and Toghon-Temur with his wife and court fled to northern capital dynasty, Shangdu. That same year, Zhu Yuanzhang moved his capital from Nanjing to Beijing and proclaimed himself Emperor of the Ming Dynasty. The next year he took Shandu, and Togan Temur fled to Inchan (Chinese).应 昌 ), where he died in 1370. His son Ayushiridara ascended the throne and proclaimed the Northern Yuan era.
Basalavarmi, the Prince of Liang, created a separate pocket of resistance against the Ming forces in the provinces of Yunnan and Guizhou, but his forces were finally defeated by the Ming in 1381.
Conclusion
The end of the Middle Ages came in the 15th century. At this time happened important events: fell under the blows of the Ottoman Turks, which existed for almost a thousand years Byzantine Empire, the formation of unified states in England and France was completed, the Reconquista ended, the Renaissance began in Italy, Spanish and Portuguese sailors set off in search of new, unknown lands. These travelers had no idea that outside Europe there were strong states with a high culture, which were also part of the medieval world - China, India, Japan, the states of pre-Columbian America. The Middle Ages were becoming a thing of the past. The world was entering the era of modern times.
The Middle Ages were a difficult time. It was a time of terrible wars, terrible epidemics, blazing fires of the Inquisition. But at the same time, it is to the Middle Ages that we owe the appearance of parliament and jury trials, schools and universities, paper and mechanical watches. It was at that time that outstanding literary works were created - “The Elder Edda”, “The Song of Cid”, “The Song of Roland”, “The Divine Comedy”, Chinese and Japanese poetry. We never cease to be amazed by the Romanesque and Gothic cathedrals, American pyramid temples, Chinese pagodas, and Muslim mosques built in the Middle Ages, striking with their beauty, grandeur and grace.
The Middle Ages passed, but did not disappear without a trace. It left a deep mark on human culture, created the foundation on which the modern world stands.
Ancient China is the most ancient culture, which has practically not changed the way of life to this day. The wise Chinese rulers were able to carry out great empire through millennia. Let's take a quick look at everything in order.
Ancient humans probably reached East Asia between 30,000 and 50,000 years ago. Currently, pieces of pottery, ceramics have been discovered in a Chinese hunter-gatherer cave, the estimated age of the cave is 18 thousand years, this is the oldest pottery ever found.
Historians believe that agriculture appeared in China around 7,000 BC. The first harvest was a grain called millet. Rice also began to be grown around this time, and perhaps rice appeared a little earlier than millet. As agriculture began to provide more food, the population began to increase, and it also allowed people to do other jobs other than constantly searching for food.
Most historians agree that Chinese civilization formed around 2000 BC around the Yellow River. China was home to one of the four early civilizations. China is different from other civilizations, the culture that developed has remained to this day, of course, changes have occurred over the millennia, but the essence of the culture has remained.
The other three civilizations disappeared or were completely absorbed and assimilated by new people. For this reason, people say that China is the oldest civilization in the world. In China, families who controlled land became leaders of family governments called dynasties.
Dynasties of China
The history of China from ancient times to the century before last was divided into different dynasties.
Xia Dynasty
The Xia Dynasty (2000 BC-1600 BC) was the first dynasty in Chinese history. Her period lasted about 500 years and included the reign of 17 emperors - the emperor is the same as the king. The Xia people were farmers and possessed bronze weapons and pottery.
Silk is one of the most important products China has ever created. Most historians agree that the Xia Dynasty produced silk clothing, with silk production possibly beginning much earlier.
Silk is produced by extracting the cocoons of silk insects. Each cocoon produces one silk thread.
Not all historians agree that the Xia was a true dynasty. Some believe that the history of Xia is just a mythical story because some points do not correspond to archaeological discoveries.
Shang Dynasty
The Shang Dynasty (1600 BC-1046 BC) was originally a clan living along the Yellow River during the Xia Dynasty. A clan is a group of very close families that are often viewed as one large family. The Shang conquered the Xia land and gained control of Chinese civilization. The Shang Dynasty lasted over 600 years and was led by 30 different emperors.
The Shang were the oldest Chinese civilization to leave behind written records, which were inscribed on tortoise shells, cattle bones, or other bones.
Bones were often used to determine what nature or nature wanted. If the emperor needed to know the future, such as “what kind of son the king will have” or “whether to start a war,” assistants carved questions on the bones, then heated them until they cracked. The lines of cracks told the wishes of the gods.
During the Shang Dynasty, people worshiped many gods, probably like the Greeks in ancient times. Also, ancestor worship was very important as they believed that their family members became godlike after death.
It is important to understand that other smaller Chinese families also existed in different parts China at the same time as the Shang, but the Shang, apparently, were the most advanced, since they left behind a lot of writing. The Shang were eventually defeated by the Zhou clan.
Zhou Dynasty
The Zhou Dynasty (1046 BC-256 BC) lasted longer than any other dynasty in Chinese history. Due to the split in the dynasty, over time, Zhou was divided into parts called Western Zhou and Eastern Zhou.
The Zhou fought the invading armies from the north (the Mongols), they built large mounds of mud and stone as barriers that slowed down the enemy - this was the prototype of the Great Wall. The crossbow was another invention of this time - it was extremely effective.
During the Zhou, China's Iron Age began. Iron-tipped weapons were much stronger, and the iron plow helped increase food production.
All agricultural land belonged to the nobles (rich). The nobles allowed peasants to work the land, similar to the feudal system that developed in Europe during the Middle Ages.
The emergence of Chinese philosophy
During the Zhou Dynasty, two major Chinese philosophies developed: Taoism and Confucianism. The great Chinese philosopher Confucius developed a way of life called Confucianism. Confucianism says that all people can be taught and improved if one finds the right approach.
Key messages: People should focus on helping others; family is the most important value; the elders of society are the most revered. Confucianism is still important today, but it did not become widespread in China until the Han Dynasty.
The founder of Taoism was Laozi. Taoism is everything that follows “Tao,” which means “the way.” Tao is the driving force of all things in the Universe. The Yin Yang symbol is commonly associated with Taoism. Taoists believe that you should live in harmony with nature, be humble, live simply without unnecessary things and have compassion for everything.
These philosophies are different from religions because they do not have gods, although the idea of ancestors and nature are often seen as gods. The emperor's power was also linked to religious beliefs. Zhou spoke of the Mandate of Heaven as the law that allowed Chinese emperors to rule—he said that the ruler was blessed by Heaven to rule over the people. If he has lost the blessing of heaven, he should be removed.
The things that proved that the ruling family had lost the Mandate of Heaven were natural disasters and rebellions.
By 475 B.C. The provinces of the Zhou kingdom were more powerful than the central Zhou government. The provinces rebelled and fought each other for 200 years. This period is called the Warring States period. Eventually, one family (the Qin) united all the others into one empire. It was during this period that the concept of Imperial China appeared.
Qin Dynasty
From 221 BC e. Before 206 BC e. The Qin dynasty gained control of civilized China. Qin rule did not last long, but had an important impact on the future of China. The Qin expanded their territory and created the first empire of China. The brutal leader Qin Shi Huang declared himself the first true emperor of China. This dynasty created a standard currency (money), a standard for wheel axle sizes (to make roads all the same size), and uniform laws that applied throughout the empire.
Qin also standardized various systems writing into one system, which is used today in China. Qin Shi Huang enforced the philosophy of "Legalism", which focuses on people following laws and receiving instructions from the government.
Mongol invasions from the north were a constant problem in China. The Qin government ordered that the walls built earlier be combined. This is considered the beginning of the creation of the Great Wall of China. Every dynasty built new wall or improved the wall of the previous dynasty. Most of the walls from the Qin period have now been destroyed or have been replaced. The wall that exists today was built by a later dynasty called the Ming.
An amazing tomb was made for the emperor, larger than a football field. It is still sealed, but legend has it that there are rivers of mercury inside it. Outside the tomb is a life-size clay army discovered in 1974.
The Terracotta Army has over 8,000 unique soldiers, over 600 horses, 130 chariots, as well as acrobats and musicians - all made from clay.
Although the Qin dynasty did not rule for long, its standardization of Chinese life left a profound influence on later dynasties in China. It is from this dynasty that we get the name "China". The first emperor of this dynasty died in 210 BC. e. He was replaced by a weak and small son. As a result, a rebellion began and a member of the Qin army took control of the Empire, which began a new dynasty.
Han Dynasty
The Han Dynasty began in 206 BC and lasted 400 years until 220 AD. and is considered one of the greatest periods in Chinese history. Like the Zhou Dynasty, the Han Dynasty is divided into Western Han and Eastern Han. Han culture defines Chinese culture today. In fact, most Chinese citizens today claim "Han" as their ethnic origin. The government made Confucianism official system empires.
During this time, the empire grew greatly, conquering land in modern-day Korea, Mongolia, Vietnam, and even Central Asia. The empire grew so large that the emperor needed a larger government to rule it. Many things were invented during this time, including paper, steel, compass, and porcelain.
Porcelain is a very hard type of ceramic. Porcelain is made from special clay that is heated until it melts and becomes almost glass. Porcelain dishes, cups and bowls are often called "Chinese" because several hundred years ago all porcelain was produced in China.
The Han Dynasty was also known for its military might. The empire expanded west to the edge of the Taklamakan Desert, allowing the government to guard trade flows in Central Asia.
The caravan routes are often called the "Silk Road" because the route was used to export Chinese silk. The Han Dynasty also expanded and strengthened the Great the Chinese wall to protect the Silk Road. Another important product of the Silk Road was the religion of Buddhism, which reached China during this period.
Chinese dynasties would continue to rule China until the Middle Ages. China has retained its uniqueness because from time immemorial they have honored their culture.
Interesting facts about Ancient China
For thousands of years, a huge, cultural China existed surrounded by barbarian nomadic tribes in the North and relatively small and weak state entities in the South and East. This situation, which persisted into the Middle Ages, was reflected in the foreign policy views of both the elite and the entire Chinese people, who considered their country the center of the earth and the rest of humanity, from whom the cultural Chinese had nothing to learn. The complex of ethno-civilizational superiority was reflected even in such a pragmatic sphere of activity as diplomacy.
Official Chinese diplomacy proceeded from the concept of “predestined vassalage” of the rest of the world from China, since “Heaven above the world is one, the Mandate of Heaven is issued to the Chinese Emperor, therefore the rest of the world is a vassal of China... The Emperor received a clear order from Heaven to rule over the Chinese and foreigners... Since Heaven and Earth have existed, there has been a division into subjects and sovereigns, inferior and superior. Therefore, there is a certain order in China’s relations with foreigners.”
The essence of such a “certain order” is indicated by the hieroglyph “fan”, which simultaneously denotes a foreigner, a foreigner, a subordinate, a savage. According to the Chinese, their country is a circle inscribed in the square of the world, and in the corners of the square there are the aforementioned fan, which cannot be treated humanely, since “the principle of morality is for governing China, the principle of attack is for governing barbarians.” The corners of the world square conquered by China were given corresponding names: Andong (Pacified East), Annam (Pacified South).
The Chinese elite had knowledge of the world, but it was fundamentally ignored: the entire non-Chinese world was viewed as something peripheral and monotonous, the diversity of the world and reality were obscured by chauvinistic Sinocentric dogma.
In practice, the apologists of “predestined vassalage” were satisfied with nominal vassalage: the main duties of the “vassal” were visiting Beijing (officially interpreted as a manifestation of loyalty) with gifts to the Chinese emperor (interpreted as tribute) and receiving by the “vassal” even more valuable gifts from the emperor, called “grace” and salary."
This phenomenon of Chinese diplomacy is explained by the fact that the concept of “predetermined vassalage” was intended not so much for foreigners as for the Chinese themselves: the appearance of vassalage is additional proof of the sanctity of the power of the dynasty, which thus convinced the people that before it “all foreigners submitted in trepidation” , "countless states are rushing to become vassals... to bring tribute and behold the Son of Heaven." Thus, in China, foreign policy is in the service of domestic policy directly, and not indirectly, as in the West. In parallel with convincing the masses of the desire of most countries to “join civilization,” a sense of external danger from inveterate barbarians from the North was also intensified to unite society and justify harsh tax exploitation: “The absence of external enemies leads to the collapse of the state.”
In order to strengthen the psychological and ideological impact of diplomacy in the right direction on foreigners and their own people, the ceremonial side of diplomatic contacts was absolutized. In accordance with the diplomatic ritual of kou-tou, which lasted until 1858, foreign representatives had to comply with a number of conditions of an audience with the Chinese emperor that humiliated their personal and state dignity of their countries, including 3 kneelings and 9 prostrations.
In 1660, the Qing emperor commented on the arrival of the Russian mission of N. Spafari in Beijing: “The Russian Tsar called himself the Great Khan and in general there is a lot of immodest in his letter. The White Tsar is just the head of the tribes, and he is arrogant and his letter is arrogant. Russia is far away the western outskirts and is not civilized enough, but the sending of the ambassador shows a desire to fulfill his duty. Therefore, it was ordered that the White Tsar and his ambassador be rewarded mercifully." N. Spafari's refusal to kneel when receiving the emperor's gifts was regarded as "an insufficient appeal of the Russians to civilization." The Chinese dignitary frankly stated to the Russian ambassador that “Rus is not a vassal, but the custom cannot be changed.” To which Spafariy replied: “Your custom differs from ours: with us it leads to honor, and with you it leads to dishonor.” The ambassador left China with the conviction that “it would be easier for them to lose their kingdom than to abandon their custom.”
While official diplomacy served as an attribute of China's imperial greatness, specific tasks foreign policy were solved by methods of secret unofficial diplomacy, i.e. Chinese diplomacy has a double bottom (secret diplomacy in other countries solves only a few delicate specific problems). The secret diplomacy of old China is imbued with the spirit of legalism with its priority of state interests at any cost (the end justifies the means) and is based on the real state of affairs, and not on the dogmas of official policy.
Since war has always been a burden for the huge agricultural China, he always proceeded from the fact that “diplomacy is an alternative to war”: “first defeat the enemy’s plans, then his alliances, then himself.” China has quite successfully turned diplomacy - a game without rules - into a game according to its own rules, using the stratagem approach as diplomatic karate, fatal for the enemies of the Middle Kingdom. Stratagem is a strategic plan in which a trap or trick is laid for the enemy. A diplomatic stratagem is a sum of targeted diplomatic and other activities designed to implement a long-term strategic plan for solving cardinal foreign policy problems; philosophy of intrigue, the art of misleading, active foresight: the ability not only to calculate, but also to program moves in the political game (see the monograph by Harro von Zenger).
The toolkit of Chinese diplomacy consisted not only of ingenious traps, but also of specific foreign policy doctrines developed for all cases of dangerous international life:
- - horizontal strategy- at the very beginning and in the decline of the dynasty. A weak China enters into alliances with its neighbors against an enemy that is distant to China but close to its neighbors. Thus, neighbors are diverted in the opposite direction from China;
- - vertical strategy - at the apogee of the dynasty, strong China attacks its neighbors “in alliance with distant ones against close ones”;
- - combination strategy of changing allies like gloves;
- - a combination of military and diplomatic methods: “one must act with pen and sword at the same time”;
- - “using poison as an antidote” (barbarians against barbarians);
- - simulation of weakness: “pretending to be a girl, rush like a tiger into open doors.”
A constant topic of discussion in the Chinese leadership was the question of the size of the empire. China in environmentally represented a very definite natural area, which called into question the feasibility of annexing new territories that were unsuitable for farming in the usual ways for the Chinese. On the other hand, the annexation of these new territories created a buffer zone between the front line of defense and the agricultural metropolis, in which the vast majority of the country's population was concentrated. Here the economic calculations of maintaining the front line of defense and the army, “the wings, claws and teeth of the state,” had their say.