The modern educational process is based on theories that

formed and evolved over many centuries. Almost any

modern theory education and personality development “grows” from the psychological

pedagogical ideas and concepts of the past.

The first attempts at scientific understanding of human upbringing were in the Ancient

world. Thus, the views on education of Plato, Aristotle, Socrates,

Democritus and other ancient Greek philosophers. Their ideas about education

virtues are still relevant today.

As the human sciences developed, pedagogical theory also developed, various

the directions of which were distinguished by significant diversity.

So, based on the ideas of J.-J. Rousseau formed the theory of free education,

the main ideas of which are the non-violent formation of the child’s personality, in

development of his natural inclinations.

Completely different values ​​form the basis of authoritarian education,

I. Herbart is considered the theorist. Herbart's theory aims to form

child obedience, while the main means of education are threat, supervision,

prohibition and punishment.

In the 20th century pedagogical systems are being actively developed in different countries, in the center

which is the educational influence of the group on the individual (J. Dewey, L. Kohlberg,

R. Steiner and others). In domestic pedagogy of the 1930-1980s. great popularity

acquired the theory of individual education in a team (A.S. Makarenko, S.T. Shatsky, I.P.

Ivanov, V.M. Korotov, etc.).

The variety of approaches to education created over centuries of development of pedagogical

thoughts, is reflected in modern basic theories of education and personality development.

Modern basic theories of education and personality development, as a rule,

represent a synthesis of not only pedagogical, but also philosophical, psychological,

natural science theories. Among the most famous theories of education and development

personalities stand out pragmatism, neopositivism, neo-Thomism, behaviorism. common feature

of these theories - their humanistic orientation, focus on education

free, self-developing personality.

The pragmatic theory of education and personality development is based on

philosophy of pragmatism (second half of the 19th century - beginning of the 20th century: C. Pire, W. James, etc.)

which recognizes as main value practical benefit. Ideas in pedagogy

pragmatic philosophy was most successfully implemented by J. Dewey (USA), who created

original educational system (Dewey himself called it instrumentalism).

The main provisions of the pragmatic theory of education:

education as an adaptation to life, the connection between teaching and upbringing, schools

reliance in the educational process on children’s own activity,

encouraging and developing their independence;

practical orientation and usefulness of activities performed by children

in the educational process;

The main drawback of this theory was the neglect of systematic knowledge,

that in the 1960s led to a crisis in the American school system.

In the 1970s, pedagogical pragmatism was transformed into neo-pragmatic

theory of education, the essence of which comes down to self-affirmation of the individual and strengthens

individualistic orientation of education. The ideas of such outstanding figures

neo-pragmatism as A. Maslow, K. Rogers, A. Combs and others formed the theoretical basis

modern humanistic pedagogy. However, in neo-pragmatism, according to I.P.

Podlasy, there is a serious drawback: a complete lack of restrictions in personal development

in practice, it often results in an individual’s inability to reckon with other people.

Neopositivism (“new positivism” or new humanism) is a philosophical

pedagogical direction trying to understand phenomena caused by scientific

technical revolution. This direction was formed on the basis of ethical ideas

Plato, Aristotle, Kant.

The main provisions of the pedagogy of neopositivism (J. Wilson, L. Kohlberg, etc.):

refusal in education from established ideologies, the formation in a child

rational thinking;

humanization of the education system, the establishment between the teacher and

a pupil of subject-subject relations;

creating conditions for the free development of personality, abandoning

manipulating a child's behavior.

On the development of pedagogical theory in the twentieth century. also had a significant impact

One popular school of philosophy is existentialism. Existentialism recognizes

personality is the highest value of the world and proclaims the uniqueness of each person. Human

is in a hostile social environment that seeks to make all people the same,

therefore he is forced to confront her in order to maintain his uniqueness.

The existentialist direction in the theory of education is represented by many

schools and has a wide variety of approaches. General Feature

existential concepts of education consists of distrust in the possibilities

pedagogical management of the child’s personality development (G. Marcel, W. Barrett, J.

Kneller and others). The role of the teacher, according to representatives of existential pedagogy,

consists, first of all, in creating conditions for the child in which he could freely

develop.

Neo-Thomism is a religious and philosophical doctrine, named after

Catholic theologian and thinker Thomas (Thomas) Aquinas (XIII century). Basics

the position of neo-Thomism lies in the dual nature of man as a unity

his "material and spiritual essences".

The pedagogy of neo-Thomism (J. Maritain, W. McGucken, M. Casotti, etc.) states

Christian and universal values ​​in education (education of kindness, humanism,

honesty, love for one's neighbor, etc.). In other words, moral education, according to

neo-Thomist theory inevitably takes on a religious character.

Behaviorism (from the English behavior - behavior) - psychological and pedagogical theory

education. According to this theory, education should be based on the latest

achievements of human sciences.

Classical behaviorism (J. Watson) enriched pedagogical science

provision on the dependence of the reaction (behavior) on the stimulus. Neobehaviorists (B.F.

Skinner, K. Hull, E. Tolman, etc.) supplemented the “stimulus → response” chain with the provision

reinforcement: “stimulus → response → reinforcement.”

Behaviorism makes an important contribution to the rational organization of educational

process, in the development of modern methods and technologies of education. As important

tasks of educating modern man, behaviorists highlight the formation of scientific

worldview, rational thinking, organization, discipline,

entrepreneurship. An important place in the organization of the educational process is given to

psychological and pedagogical diagnostics, the use of electronic computing

techniques for processing diagnostic data.

Related information.

Formation of concepts of personality development

The process of formation and development of personality has been studied since ancient times by various sciences, such as philosophy, psychology, and pedagogy. Many famous scientists wondered what drives the development of personality, what factors influence its formation. The result of their scientific research was many concepts and theories that explore this topic.

All existing theories, each from a different angle, allow us to answer many questions and find the reason for the formation of certain qualities of a certain individual. Why do some members of society become successful, while others remain in the shadows all their lives? Is it possible to influence development, and by what methods can this influence be exercised?

Two main concepts and their supporters

Today, there are two main concepts of personality development:

• biogenetic (biological);
• sociogenetic (social).

The biological concept considers a person as an essentially natural being, and explains any behavior under the influence of instincts, drives and needs inherent in him from birth.

The main adherents of this theory were the Austrian psychologist Sigmund Freud, the English naturalist Charles Darwin, the German Johann Peter Muller, the American psychologist Granville Stanley Hall and others.

The social concept suggests that the environment is a fundamental factor in human development, helping a person to socialize.

It was this theory that was adhered to by the British teacher John Locke, the Soviet psychologist Lev Semenovich Vygotsky, the Soviet teacher Anton Semenovich Makarenko and others.

There is also a concept that combines the two approaches described above - biosocial. Proponents of the biosocial concept believe that mental processes have a biological nature, and interests and orientation are formed under the influence of the environment.

Let's take a closer look at each of these concepts.

Biogenetic concept

The main ideas of the biological concept are:

• the mental development of a person is determined by the stages of the historical and biological development of his parents, the most important role in development belongs to the biological factor, in particular heredity;
• the determinant of behavior is the maturation of the human body, and development is only a complex of quantitative changes in the individual;
• the presence of a biological connection between the child and society;
• upbringing and social environment create conditions (positive or negative) for the development of an individual’s hereditary traits;
• It is unacceptable to interfere with a child’s nature.

Within the biogenetic concept, there are many theories of development. One of them belongs to S. Freud. His psychodynamic theory (psychoanalysis) of development is that instincts that generate libido (desires) are the main source of personality development. Libido energy can be positive and negative depending on its direction. In the first case, it is aimed at procreation and manifests itself in sexual desire. If libido has not received an outlet, the energy becomes destructive and manifests itself in the form of aggression. According to Freud's theory, there is a constant interaction and struggle between human desires (“it”) and moral and ethical restrictions (“super-ego”). As a result of such interaction, a personality (“I”) is formed. A schematic representation of S. Freud's theory is presented in Figure 1.

E. Erikson's epigenetic theory also has a biological concept at its core. According to Erikson, personality development is a social adjustment in the process of growing up. For him, the environment was only a factor in which a person develops. The identification and description of eight main stages of development is the most important achievement of his theory.

Skinner's famous theory of operant conditioning is based on the work of I.P. Pavlov, who analyzes conditioned reflexes. The basis of this theory is biological. Despite a large number of shortcomings in this concept, and in particular the underestimation of the role of the environment and society, it had certain achievements:

• creating the basis for the idea of ​​personality development;
• describing the importance of the role of activity for self-development;
• determining the role of play in a child’s life, considering play as preparation for the future;
• the beginning was laid for the development of the theory of personal learning;
• the beginning of the study of the biological factor in personality development, which was the impetus for the development of genetics and psychogenetics.

Sociogenetic concept

The sociogenetic concept arose in the 19th century and, in fact, was a response to the biological one.

The theoretical foundations of this concept are as follows:

• Personal development is primarily the result of influence environment, which is a decisive factor in development;
• the basis of personality development is education and training;
• development presupposes the assimilation of the experience of the surrounding world.

The main ideas that the social concept gives rise to are reflected in the following formulations:

• the child in the social concept is represented as a blank slate;
• social norms are learned during development;
• analysis of the surrounding social environment provides knowledge about the individual;
• the child passively perceives the external environment affecting him.

Just as in the biological concept, many theories are developed in the social one. One of the most famous is social learning theory. Scientists who adhere to this theory believe that individual differences between people are the result of learning. Within the framework of this theory, Miller gave a clear rationale for the processes of personal socialization.

The social concept became widespread in the Soviet Union in the 20-30s of the twentieth century. According to Soviet scientists, only 10% of a child’s development is determined by instincts and heredity. The remaining 90% is the result of environmental influences.

Speaking about the sociogenetic concept, one cannot fail to mention the theory proposed by Vygotsky. He considered the environment the main source of personality development. Vygotsky identified two very interconnected directions of human development. This is a natural maturation and mastery of ways of behavior, thinking, and culture. Personality for Vygotsky is a social concept.

The main achievement of the sociogenetic concept can be considered the clarification of the significance of the environment for the formation and development of personality.

Currently, in almost all psychological schools and directions, an understanding has been reached that when analyzing the psyche and personality structure, one should take into account the biosocial nature of man, the conscious and unconscious mental spheres, the indissoluble unity of the cognitive, emotional and volitional areas of the personality, as well as the essence of the personality - its self. .

Personality theories of foreign authors. Personality theories are organized attempts to advance the understanding of human behavior from a psychological perspective. These theories relate not only to the general functioning of the individual, but also to individual differences between people.

Although there is currently no generally accepted single definition of personality, nevertheless, most theories consider personality as general idea individual differences, a hypothetical structure, a developmental process across the lifespan, and as an entity that explains stable patterns of behavior. The field of personality research in psychology is distinguished by an attempt to synthesize and integrate relevant principles from all areas of psychology. Personality psychology is also a branch of academic psychology, which includes many theoretical directions, a significant amount of research findings, many assessment methods and techniques, as well as principles for understanding and correcting pathological behavior.

Personality theories perform two main functions: 1) providing a conceptual framework that makes it possible to explain certain classes of observed interrelated events; 2) prediction of events and connections that have not yet been studied.

Personality theories focus on six distinct aspects of human behavior: structure, motivation, development, psychopathology, mental health, and behavior change through therapeutic interventions. The basis of personality theory is certain basic assumptions about human nature.

Psychoanalytic theory of S. Freud (1856–1939) is an example of a psychodynamic approach to the study of human behavior, in which unconscious psychological conflicts are believed to control behavior.

In order to describe the degree of accessibility of mental processes to awareness, Freud identified three levels of consciousness: consciousness, preconscious and unconscious. In Freud's theory, human personality includes three structural components: Id (It), Ego (I) and Super-Ego (Super-I).

Eid, representing the instinctive core of the personality, is primitive, impulsive and obeys the pleasure principle. The id uses reflexive reactions and primal ideas to obtain immediate gratification of instinctual urges.

Ego represents the rational part of the personality and is guided by the principle of reality. Its task is to develop for the individual an appropriate plan of action to satisfy the requirements of the id within the constraints of the social world and the individual's consciousness. The Ego solves this problem with the help of secondary representation processes.

Super Ego, formed last in the process of personality development, represents its moral side. The super-ego consists of two structures - conscience and ego-ideal.

Freud's theory of motivation is based on the concept of instinct, defined as an innate state of arousal that seeks release. In the theory of psychoanalysis, two categories of instinct are distinguished: the life instinct (Eros) and the death instinct (Thanatos). Instinct has four main parameters: source, goal, object and stimulus.

Freud's explanation of the stages of psychosexual development is based on the premise that sexuality is given at birth and develops through a range of biologically defined erogenous zones until adulthood. In Freud's view, personality development passes through the following stages: oral, anal, phallic and genital. The latent period is not a stage of psychosexual development. Freud assumed that in the process of psychosexual development, unresolved conflicts lead to the fixation and formation of certain types of character. Thus, adults with fixation at the anal-retentive stage become inflexible, boring and forcedly neat.

Freud identified three types of anxiety: realistic, neurotic and moral. He believed that anxiety plays the role of a signal warning the ego of impending danger emanating from instinctual impulses. In response, the ego uses a number of defense mechanisms: repression, projection, displacement, rationalization, reaction formation, regression, sublimation and denial. Defense mechanisms operate unconsciously and distort the individual's perception of reality.

The concepts of psychoanalysis have many applications in everyday life. One of the most significant - psychoanalytic therapy - uses fairly well-tested methods: the method of free association, interpretation of resistance and transference analysis. All of them are aimed at studying the unconscious, which provides the patient with the opportunity for a deeper understanding of his personality. This new knowledge about oneself is then transferred into everyday life using the method of emotional relearning.

A. Adler (Austria) and K.G. Jung (Switzerland), two representatives of the early psychoanalytic movement, fundamentally disagreed with S. Freud on key issues and revised his theory in completely different directions.

Individual psychology by A. Adler (1870–1937) describes man as one, self-consistent and complete.

Adler proposed a parsimonious and pragmatic theory that aimed to help people understand themselves and others. The basic principles of his theory are the following: the individual as a self-consistent integrity, human life as the dynamic striving for excellence, the individual as a creative and self-determining entity, and the social identity of the individual.

According to Adler, people try to compensate for feelings of inferiority that they experienced in childhood. Experiencing inferiority, they struggle throughout their lives for superiority. Each person develops his own unique life style, within which it strives to achieve fictitious goals oriented towards excellence or perfection. According to Adler, an individual’s lifestyle is most clearly manifested in his attitudes and behavior aimed at solving three main life tasks: work, friendship and love. Based on an assessment of the degree of expression of social interest and the degree of activity in relation to these three tasks, Adler distinguished four main types of attitudes that accompany the lifestyle: the controlling, receiving, avoiding and socially useful type.

Adler believed that lifestyle is created through the creative power of the individual; the ordinal position in the family also has a certain influence on its formation. Adler distinguished four ordinal positions: first-born, only child, middle child and last child in the family. The last construct that is emphasized in individual psychology is social interest - the internal tendency of a person to participate in the creation of an ideal society. From Adler's point of view, the degree of expression of social interest is an indicator of psychological health.

While the theoretical provisions of A. Adler are generally recognized to have a high practical value, their empirical verification is clearly insufficient. The application of Adler's principles in psychotherapy contributed to the understanding of the nature of neuroses and ways of treating them. The Adlerian therapeutic approach emphasizes the importance of understanding the patient's lifestyle, recognizing his problems, and enhancing his social interest.

Analytical psychology by K. Jung (1875–1961). Another example of a revision of the psychodynamic theory of S. Freud is the analytical psychology of K.G. Cabin boy. The main difference between these scientists concerns the nature of libido. Freud saw the latter primarily as sexual energy, while Jung saw libido as a creative life energy that can contribute to a person's ongoing personal development.

Jungian analytical psychology describes personality as the result of the interaction of future orientation and innate predisposition, and also emphasizes the integration of opposing mental forces to maintain mental health.

Jung saw three interacting structures in personality: the Ego, the personal unconscious and the collective unconscious. IN Ego everything that a person is aware of is represented. Personal unconscious- this is a repository of suppressed material, repressed from consciousness, as well as accumulations of interconnected thoughts and feelings, called complexes. Collective unconscious consists of archaic, primordial elements called archetypes. Archetypes contain the experience of all humanity, starting from our most ancient ancestors, predisposing us to react in a certain way to our current experience. The most significant archetypes in Jung's theory are: a) persona (roles that people perform in accordance with social demands from others); b) shadow (the suppressed, dark, animal side of a person’s personality); c) anima (feminine qualities of a man); d) animus (masculine qualities of a woman); e) self (the center of the personality structure, when all the opposing forces within it are integrated in the process of individuation). The symbol of the “self” archetype is the mandala - a symbolic expression of the integrity of the Ego (also called “magic circles”).

Jung introduced the concept of two types of personal orientation, or life attitudes: extraversion and introversion. Extroverts usually mobile, quickly form connections and attachments; the driving force for them is external factors. Introverts, As a rule, they are contemplative, strive for solitude, their interest is focused on themselves. Jung also identified four psychological functions: thinking, feeling, sensation and intuition. Thinking and feeling are rational functions, sensation and intuition are irrational. The combination of two types of personality orientations and four psychological functions results in eight different personality types (for example, extraverted thinking type).

Considering the issue of personality development, Jung particularly emphasized the movement towards self-realization through balancing and integrating various elements of personality. He used the term individuation to describe the process of unifying all aspects of personality around the self that occurs throughout life. The process of individuation allows the self to become the center of personality, and this, in turn, helps the individual achieve self-realization. According to Jung, few reach this highest level of personality development.

Analytical psychology in last years has enormous influence on the intellectual community, although most of Jung's basic concepts have not been empirically tested.

Various post-Freudian theorists, revising psychoanalytic theory, have emphasized the ego and its functions. American psychoanalyst E. Erikson, one of the most prominent ego psychologists, focused on the dynamics of ego development throughout the life cycle. He viewed the individual as an object of influence of social and historical forces. Unlike Freud, Erikson presents the Ego as an autonomous personality structure. His theory focuses on qualities of the ego that emerge at predictable periods in life.

Ego theory of personality by E. Erikson (1902–1993). American psychologist E. Erikson argued that the Ego goes through several universal stages in its development. According to his epigenetic concept of human development, each stage of the life cycle occurs in optimal time. The sequential development of life stages is the result of the interaction of the biological maturation of an individual with the expanding space of his social connections.

From Erikson's point of view, the human life cycle includes eight psychosocial stages. Each of them is characterized by a certain type of crisis, or a decisive stage in a person’s life. The stages are described in terms of leading psychological conflicts: 1) basal trust - basal distrust; 2) autonomy – shame and doubt; 3) initiative - guilt; 4) hard work – inferiority; 5) Ego-identity – role confusion; 6) intimacy - isolation; 7) productivity – inertia, stagnation; 8) Ego-integration – despair. Individual identity depends on the resolution of these conflicts.

Erikson's theory is based on his basic assumptions about human nature. It has stimulated very little research. The application of Erikson's theory has been discussed in relation to the problem of understanding adolescent behavior in American society. Various aspects of adolescent behavior - career choice, peer group membership, alcohol and drug use - have been explained as partly reflecting an identity crisis.

Humanistic theory of personality by E. Fromm . The German-American psychologist E. Fromm (1900–1980) continued the post-Freudian trend in personology, paying special attention to the influence of social and cultural factors on personality. He argued that the gap between freedom and security has reached such a limit that today loneliness, a sense of insignificance and alienation have become defining features of the life of modern man. A certain part of people is driven by the desire to escape from freedom, which is carried out through the mechanisms of authoritarianism, destructiveness, and automatic conformity. The healthy path to liberation is to find positive freedom through spontaneous activity.

Fromm described five existential needs that are unique to humans. These needs are based on conflicting desires for freedom and security: 1) the need to establish connections; 2) the need to overcome; 3) need for roots; 4) the need for identity; 5) the need for a belief system and loyalty.

Fromm believed that basic character orientations are a consequence of the way existential needs are satisfied, provided by social, economic and political conditions. Unproductive character types are receptive, exploitative, accumulating and market. Productive types, according to Fromm's theory, represent the goal of human development; they are based on reason, love and work.

Sociocultural theory of personality by K. Horney . American psychoanalyst K. Horney (1885–1952) rejected S. Freud’s postulate that physical anatomy determines personality differences between men and women. She claimed that social relations between the child and parents are a decisive factor in the development of personality. According to Horney, the primary needs of childhood are satisfaction and security. If parental behavior does not contribute to satisfying the child's need for security, this leads to basal hostility, which in turn leads to basal anxiety. Basic anxiety—the feeling of helplessness in a hostile world—is the basis of neurosis.

Horney described 10 neurotic needs that people use to cope with the insecurity and helplessness caused by basic anxiety. Unlike healthy people, neurotics, when reacting to various situations, rely on only one need. Subsequently, Horney combined neurotic needs into three basic strategies of interpersonal behavior: orientation “from people”, “against people” and “towards people”. In a neurotic personality, one of them usually predominates.

K. Horney disagreed with S. Freud about women's penis envy; She instead suggested that men were jealous of women because of their ability to bear and feed children. She also believed that women could experience feelings of inferiority due to their economic, political and psychological dependence on men. In explaining the development of women's personality, Horney paid special attention to sociocultural influences, especially male dominance and discrimination against women.

Operant learning theory B.F. Skinner . The approach to personality of the American neobehaviorist psychologist B.F. Skinner (1904–1990) concerns open actions people according to their life experiences. He argued that human behavior is deterministic and predictable. Skinner categorically rejected the idea of ​​internal “autonomous” factors as the cause of human actions and neglected the physiological-genetic explanation of behavior.

Skinner recognized two main types of behavior: respondent as a response to a familiar stimulus and operant, determined and controlled by the result that follows it. At operant conditioning an organism acts on its environment to produce an outcome that affects the likelihood that the behavior will be repeated. An operant response followed by a positive outcome tends to be repeated, while an operant response followed by a negative outcome tends not to be repeated. According to Skinner, behavior can best be explained in terms of reactions to the environment. Reinforcements – key concept of Skinner's system. He described four different modes of reinforcement, which result in different forms of response: with a constant ratio; with a constant interval, with a variable ratio and with a variable interval. A distinction has also been made between primary, or unconditioned, and secondary, or conditioned, reinforcers. Skinner believed that secondary reinforcing stimuli (money, attention, approval) have a strong influence on human behavior. He also emphasized that behavior is controlled by aversive (unpleasant) stimuli such as punishment and negative reinforcement. Positive punishment occurs when a response is followed by an unpleasant stimulus, and negative punishment occurs when a response is followed by the removal of a pleasant stimulus. In contrast, negative reinforcement occurs when the organism manages to limit or avoid the presentation of an aversive stimulus. Skinner opposed the use of aversive methods (especially punishment) in controlling behavior and emphasized control through positive reinforcement.

In operant conditioning, stimulus generalization occurs when a response is reinforced when one stimulus is encountered together with other similar stimuli. Stimulus discrimination consists of different responses to different environmental stimuli. Both are necessary for effective functioning. The successive approximation method, or conditioning method, involves reinforcement when behavior becomes similar to the desired one. Skinner argued that verbal behavior, or language, is acquired through a process of formation.

The concepts of operant conditioning have been tested experimentally many times. The principles of operant conditioning are now widely used. Two main areas of such application are communication skills training and biological Feedback. Self-confidence training, based on behavioral rehearsal and self-control techniques, is believed to be very helpful in helping people perform more successfully in a variety of social interactions (interactions with other people). Biofeedback training has been found to be effective in treating anxiety, migraines, muscle tension and hypertension. It remains unclear, however, how physiological feedback actually allows for control of involuntary body functions.

Social-cognitive theory of personality by A. Bandura. The social-cognitive direction in the study of personality is represented by the American psychologist A. Bandura (born in 1925), who describes the psychological functioning of a person in terms of the continuous mutual influence of behavioral (behavioural), cognitive (cognitive) and environmental factors. According to this concept of behavior, people are not entirely dependent on the control of external forces and are not free beings who can do whatever they want. Against, great importance is given to the mutual interaction of behavioral reactions and factors related to the environment - a dynamic process where cognitive components play a central role in the organization and regulation of human activity.

Bandura's main theoretical concept is modeling, or observational learning. The key point that modeling generates learning primarily through its informative function clearly reflects the cognitive orientation of Bandura's thinking.

Observational learning is regulated by four interrelated factors: the processes of attention, retention, motor reproduction and motivation.

Bandura's interpretation of reinforcement in observational learning also reflects his cognitive orientation. In social cognitive theory, external reinforcement often has two functions - informative and incentive. Bandura goes on to emphasize the role of indirect reinforcement, which is watching others receive reinforcement, and self-reinforcement, where people reinforce their own behavior.

Self-regulation (how people regulate their behavior) is also an important feature of social cognitive theory. In self-regulation, importance is attached mainly to the processes of self-observation, judgment and self-esteem. Additionally, Bandura addresses the question of why people punish themselves.

In recent years, Bandura has expanded his view of social cognitive theory to include the cognitive mechanism of self-efficacy to explain some aspects of psychosocial functioning. The concept of self-efficacy refers to a person's awareness of his or her ability to develop behavior in relation to a specific task or situation. Self-efficacy is acquired from four main sources: behavioral conditioning, vicarious experience, verbal persuasion, and emotional arousal.

Bandura's theory has been well empirically tested, and sufficient evidence has accumulated to support it.

Cognitive theory of personality by J. Kelly . The cognitive direction of personology emphasizes the influence of intellectual, or thought, processes on human behavior. American psychologist J. Kelly (1905–1966), with his theory of personal constructs, was one of the pioneers of this trend. He based his approach on the philosophy of constructive alternativeism, which states that any event for any person is open to multiple interpretations. Kelly compared people to scientists who constantly make and test hypotheses about the nature of things in order to make an adequate forecast of future events.

Kelly believed that people perceive their world through clear systems or models called constructs. Each person has a unique construct system (personality) that they use to interpret life experiences. Kelly created a theory in which all constructs have certain formal properties: range of applicability and permeability/impenetrability. Kelly also described different types of personality constructs: proactive, constellatory, presumptive, comprehensive, particular, core, peripheral, rigid and free.

According to Kelly, personality is equivalent to the personality constructs used by a person to predict the future. He believed that no special concepts are required to explain human motivation (drives, rewards, needs); people are motivated simply by the obviousness of the fact that they are alive and by the desire to predict the events they experience.

Kelly's theory is formulated in one basic postulate and 11 conclusions arising from it. The basic postulate states that personality processes have psychologically laid channels in which people predict events, and the conclusions explain how the construct system functions, how it changes and influences social interactions. He characterized the organization of constructs in terms of a hierarchical system, in which some constructs are subordinate, and some are subordinate to other parts of the system. This organization is not rigidly fixed, just as the constructs themselves are not constant. Numerous other aspects and applications of personality construct theory were also reviewed.

Compared to most personologists, Kelly was more clearly aware of the influence of the scientist's philosophical views on the theory of personality he was developing. Nevertheless, his position was based on basic principles concerning human nature.

Although Kelly's theoretical concepts have been little developed by other authors, the personality assessment tool he invented, the Rep Test, which assesses personality constructs, is used by people to interpret role relationships and other aspects of their experience.

Phenomenological theory of personality by C. Rogers . In the phenomenological direction, the central position is occupied by the position that human behavior can be explained only in terms of his subjective experiences. The phenomenological approach also implies that people are capable of shaping their own destinies and that they are inherently goal-oriented, trustworthy, and self-improving. American psychologist and psychotherapist C. Rogers (1902–1987) is known for formulating a theory of personality that emphasizes themes related to phenomenology, along with a special focus on the self.

In Rogers' theory, all human motives are included in one motive for achieving mastery - the actualization tendency, the innate desire of a person to actualize, preserve and intensify himself. This trend encourages all people to move towards greater complexity, autonomy and potential. Somewhat more specific is the concept of the organismic evaluative process, which shows whether real experiences correspond to the trend of actualization. According to Rogers, people seek experiences that are perceived as self-intensifying and avoid experiences that are perceived as self-denying.

Characterizing the phenomenological direction, Rogers argued that the only reality from the point of view of human perception is subjective reality - the personal world of his experiences. The central place in this subjective world belongs to the “I-concept,” Rogers’s most important personological construct. In his system, the elements that determine the development of the “I-concept” are the need for positive attention, conditions of value and unconditional positive attention. Rogers emphasized that children need unconditional positive attention to develop a positive self-concept that will enable them to become fully functioning individuals. At the same time, the conditions of value force children to live in accordance with imposed values, and not with their own organismic evaluative process.

Rogers argued that people mostly behave in accordance with their self-concept. A threat arises if a person perceives a discrepancy between the “I-concept” and the general organismic experience; he then tries to protect the integrity of his “I” by distorting or denying perception. Too much discrepancy between the self-concept and actual experience leads to personality disorders and psychopathology. As an example of mental health, people are described as being open to experiences, fully trusting them and freely moving towards self-actualization. Such people in Rogers' system are called "fully functioning."

Rogers's position on the basic principles regarding human nature is definite, unambiguous, and reflects the fundamental divergence between phenomenology and behaviorism in American psychology. Rogers' phenomenological approach to personality, particularly in terms of its psychotherapeutic aspects, has stimulated a significant amount of research. Rogers' approach is widely used in psychotherapy - person-centered therapy. K. Rogers attached exceptional importance to the psychotherapist-client relationship. According to Rogers, the goal of therapy is to eliminate the discrepancy between a person's experience and the self, thereby opening up the opportunity for him to live a richer, fuller life.

Personality theories of Russian psychologists. IN In Russian psychology, the most famous studies in the field of personality are associated with the theoretical works of representatives of the school L.S. Vygotsky. A significant contribution to solving the problem of personality was made, in particular, by A.N. Leontyev and L.I. Bozovic.

The theory proposed by the famous domestic psychologist Lidia Ilyinichna Bozhovich (1908 –1981), covers the period of personality development from early preschool childhood to adolescence and uses concepts that characterize internal properties and human characteristics.

L.I. Bozovic defined personality as a person who has reached a certain level of mental development, which is characterized by the ability to perceive and experience oneself as a single whole, distinct from other people and expressed in the concept “I”. At this level of development, a person is able to consciously act on the surrounding reality, change it and himself.

Based on the concepts of leading activity and the social situation of development introduced by L.S. Vygotsky, L.I. Bozhovich showed how, in the complex dynamics of interaction between a child’s activities and interpersonal communication at different periods of his life, a certain view of the world, called an internal position, is formed. This position is one of the main characteristics of a personality, a prerequisite for its development, which is understood as a set of leading motives for activity.

Outstanding Russian psychologist Alexey Nikolaevich Leontiev (1903–1979) presented his concept of the structure and development of personality, in which the central place is given to the concept of activity. This theory, which can be assessed as structural-dynamic, covers the entire life of a person and describes personality in psychological (motives) and behavioral (activities) terms.

Like L.I. Bozhovich, the main internal personality characteristic of A.N. Leontiev is the motivational sphere of the individual. Another important concept in his theory is “personal meaning.” It expresses the relationship between the goals of human activity, i.e., what it is aimed at this moment directly directed to her motives, to what motivates her specifically to this activity. The wider and more diverse the types of activities in which a personality is involved, the more developed and ordered (hierarchized) they are, the richer the personality itself.

According to the figurative expression of A.N. Leontyev, personality is “born” twice. Its first birth dates back to preschool age and is marked by the establishment of the first hierarchical relationships of motives, the first subordination of immediate impulses to social norms. This event is illustrated by an example that is commonly known as the “bittersweet effect.”

A preschool child receives from an experimenter an almost impossible task: to get a distant object without getting up from his chair. The experimenter leaves, continuing to observe the child from the next room. After unsuccessful attempts, the child gets up, takes the object that attracts him and returns to his place. The experimenter enters, praises him and offers him candy as a reward. The child refuses her, and after repeated offers begins to cry quietly. The candy turns out to be “bitter” for him.

Analysis of the events shows that the child was placed in a situation of conflict of motives. One of his motives is to take the thing of interest (immediate urge); the other is to fulfill the adult’s condition (“social” motive). In the absence of an adult, immediate impulse took over. However, with the arrival of the experimenter, the second motive became actualized, the significance of which was further enhanced by the undeserved reward. The child’s refusal and tears are evidence that the process of mastering social norms has already begun, although it has not yet reached its end.

The fact that it is in the presence of an adult that a child’s experiences begin to be determined by a social motive is very significant - it serves as a clear confirmation of the general position that the “knots” of personality are tied in interpersonal relationships and only then become elements of the internal structure of the personality.

The rebirth of personality begins in adolescence and is expressed in the emergence of the desire and ability to realize one’s motives, as well as to carry out active work to subordinate and resubordinate them. The obligatory nature of this ability to self-awareness, self-leadership, and self-education is recorded in such a legal category as criminal liability for actions committed.

Prominent psychologist Boris Gerasimovich Ananyev (1907–1972) considers personality in the light of the relationship of certain mental formations with various somatic parameters. He distinguishes the inter-individual structure of the social environment and the inter-individual structure of the personality itself. The main methods for studying the latter are correlation, factor and cluster analysis, which allow us to identify connections between different properties (social, biological).

B.G. Ananyev emphasizes that individual development occurs in the interaction of a system of groups of properties of a person as an individual, subject of activity, personality, which together form the structure of a person. The characteristics of a person’s personality - status and social functions (will, motivation, behavior, etc.) - determine the worldview of the individual. Thus, the personality structure, according to B.G. Ananyev, covers three groups of individual, personal, subjective properties (cognition, communication and work) and is the result of biological and social determination of the development of the individual psyche, on the one hand, and the action of a mechanism that provides a unified direction for the development of these properties, on the other.

Subsequently, it was proven that it is the personality, its socio-psychological characteristics, being a level of organization of a higher order than psychophysiological processes, that influences the development of these processes and ensures their optimal functioning in conditions of complex human mental activity.

Konstantin Konstantinovich Platonov(1904–1985), implementing the idea of ​​a dynamic personality structure, united all properties into four main substructures (levels):

1) exclusively socially determined personality traits – interests, aspirations, personal ideals, attitude towards oneself and other people. This substructure includes the individual’s worldview, his moral and political views and beliefs;

2) individually gained experience, including knowledge, skills and abilities and habits developing on their basis. This substructure determines the individual’s training, his cognitive map;

3) individual features of mental processes as forms of reflection of the real world (emotions and feelings, sensations, perception, thinking, will) and emerging personality traits;

4)biologically determined personality traits - temperament, which manifests characteristics of strength, balance and mobility of nervous processes. This substructure is the biological basis of the personality as a whole.

Related information.

Each person is considered an individual who goes through stages of development. Modern concepts consider these stages in order to understand how to educate and influence a person at different times. Since many psychologists of the past and modern world study this area, then identify the types of concepts that will be discussed in the online magazine website.

What is the concept of personality development?

What is the concept of personality development? This is theoretical knowledge that is aimed at studying all stages of personality development. They are seen as a whole being. However, science is not able to explain all phenomena. People grow up different, but in their development one can see a certain commonality, which is included in the concept.

Personal development is not solely about building skills and abilities. Here the whole person is considered, with all his qualities and individuality. All people go through the same stages in their development, but they are influenced by various external factors and individual characteristics, including contradictions. That is why it is impossible to develop a single concept that would explain how it develops.

Basic concepts of personality development

In all centuries, people have wanted to understand how personality develops. The basic concepts of development suggest that this is a continuous process, where a pattern of quantitative and qualitative changes in the psyche is discerned. This is not a momentary change, but a specifically directed movement in which a person grows.

The main directions in the study of concepts were:

1. Sociogenetic. They consider a person as a passive being who is susceptible to the external influence of society. External factors shape personality. It just remains unclear why people with different psyches grow up under the same conditions.
2. Biologization. They consider a person as a genetically programmed individual. His genes dictate to him what emotional reactions, actions and tendencies he will have.

However, these concepts are limited. Therefore, it is customary to combine them when personality development is influenced by both genetic and social factors. At the same time, more and more new directions in the study of personality development are beginning to emerge:

• Psychoanalytic - the individual adapts to the external environment, develops the necessary defense mechanisms and skills to meet his needs.
• The concept of traits - a person develops certain qualities and skills as he lives.
• Biosocial - certain qualities are determined biologically (thinking, feeling, perception, etc.), while others are determined by social influence (direction, interests, abilities).
• Humanistic - the individual is constantly engaged in affirming his “I”.

Modern concepts of personality development

The author of the modern concept of personality development is A. Meneghetti, who focused on the semantic field of the individual. The semantic field is understood as the environment in which a person constantly resides. It is she who influences his formation. 30% of a person’s contact with the world around him is conscious, 70% is unconscious.

He had a negative attitude towards morality, which did not express the true nature of a person, but, on the contrary, forced it to display protective mechanisms, to be inferior, to develop.

Particular attention was paid to the constant value H, which was understood as human intelligence - conscious perception. Intelligence helps in positive (development) and negative (blocking development) changes in personality.

In addition to the true “I”, the author identified the “false-I”, which is a complex. Complexes in a person are developed by parents in childhood, who show their love in one way or another. Often, complexes do not change over the years, but they affect how a person lives.

The concept of spiritual and moral development of personality

According to another concept (spiritual and moral), a person’s whole life is subordinated to the relationships that he builds with other people. A person constantly strives for socialization, which is manifested in his relationships with people. The main emphasis in the development of personality is on its upbringing and schooling. It is during this period that the child gains skills of social interaction with the environment in which he lives.

This includes traditions, morals, ethics and other rules that are accepted in society. Their personality must be studied. At the same time, morality is not an important factor in the formation of a full-fledged personality, since it regulates the external manifestations of the individual more than the internal ones.

A person must have an internal desire to be highly cultured, moral, well-mannered, and intelligent. Without this, all measures aimed at educating the individual will only limit it, force it to be not itself. If a person himself wants to be spiritual and moral, then he has incentives to develop the appropriate skills.

Erikson's concept of personality development

Erik Erikson's epigenetic theory is closely related to Freudian psychoanalysis. However, he not only used Freud's ideas, but also put forward a number of his own, focusing his efforts mainly on the study of the Ego. Erikson viewed personality as a product of social interactions and the choices that each person makes. He believed that the Ego constantly develops depending on a person's personal experiences. The ultimate goal of communicating with other people is to develop the ability to better understand yourself. At any stage of development, a person can take different paths. It is the choice of path that has the greatest influence on who a person ultimately becomes. The following are the stages of psychosocial development according to Erikson's concept.

Stage 1. Basic trust or distrust (from birth to 1 year).

If an individual in childhood was looked after by a person who treated him with attention and whom the child completely trusted, then, as an adult, he himself will treat the events taking place in the world with confidence. The sense of predictability and continuity with caregivers is enhanced when both basic and mixed needs are addressed. This primary trust includes trust in oneself. Undermining a child's sense of primary trust can lead to his withdrawing into himself, and sometimes even to a complete severance of relationships with others.

Stage 2. Autonomy or doubt (1-3 years).

When children begin to walk, all of their abilities (speech, communication, physical abilities, and cognition) begin to develop rapidly. As children develop physically and mentally, they become increasingly confident and explore their environment. The child should be able to independently explore his world. If parents limit him, this can lead to the development of shyness and lack of self-confidence.

Stage 3. Initiative or guilt (3-6 years).

Having successfully overcome the first two stages of development, the child continues to develop a sense of independence, but in a more specific way. There are fewer rebellious notes in the child’s actions, and initiative comes first. If a child fails to successfully overcome this stage, he may become an irresponsible person. And, as a result, every time in such situations a feeling of guilt will appear as an expression of broken relationships with other people.

Stage 4: Overzealousness or feelings of inferiority (ages 6–12).

At this age, the child is expected to be diligent and diligent in one or another area of ​​activity. Aimless games are already seen as a lack of hard work. The purpose of this stage is to develop the child's special abilities necessary to perform specific tasks in the future. If a child views free time as a break from school, could this lead to feelings of inferiority? No, because such use of playing time is considered purposeful.

Stage 5. Identity or role confusion (12-18 years).

Erikson believed that the norm of behavior at this stage would be the search for individuality. Teenagers experiment with self-expression. This phenomenon is called an identity crisis. Having successfully overcome this stage, the teenager becomes a more stable person.

Stage 6. Intimacy or isolation (18-35 years old).

For further personality development, this age period involves the establishment of close relationships with other people. If a person knows who he is, he begins to direct his energy to finding partners. Of course, these people must also have an understanding of who they are. It is no coincidence that it is at this age that people start families. Those who fail to establish close relationships with anyone at this age find themselves in social isolation. One should not think that the establishment of close relationships involves only intimate relationships with representatives of the opposite sex. It could also be communication with friends, colleagues or someone else.

Stage 7. Generative or stagnant (from 35 years old).

Generativity is the need to be needed and the awareness that one is heading through life into the “next generation.”

Stage 8. Ego integrity or despair.

In old age, people often reminisce about their lives. If memories are pleasurable, a person feels ego whole, integrated and complete. If not, then despair sets in.

Alfred Adler tried to determine the origin of the desire to exercise control. He believed that the desire to control and the need to achieve something emerge through a complex process of self-evaluation.

According to Adler, all people have an ideal idea of ​​themselves and a desire to realize it. When there is a discrepancy between the ideal image and who a person actually is, people develop a feeling of inferiority, which later develops into an inferiority complex. This complex, in turn, contributes to an understanding of what a person would like to be, which leads to the formation of the need for control.

Vygotsky's concept of personality development

L.S. Vygotsky viewed the social environment as an important factor in the development of personality. This concept considers natural maturation, mastery of norms of behavior and thinking, and learning of language and writing. All this affects the direction in which a person develops.

1. First, the adult influences the child, directing him to perform involuntary actions.
2. Next, the child uses the same techniques towards himself that were used by his parents.
3. Then he begins to apply them to adults.

Learning and education actively participate in the development of a child. A person is not born a ready-made personality, but becomes one as he grows up. Both biologically inherent factors and those cultural norms that are customarily invested in a child are involved here.

Bottom line

The concept of personality development is the formation of the psyche of an individual. There are certain common factors that influence this process. However, each person is individual, which ultimately manifests itself in the variety of characters and behavior patterns that people exhibit when they are already formed.

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The concept of personality

• Introduction
• 1. The concept of personality
• Conclusion
• Bibliography

Introduction

Psychology is a strange science. Once you think about her problems, everything immediately becomes unclear. Well, in fact, does a person know why he thinks about something? Balzac accurately wrote in “Drama on the Seashore”: “Thoughts enter our hearts or heads without asking us.” A person is able to give himself an account only of what exactly he is aware of. But he cannot explain the transition from one of his thoughts to another. We do not know how to be aware of the creation of thought. Thought is always present in our consciousness finished form. Therefore, perhaps it is generally more correct to say not “I think”, but “I think.” But what then is this mysterious “I”, which does not even seem to think for itself?

I hope that what has been said is enough to understand the intricate puzzles that theoretical psychologists have to solve. Especially for theorists who are building an idea of ​​personality. Personality is such a majestic formation that embraces everything that is most valuable in us.

But it’s just not clear what she actually does. Let's think: a person makes some decisions. But on what basis? If these decisions are predetermined by something (genetics, environment, upbringing, situation, past experience, etc.), then the individual is not able to act purely at his own discretion. If a person’s decisions are not predetermined by anything, then how can he accept them? It is hardly surprising that there are dozens of personality theories, each of which clarified something very important, but at the same time left some other, no less important things without any attention.

concept personality freud maslow

1. The concept of personality

The most general concept is “man” - a biosocial being with articulate speech, consciousness, higher mental functions (abstract-logical thinking, logical memory, etc.), capable of creating tools and using them in the process of social labor. These specific human properties (speech, consciousness, work activity, etc.) are not transmitted to people in the order of biological heredity, but are formed in them during their lifetime, in the process of assimilating the culture created by previous generations. There are reliable facts that indicate that if children develop outside society from a very early age, they remain at the level of development of animals; they do not develop speech, consciousness, thinking, and do not have an upright gait. No personal experience a person cannot lead him to independently develop a system of concepts. By participating in labor and various forms social activities, people develop in themselves those specific human abilities that have already been formed in humanity. Necessary conditions for a child to assimilate socio-historical experience:

1) communication between a child and adults, during which the child learns adequate activities and assimilates human culture;

2) in order to master those objects that are products of historical development, it is necessary to carry out not just any activity in relation to them, but such adequate activity that will reproduce in itself the essential socially developed ways of human and human activity. The assimilation of socio-historical experience acts as a process of reproduction in the child’s properties of the historically developed properties and abilities of the human race. Thus, the development of humanity is impossible without the active transmission of human culture to new generations. Without society, without assimilation of the socio-historical experience of mankind, it is impossible to become human, to acquire specific human qualities, even if a human being has biological usefulness. But, on the other hand, lacking biological usefulness (mental retardation), morphological properties, inherent in man As a biological species, it is impossible even under the influence of society, upbringing, and education to achieve the highest human qualities.

Human life and activity are determined by the unity and interaction of biological and social factors, with the leading role of the social factor.

Since consciousness, speech, etc. are not transmitted to people in the order of biological heredity, but are formed in them during their lifetime, the concept of “individual” is used as a biological organism, a bearer of common genotypic hereditary properties biological species(we are born as an individual) and the concept of “personality” as the socio-psychological essence of a person, formed as a result of a person’s assimilation social forms consciousness and awareness, the socio-historical experience of humanity (we become individuals under the influence of life in society, education, training, communication, interaction).

Psychology takes into account that personality is not only an object public relations, not only experiences social influences, but refracts and transforms them, since gradually the personality begins to act as a set of internal conditions through which the external influences of society are refracted. Thus, the personality is not only an object and product of social relations, but also an active subject of activity, communication, consciousness, and self-awareness.

Personality is a social concept; it expresses everything that is supranatural and historical in a person. Personality is not innate, but arises as a result of cultural and social development.

Thus, personality is a social characteristic of a person at a certain stage social development.

2. Socialization of the individual. Main stages of personality development

Personal socialization is a process; formation of personality in certain social conditions, the process of a person’s assimilation of social experience, during which a person transforms social experience into his own values ​​and orientations, selectively introduces into his system of behavior those norms and patterns of behavior that are accepted in society or a group. Norms of behavior, moral standards, and beliefs of a person are determined by those norms that are accepted in a given society.

The term “socialization” corresponds to the concept according to which a person (child) is initially asocial or his sociality is reduced to the need for communication. In this case, sociality is the process of transforming an initially asocial subject into a social personality who possesses socially accepted behavioral models and has adopted social norms and roles. It is believed that this view of the development of sociality is characteristic primarily of psychoanalysis.

Understanding the process of assimilating social norms, skills, stereotypes, forming social attitudes and beliefs, learning socially accepted norms of behavior and communication, life style options, joining groups and interacting with their members as socialization makes sense if initially the individual is understood as a non-social being, and his non-sociality must be overcome in the process of education in society, not without resistance. In other cases, the term “socialization” in relation to social development personality is redundant. The concept of “sociality” does not replace or replace the concepts of teaching and upbringing known in pedagogy and educational psychology.

The following stages of socialization are distinguished:

1. Primary socialization, or adaptation stage (from birth to adolescence, the child assimilates social experience uncritically, adapts, adapts, imitates).

2. Stage of individualization (there is a desire to distinguish oneself from others, a critical attitude towards social norms of behavior). In adolescence, the stage of individualization, self-determination “the world and I” is characterized as intermediate socialization, since everything is still unstable in the worldview and character of the teenager.

Adolescence (18-25 years) is characterized as stable conceptual socialization, when stable personality traits are developed.

3. Stage of integration (a desire appears to find one’s place in society, to “fit in” with society). Integration proceeds successfully if a person’s characteristics are accepted by the group, by society. If not accepted, the following outcomes are possible:

o maintaining one’s dissimilarity and the emergence of aggressive interactions (relationships) with people and society;

o changing oneself, “becoming like everyone else”;

o conformism, external agreement, adaptation.

4. The labor stage of socialization covers the entire period of a person’s maturity, the entire period of his labor activity, when a person not only assimilates social experience, but also reproduces it due to the person’s active influence on the environment through his activities.

5. The post-labor stage of socialization considers old age as an age that makes a significant contribution to the reproduction of social experience, to the process of transmitting it to new generations.

Each socioculture has its own special style of parenting; it is determined by what society expects from a child. At each stage of its development, the child either integrates with society or is rejected. The famous psychologist Erikson introduced the concept of “group identity,” which is formed from the first days of life; the child is focused on inclusion in a certain social group and begins to understand the world as this group does. But gradually the child also develops “ego-identity”, a sense of stability and continuity of his “I”, despite the fact that many processes of change are underway. The formation of self-identity is a long process that includes a number of stages of personality development. Each stage is characterized by the tasks of this age, and the tasks are put forward by society. But the solution of problems is determined by the already achieved level of psychomotor development of a person and the spiritual atmosphere of the society in which a person lives.

At the stage of infancy, the mother plays the main role in the child’s life; she feeds, cares, gives affection, care, as a result of which the child develops basic trust in the world. Basic trust manifests itself in ease of feeding, good sleep child, normal bowel function, the child’s ability to calmly wait for the mother (doesn’t scream or call, the child seems to be confident that the mother will come and do what is needed). The dynamics of trust development depend on the mother. A severe deficit in emotional communication with the baby leads to a sharp slowdown in the child’s mental development.

The 2nd stage of early childhood is associated with the formation of autonomy and independence, the child begins to walk, learns to control himself when performing acts of defecation; Society and parents teach the child to be neat and tidy, and begin to shame him for having “wet pants.”

At the age of 3-5 years, at the 3rd stage, the child is already convinced that he is an individual, since he runs, knows how to speak, expands the area of ​​​​mastery of the world, the child develops a sense of enterprise and initiative, which is embedded in the game. Play is very important for a child's development, i.e. forms initiative, creativity, the child masters relationships between people through play, develops his psychological capabilities: will, memory, thinking, etc. But if parents strongly suppress the child and do not pay attention to his games, then this negatively affects the child’s development and contributes to the consolidation of passivity , uncertainty, guilt.

In junior school age(4th stage) the child has already exhausted the possibilities of development within the family, and now the school introduces the child to knowledge about future activities, transmits the technological egos of culture. If a child successfully masters knowledge and new skills, he believes in himself, is confident, and calm, but failures at school lead to the emergence, and sometimes to the consolidation, of feelings of inferiority, lack of faith in one’s abilities, despair, and loss of interest in learning.

During adolescence (stage 5), the central form of ego-identity is formed. Rapid physiological growth, puberty, concern about how he looks in front of others, the need to find his professional calling, abilities, skills - these are the questions that arise before a teenager, and these are already society’s demands on a teenager about self-determination.

At the 6th stage (youth), the search for a life partner becomes relevant for a person, close cooperation with people, strengthening connections with the entire social group, a person is not afraid of depersonalization, he mixes his identity with other people, a feeling of closeness, unity, cooperation, intimacy with certain people appears. However, if the diffusion of identity extends to this age, the person becomes isolated, isolation and loneliness become entrenched.

7th - central stage - adult stage of personality development. Identity development continues throughout your life; there is influence from other people, especially children: they confirm that they need you. Positive symptoms of this stage: the individual invests himself in good, beloved work and care for children, is satisfied with himself and life.

After 50 years (8th stage), a completed form of ego-identity is created based on the entire path of personal development; a person rethinks his entire life, realizes his “I” in spiritual reflections on the years he has lived. A person must understand that his life is a unique destiny that does not need to be crossed, a person “accepts” himself and his life, realizes the need for a logical conclusion to life, shows wisdom, a detached interest in life in the face of death.

3. Basic psychological concepts of personality

3.1 Self-concept in the theory of S. Freud

In the early years of his work, 3. Freud imagined mental life as consisting of three levels: the unconscious, the preconscious and the conscious. He considered the unconscious, saturated with sexual energy, to be the source of the instinctive charge that gives motivational force to behavior.3. Freud designated it with the term “libido”. This sphere is closed from consciousness due to prohibitions imposed by society. In the preconscious, mental experiences and images are crowded together, which without much difficulty can become the subject of awareness. Consciousness does not passively reflect the processes contained in the sphere of the unconscious, but is with them in a state of constant antagonism, conflict caused by the need to suppress sexual desires. Initially, this scheme was applied to the explanation of clinical facts obtained as a result of the analysis of the behavior of neurotics.

Later, in his works “I” and “It”, “Beyond Pleasure” 3. Freud proposed a different model of human personality. He argued that personality consists of three main components: the id, the ego and the superego. “It” is the most primitive component, the bearer of instincts, “a seething cauldron of drives.” Being irrational and unconscious, the “It” obeys the pleasure principle. The “I” instance follows the principle of reality and takes into account the features of the external world, its properties and relationships. The “super-ego” serves as the bearer of moral standards. This part of the personality plays the role of critic and censor. If the “I” makes a decision or takes an action to please the “It”, but in opposition to the “Super-Ego,” then it will experience punishment in the form of feelings of guilt and reproaches of conscience. Since the demands on the “I” from the “It”, “Super-Ego” and reality are incompatible, it is inevitable that he will remain in a situation of conflict, creating unbearable tension, from which the personality is saved with the help of special “defense mechanisms” - such as repression , projection, regression, sublimation. Repression means the involuntary removal from consciousness of feelings, thoughts and desires for action. Projection is the transfer of one’s affective experiences of love or hatred onto another person. Regression is a slipping into a more primitive level of behavior or thinking. Sublimation is one of the mechanisms through which forbidden sexual energy is transferred into an activity acceptable to the individual and to the society in which he lives.

Personality, according to 3. Freud, is the interaction of mutually stimulating and restraining forces. Psychoanalysis studies the nature of these forces and the structure according to which this reciprocal interaction occurs. The dynamics of personality are determined by the action of instincts. They consist of four components: motivation; goal, that is, achieved satisfaction; an object with the help of which a goal can be achieved; the source from which the impulse is generated. One of the main provisions of psychoanalytic teaching on personality development is that sexuality is the main human motive. It is important to emphasize that 3. Freud interpreted sexuality very broadly. In his opinion, this is everything that gives bodily pleasure. For a small child, these are caresses, touches, stroking the body, hugs, kisses, pleasure from sucking, from emptying the intestines, from a warm bath and much more, without which life is impossible and which every baby constantly receives from the mother to one degree or another. In childhood, sexual feelings are very general and diffuse. Infantile sexuality precedes adult sexuality, but never completely determines adult sexual experiences.

In accordance with his sexual theory of the psyche, 3. Freud reduces all stages of human mental development to stages of transformation and movement through different erogenous zones of libidinal, or sexual energy.

Thus, psychoanalytic stages are stages of the genesis of the psyche during the life of a child. They reflect the development of the “It”, “I”, “Super-Ego” and the mutual influence between them.

Oral stage (0-1 year). The oral stage is characterized by the fact that the main source of pleasure, and therefore potential frustration, is concentrated in the area of ​​activity associated with feeding. The oral stage consists of two phases - early and late, occupying the first and second half of life. It is characterized by two sequential libidinal actions (sucking and biting). The leading erogenous area at this stage is the mouth, an instrument of feeding, sucking and initial examination of objects. Sucking, according to 3. Freud, is a type of sexual manifestation of a child. If the baby could express his feelings, it would undoubtedly be an admission that “sucking the mother’s breast is the most important thing in life.”

These ideas of Z. Freud served as an impetus for the study of critical periods during which favorable conditions develop for solving the genetic problem inherent in age. If it is not solved, then it is much more difficult for the child to solve the problems of the next age period.

The anal stage (1-3 years), like the oral stage, consists of two phases. At this stage, libido is concentrated around the anus, which becomes the object of attention of the child, accustomed to neatness. Now children's sexuality finds the object of its satisfaction in mastering the functions of defecation and excretion. Here the child encounters many prohibitions, so the outside world appears before him as a barrier that he must overcome, and development here acquires a conflicting character.

The phallic stage (3-5 years) characterizes the highest stage of childhood sexuality. The genital organs become the leading erogenous zone. Until now, children's sexuality has been autoerotic, but now it is becoming objective, that is, children are beginning to experience sexual

attachment to adults. The first people who attract a child's attention are parents. Libidinal attachment to parents of the opposite sex 3. Freud called the Oedipus complex for boys and the Electra complex for girls, defining them as the motivational-affective relationship of the child to the parent of the opposite sex.

The latent stage (5-12 years) is characterized by a decrease in sexual interest. The psychic authority “I” completely controls the needs of “It”; being divorced from a sexual goal, libido energy is transferred to the development of universal human experience, enshrined in science and culture, as well as to the establishment of friendly relationships with peers and adults outside the family environment.

Genital stage (12-18 years) - characterized by an increase in children's sexual aspirations, now all former erogenous zones are united, and the teenager, from the point of view of 3. Freud, strives for one goal - normal sexual communication. However, the implementation of normal sexual communication may be difficult, and then during the gecital stage phenomena of fixation or regression to one or another of the previous stages of development with all their features can be observed. At this stage, the “I” agency must fight against the aggressive impulses of the “It”, which again make themselves felt.

When a child becomes an adult, his character is determined by the process of development of his "Id", "I" and "Super-Ego" and their interactions. Normal development, according to 3. Freud, occurs through the mechanism of sublimation, and development that occurs through the mechanisms of repression, regression or fixation gives rise to pathological characters (narcissism and homosexuality).

3.2 Behaviorism and B. Skinner’s concept of personality

Behaviorism defined the face of American psychology in the 20th century. Its founder, John Watson (1878-1958), formulated the credo of behaviorism: “The subject of psychology is behavior.” Hence the name - from the English behavior - “behavior” (behaviorism can be translated as behavioral psychology). Analysis of behavior must be strictly objective in nature and limited to externally observable reactions (everything that cannot be objectively recorded cannot be studied, i.e. a person’s thoughts and consciousness cannot be studied, they cannot be measured or registered). Everything that happens inside a person is impossible to study, i.e. a person acts as a “black box”. You can objectively study and register only reactions external actions a person and those stimuli and situations that determine these reactions. And the task of psychology is to determine a probable stimulus based on the reaction, and to predict a certain reaction based on the stimulus.

And a person’s personality, from the point of view of behaviorism, is nothing more than a set of behavioral reactions inherent in a given person. This or that behavioral reaction occurs to a certain stimulus or situation. The formula “stimulus - response” (S - R) was leading in behaviorism. Thorndike's law of effect elaborates: the connection between S and R strengthens if there is reinforcement. Reinforcement can be positive (praise, obtaining the desired result, material reward, etc.) or negative (pain, punishment, failure, critical remark, etc.). Human behavior most often follows from the expectation of positive reinforcement, but sometimes the desire to primarily avoid negative reinforcement prevails, i.e. punishment, pain, etc.

Thus, from the position of behaviorism, personality is everything that an individual possesses, and his capabilities in relation to reaction (skills, consciously regulated instincts, socialized emotions + the ability of plasticity to form new skills + the ability to retain, maintain skills) to adapt to the environment, those. personality is an organized and relatively stable system of skills. Skills form the basis of relatively stable behavior; skills are adapted to life situations; changing situations lead to the formation of new skills.

In the concept of behaviorism, a person is understood primarily as a reacting, acting, learning being, programmed for certain reactions, actions, and behavior. By changing incentives and reinforcements, you can program a person to the desired behavior.

In the depths of behaviorism itself, psychologist Tolman (1948) questioned the S - R scheme as too simplified and introduced an important variable I between these terms - the mental processes of a given individual, depending on his heredity, physiological state, past experience and the nature of the S-I-R stimulus. In the 70s, behaviorism presented its concepts in a new light - in the theory of social learning. According to Bandura (1965), one of the main reasons that makes us who we are is due to our tendency to imitate the behavior of other people, taking into account how favorable the results of such imitation may be for us. Thus, a person is influenced not only external conditions: He must also constantly anticipate the consequences of his behavior through self-assessment.

The behavioral concept considers personality as a system of reactions to various stimuli (B. Skinner, J. Homans, etc.). A separate line in the development of behaviorism is represented by the system of views of B. Skinner, who put forward the theory of operant behaviorism. His mechanistic concept of behavior and the technology of behavior developed on its basis, used as a tool for controlling people’s behavior, have become widespread in the United States and have an influence in other countries, in particular in Latin America, as an instrument of ideology and politics.

In accordance with the concept of classical behaviorism by Watson, Skinner studies the behavior of an organism. While maintaining a two-term scheme for analyzing behavior, he studies only its motor side. Based on experimental studies and theoretical analysis of animal behavior, Skinner formulates a position on three types of behavior: unconditioned reflex, conditioned reflex and operant. The latter is the specificity of B. Skinner’s teaching.

Unconditionally reflexive and conditioned reflexive types of behavior are caused by stimuli (S) and are called respondent behavior. This is a type S reaction. They constitute a certain part of the behavioral repertoire, but they alone do not ensure adaptation to the real environment. In reality, the process of adaptation is built on the basis of active tests - the animal’s influence on the surrounding world. Some of them can accidentally lead to a useful result, which is therefore fixed. Such reactions (R), which are not caused by a stimulus, but are released (“emitted”) by the body and some of which turn out to be correct and are reinforced, Skinner called operant. These are type R reactions. According to Skinner, these reactions are predominant in the adaptive behavior of an animal: they are a form of voluntary behavior.

Based on the analysis of behavior, Skinner formulates his theory of learning. The main means of developing new behavior is reinforcement. The entire procedure of learning in animals is called “sequential guidance to the desired reaction.”

Skinner transfers the data obtained from studying animal behavior to human behavior, which leads to an extremely biological interpretation of man. Thus, based on the results of learning in animals, Skinner’s version of programmed learning arose. Its fundamental limitation lies in the reduction of learning to a set of external acts of behavior and reinforcement of the correct ones. At the same time, the internal cognitive activity of students is ignored, and as a consequence of this, learning as a conscious process disappears. Following the attitude of Watsonian behaviorism, Skinner excludes the inner world of a person, his consciousness from behavior and conducts a behaviorization of his psyche. Thinking, memory, motives, etc. He describes mental processes in terms of reaction and reinforcement, and man as a reactive being exposed to external circumstances. For example, interest corresponds to the probability resulting from the consequences of "showing interest" behavior. The behavior associated with being friends with a person changes because that person changes the reinforcers he or she provides. The biologizing approach to man, characteristic of behaviorism as a whole, where there is no fundamental difference between man and animal, reaches its limits in Skinner. All culture - literature, painting, pop music - turns out to be "cunningly invented reinforcements" in his interpretation. The behaviorization of man, culture and society taken to the extreme leads to absurdity, which was especially clearly demonstrated in the notorious book “Beyond Freedom and Dignity” (1971). Skinner's transformation of the concepts of freedom, responsibility, and dignity actually means their exclusion from real human life.

To solve social problems modern society B. Skinner puts forward the task of creating a technology of behavior designed to control some people over others. Since the intentions, desires, and self-awareness of a person are not taken into account in behaviorism, a means of controlling behavior is not an appeal to the consciousness of people. This means is control over the reinforcement regime, which allows people to be manipulated.

3.3 The idea of ​​a self-actualizing personality by A. Maslow

The existentialist view of man originates from a specific pythic awareness of the uniqueness of the existence of an individual person existing at a specific moment in time and space. Existentialists believe that each of us lives as a “being-in-the-world,” consciously and painfully comprehending existence and ultimate non-existence (death). We do not exist outside and the world has no meaning without us living in it. Rejecting the notion that a person is a product of either hereditary (genetic) factors or environmental influences (especially early influences), existentialists raise the idea that ultimately each of us is responsible for who we become. As Sartre said: “Man is nothing other than what he makes himself. This is the first principle of existentialism.” Consequently, existentialists believe that each of us is challenged - we are forever faced with the task of making our lives meaningful in this absurd world - life is what we make of it." Sometimes freedom and responsibility can be difficult and even frightening. From the point of view According to existentialists, people realize that they are responsible for their actions, and therefore experience the pain of despair, loneliness and anxiety.

Only the people themselves, thrown into the whirlpool of life at a given moment in time, in a given place, are responsible for the choices they make. This does not mean that if people are given freedom of choice, they will necessarily act in their own interests. Freedom of choice does not guarantee that the choice will be wise. If this were so, people would not suffer from despair, anxiety, boredom, guilt and many other self-inflicted unpleasant feelings. For existentialists, the question is whether or not a person can live an authentic (honest and sincere) life in conscious, consistent activity, without chance and uncertainty. Since existential philosophy believes that each person is responsible for his actions, it appeals to humanistic psychology; Humanistic theorists also emphasize that man is the main architect of his behavior and meaning in life, and therefore people are thinking beings who experience, decide and freely choose their actions. Consequently, humanistic psychology takes as its starting principle a responsible person who freely makes a choice. As Sartre noted, “I am my choice.”

The “self-actualizing personality” has the following features:

1) complete acceptance of reality and a comfortable attitude towards it (not to hide from life, but to know and understand it);

2) acceptance of others and oneself (“I do my thing, and you do yours. I am not in this world to meet your expectations. And you are not in this world to meet my expectations. I am I, you are you. I respect and accept you for who you are");

3) professional passion for what you love, orientation to the task, to the cause;

4) autonomy, independence from the social environment, independence of judgment;

5) the ability to understand other people, attention, goodwill towards people;

6) constant novelty, freshness of assessments, openness to experience;

7) distinguishing between goals and means, evil and good (“Not every means is good for achieving a goal”);

8) spontaneity, natural behavior;

9) humor;

10) self-development, manifestation of abilities, potential, self-actualizing creativity in work, love, life;

11) readiness to solve new problems, to understand problems and difficulties, to understand one’s experience, to truly understand one’s capabilities, to increase congruence. Congruence is the correspondence of an experience to its present content. Overcoming defense mechanisms helps to achieve congruent, true experiences. Defense mechanisms prevent you from properly understanding your problems. Personal development is an increase in congruence, an increase in understanding of one’s “real self,” one’s capabilities, characteristics; it is self-actualization as a tendency to understand one’s “real self.”

An active position in relation to reality, studying and overcoming reality, and not running away from it, the ability to see the events of one’s life as they are, without resorting to psychological protection, understanding that behind a negative emotion there is a problem that needs to be solved, a willingness to meet problems halfway, negative emotions in order to find and remove obstacles to personal growth, - this is what allows a person to achieve understanding of himself, the meaning of life, internal harmony and self-actualization. Belonging to a group and a sense of self-respect are necessary conditions for self-actualization, because a person can understand himself only by receiving information about himself from other people. Pathogenic mechanisms that interfere with personality development are the following: passive position in relation to reality; repression and other methods of protecting the “I” (projection, replacement, distortion of the true state of affairs for the sake of internal balance and tranquility). Psychological and social factors contribute to personality degradation. Stages of personality degradation:

1) the formation of a “pawn” psychology, a global sense of one’s dependence on other forces (the phenomenon of “learned helplessness”);

2) creation of a shortage of goods, as a result, the primary needs for food and survival become leading;

3) creating “purity” of the social environment - dividing people into “good” and “bad”, “us” and “strangers”, creating guilt and shame for oneself;

4) the creation of a cult of “self-criticism”, recognition even of those disapproved acts that a person has never committed;

5) preservation of the “sacred foundations” (it is prohibited to further think or doubt the fundamental premises of ideology);

6) formation of a specialized language ( complex problems compressed into short, very simple, easy to remember expressions). As a result of all these factors, an “unreal existence” becomes habitual for a person, since from a complex, contradictory, uncertain real world a person moves into an “unreal world of clarity, simplicity”; a person develops several “I”s, functionally isolated from each other.

An “existential vacuum” is formed when a person has lost “Animal instincts, has lost social norms, traditions that determine what a person should do, and as a result he himself does not know what he wants (or maybe he no longer wants anything), and then he does what others want, acting as a “pawn” in the hands of others (“Sunday neurosis”).

Such a person requires “logotherapy” - the struggle for the meaning of life." It is not a person who asks himself what the meaning of his life is, but life asks us, and we give the answer with our lives. If a person is sure that the meaning of life exists, then a person can rise above the most unfavorable conditions.

The meaning of life can be found, perhaps, in three ways:

1) committing actions;

3) the experience of suffering.

4. The problem of professional motivation of the individual

In Gogol's poem "Dead Souls" a considerable place is devoted to the childhood of the main character, the immortal Chichikov. Why does this cunning boy from a poor family study so diligently? He definitely wants to climb up the career ladder and live as a gentleman. That is why, in the end, he gets a job where he can get rich - in the customs office. Of course, this is not the most illustrative example. One of the main themes of Russian literature of the 19th century. there was teaching as a way to “get out among the people” - many great writers paid attention to it, from Goncharov to Chekhov. Chekhov's professor from "A Boring Story", suffering from insomnia, spends his nights thinking about his life and remembering what prompted him to take up medicine in his youth - a thirst for knowledge, love for humanity or a desire for fame (this is one of Chekhov's main themes).

So, let's talk about professional motivation. Now researchers no longer have to doubt that student performance depends mainly on the development of learning motivation, and not just on natural abilities. Between these two factors there is a complex system relationships. Under certain conditions (in particular, when the individual has a high interest in a specific activity), the so-called compensatory mechanism can be activated. The lack of abilities is compensated by the development of the motivational sphere (interest in the subject, awareness of the choice of profession, etc.), and the schoolchild/student achieves great success.

However, the point is not only that abilities and motivation are in a dialectical unity, and each of them influences the level of academic performance in a certain way. Research conducted at universities has shown that strong and weak students differ not at all in intellectual indicators, but in the degree to which they have developed professional motivation. Of course, it does not follow from this that abilities are not a significant factor in educational activity. Such facts can be explained by the fact that existing system competitive selection for universities in one way or another carries out the selection of applicants at the level of general intellectual abilities. Those who pass the selection and make it into the freshman class generally have approximately the same abilities. In this case, the factor of professional motivation comes first; One of the leading roles in the formation of “excellent” and “C” students begins to be played by the system of internal motivations of an individual for educational and cognitive activities at a university. In the field of professional motivation itself, a positive attitude towards the profession plays a crucial role, since this motive is associated with the ultimate goals of learning.

In S. Dovlatov's "Reserve" a tragicomic portrait of the philologist Mitrofanov is outlined, as a student he amazed everyone with his memory and erudition, as well. fantastic laziness. This man had no idea what to do, because he could not muster the courage to write even a page of scientific text. As a result, he “went with the flow” and, guided by laziness, became a tour guide in the Pushkin Mountains, since, at least this erudite was not yet lazy to speak.

If a student understands what kind of profession he has chosen and considers it worthy and significant for society, this, of course, affects how his education develops. Research conducted in the primary vocational education and in higher education, fully confirm this position.

Using experiments based on material from various Russian universities, it was found that first-year students are most satisfied with their chosen profession. But throughout all the years of study, this figure has been steadily decreasing until the 5th year. Despite the fact that shortly before graduation, satisfaction with the profession is the lowest, the attitude towards the profession itself remains positive. It would be logical to assume that the decrease in satisfaction is caused by the low level of teaching at a particular university. However, maximum satisfaction with the profession in the first year of study should not be overestimated. First-year students, as a rule, rely on their ideal ideas about their future profession, which, when confronted with reality, undergo painful changes. However, something else is important. Answers to the question “Why do you like this profession?” indicate that the leading reason here is the idea of ​​​​the creative content of the future professional activity. For example, students mention “the opportunity for self-improvement”, “the opportunity to engage in creativity”, etc. As for the real educational process, in particular the study of special disciplines, here, as studies show, only a small number of first-year students (less than 30%) are oriented towards creative teaching methods.

On the one hand, we have before us high satisfaction with the profession and the intention to engage in creative activities after graduation, on the other hand, the desire to acquire the basics of professional skills mainly in the process of reproductive educational activity. Psychologically, these positions are incompatible, since creative stimuli can only be formed in an appropriate creative environment, including the educational one. Obviously, the formation of real ideas about the future profession and how to master it should be carried out starting from the 1st year.

Comprehensive studies devoted to the problem of expulsion from higher education vocational school, showed that three subjects produce the greatest dropout rate in universities: mathematics, physics and a foreign language. It also turned out that the reason is not only the objective difficulty of mastering these disciplines. It is also of great importance that students often have little idea of ​​the place of these disciplines in their future professional activities. It seems to him that performance in these subjects has nothing to do with his highly specialized qualifications. (Note that the current attitude towards foreign language has changed.) Consequently, a necessary component in the process of forming a real image of future professional activity in students is a reasoned explanation of the significance of certain general disciplines for the specific practical activities of graduates.

Thus, the formation of a positive attitude towards the profession is an important factor in increasing the educational performance of students. But a positive attitude in itself cannot be significant if it is not supported by a competent idea of ​​the profession (including an understanding of the role of individual disciplines) and is poorly connected with the methods of mastering it. So it is unlikely that training will be successful if it is built only on the principle depicted in the poem “Who should I be?” Mayakovsky: “It’s good to be. Let them teach me.”

In the famous “Scarlet Sails” by A. Green there are wonderful pages dedicated to how Arthur Gray chooses the dangerous and difficult profession of captain. He is attracted by the poetry of wanderings, the desire to see the world, but this young man, at first a pampered aristocrat, does not even imagine all the hardships of learning. He starts with a simple cabin boy, not yet knowing what he has to learn great amount information and endure the physical hardships associated with the sea: hunger, cold, injuries, and so on. As we remember, for Gray the strength of motivation turned out to be decisive. However, it can be assumed that if Arthur knew more about the captain's craft and what awaits him, his studies would have been much easier.

Obviously, the range of problems associated with studying students’ attitudes towards their chosen profession should include whole line questions. This:

1) satisfaction with the profession;

2) dynamics of satisfaction from course to course;

3) factors influencing the formation of satisfaction: socio-psychological, psychological-pedagogical, differential psychological, including gender and age;

4) problems of professional motivation or, in other words, the system and hierarchy of motives that determine a positive or negative attitude towards the chosen profession.

These individual points, as well as the attitude towards the profession as a whole, affect the effectiveness of students' educational activities. They, in particular, affect the general level of professional training, and therefore this problem is one of the issues of educational and social-pedagogical psychology. But there is also inverse relationship: attitudes towards the profession are certainly influenced different strategies, technologies, teaching methods; Social groups also influence it.

Diagnosing attitudes towards a profession is a purely psychological task. But the formation of attitudes towards the profession is primarily a pedagogical problem.

Satisfaction with a profession is an integrative indicator that reflects the subject’s attitude towards his chosen profession. It is absolutely necessary and extremely important precisely as a generalized characteristic. Low satisfaction with the profession in most cases becomes the cause of staff turnover, which, in turn, leads to negative economic consequences. In addition, a person’s mental health largely depends on satisfaction with their chosen profession. Its preservation also contributes high level professionalism is one of the decisive factors in overcoming psychological stress.

Thus, the study of satisfaction with a profession, its influence on the process of vocational training, the identification of certain patterns in this area - all these are more than urgent tasks of pedagogy and psychology.

Whether professional activity will acquire a touch of creativity largely depends on the individual himself.

As we remember, the work that the grotesque hero of Gogol’s “The Overcoat” Akaki Akakievich performed was the most mechanical - he served as a copyist of business papers. But this “little man,” for whom sewing a new overcoat became a milestone in his life, found a source of inspiration in his work - he even had his own favorite letters. Forming a creative attitude towards various types of professional activities, stimulating the need for creativity and developing abilities for professional creativity are necessary links in the system of vocational training and professional education of the individual.

Correct identification of professional interests and aptitudes is an important predictor of satisfaction with the profession in the future. The reason for an inadequate choice of profession can be both external (social) factors associated with the inability to make a professional choice based on interests, and internal (psychological) factors associated with insufficient awareness of one’s professional inclinations or an inadequate idea of ​​the content of future professional activity. The results of one of the studies (A.A. Rean, 1990, 1999) well illustrate the fact that even the simplest analysis of professional interests, carried out in a timely manner, can affect satisfaction with the profession and its adequate choice. In a specially selected group of printing school students, common feature who showed low satisfaction with their chosen profession, a diagnosis of professional interests was carried out. The curious statement of student M. is indicative: “I thought that the profession of a printer was associated with working on a typewriter.” This understanding of the profession made her choice entirely subjective and incorrectly justified, since the profession of a secretary-typist in fact belongs simultaneously to the “person - sign system” type and to the “person-person” type. The leading interests for M. turned out to be those associated specifically with the latter type of profession, while the specialty of a printer has little in common with the profession of a secretary-typist.

Conclusion

Personality is a social characteristic of a person at a certain stage of social development. Personal socialization is a process; formation of personality in certain social conditions, the process of a person’s assimilation of social experience, during which a person transforms social experience into his own values ​​and orientations, selectively introduces into his system of behavior those norms and patterns of behavior that are accepted in society or a group. Norms of behavior, moral standards, and beliefs of a person are determined by those norms that are accepted in a given society.

Theories of personality are extremely numerous. But in general, three large groups can be distinguished among them, led, respectively, by three leaders. This is psychoanalysis and Freud's self-concept; behaviorism and Skinner's B theory of personality; humanistic psychology and the concept of self-actualizing personality by A. Maslow. It seems that the most developed approach to personality is humanistic psychology. According to her, the meaning of life can be found in three ways:

1) committing actions;

2) the experience of values, the experience of unity with other people, the experience of love;

3) the experience of suffering.

There can be different ways of self-actualization provided that a person has higher meta-needs for development, life goals: truth, beauty, kindness, justice.

Bibliography

1. Andreeva A.V. Social Psychology. M., 2001.

2. Ilyin E.P. Motivation and motives. St. Petersburg, 2000.

3. Klimov E.A. Psychology of a professional. M., 1996.

4. Maklakov A.G. General psychology. St. Petersburg, 2002.

5. Nasinovskaya E.E. Methods for studying personal motivation. M., 1988.

6. Psychology. Textbook. Edited by A. A. Krylova. M., 1998.

7. Rubinshtein S.L. Fundamentals of general psychology. St. Petersburg, 1998.

8. Social psychology. Edited by V.E. Semenov. M., 1999.

9. Stolin V.V. Personal self-awareness. M., 1984.

10. Stolyarenko L.D. Fundamentals of general psychology. Rostov-on-Don, 1999.

11. Kjell L., Ziegler D. Theories of personality. St. Petersburg, 1999.

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