Social action in sociology. Social Actions. Fundamentals of Sociology

Social action- conscious, rational action, focused on the behavior of other people, influences them and experiences the opposite effect.

1. Social action as the main sociological category.

Society is heterogeneous and has its own internal structure and composition, including a large number of different order and different character social phenomena and processes. Components societies are people social connections and actions, social interactions and relationships social institutions and organizations social groups, community, social norms and values, etc. Society is a close plexus, a cluster of various social connections and interactions, and its initial fundamental principle is social action. As M. Weber showed, not every action of people, usually caused by their needs, represents a social action. Human action only then acquires the characteristics social action when it is conscious (rational) and is in connection with the actions of another or others, when it is focused on the behavior of others, when it influences others and in turn is influenced by the behavior of other people. When people influence each other, each other’s actions and behavior, then their social interconnection and interaction develops, which underlies all social phenomena and processes, all social life. Outside of joint communication and interaction, people’s actions are individual, personal in nature.

Characterizing the anatomy of social action, functionalist sociologists identify the following basic elements:

1) an active (or inactive) individual or group of people with their needs and the interests and goals determined by them;
2) the specific environment in which the action is carried out (“situation”);
3) orientation of the object of action to specific environmental conditions, to the “situation”, which makes it possible to determine specific ways to achieve the goal;
4) the orientation of the subject of action to the actions of others, to their reaction to his actions, taking into account which is no less important for achieving the chosen goal than orientation to environmental conditions.
2. The essence of social action.

For the first time in sociology, the concept of “social action” was introduced and scientifically substantiated by Max Weber. He called social action “a human action (regardless of whether it is external or internal, whether it comes down to non-interference or patient acceptance), which, according to the meaning assumed by the actor or actors, correlates with the action of other people or is oriented towards it.”

Thus, in the understanding of M. Weber, social action has at least two features: firstly, it must be rational, conscious, and, secondly, it must necessarily be oriented towards the behavior of other people. These others may be acquaintances, co-workers, individuals, or an indefinite variety.

Based on this understanding of social action, it is impossible to call social actions the actions of people associated with an orientation towards non-social, material objects.

Any social action is preceded by social contacts, but unlike them, social action is a rather complex phenomenon.

Any social action must include:

1) actor;
2) the need to activate behavior;
3) the purpose of the action;
4) method of action;
5) another actor to whom the action is directed;
6) the result of the action.

The list of elements that make up a separate social action will not be complete without paying attention to the external environment of the actor or situation. It is known that any acting individual is not in isolation. He is surrounded by the material, material world, social environment(expressed in group interaction), cultural environment, expressed in the norms and values surrounding the individual. The totality of material, social and cultural conditions creates a situation that finds expression in the conditions of action and means of action.

3. The mechanism for performing social action.

Social action about we're talking about, unlike reflexive, impulsive actions are never performed instantly. Before they are carried out, a sufficiently stable urge to activity must arise in the consciousness of any acting individual. This urge to perform an action is called motivation.

Motivation- this is a set of factors, mechanisms and processes that provide the emergence of an incentive to achieve the goals necessary for the individual. In other words, motivation is the force that pushes an individual to perform a certain action. The mechanism for performing a social action contains need, motivation and the action itself.

Any social action, starting with the emergence of a need in an individual, which gives it a certain direction: these can be, for example, physical needs (for food, drink, sleep, etc.), needs for communication, etc. The need is correlated by the individual with objects external environment, updating strictly defined motives. A social object in combination with an actualized motive arouses interest. The gradual development of interest leads to the emergence of goals in the individual in relation to specific social objects. The moment the goal appears means the individual’s awareness of the situation and the possibility of further development of subjective activity, which further leads to the formation of a motivational attitude, meaning potential readiness to commit social action.

4. Classification of social action.

Social action, expressing the dependence and compatibility of people and their groups, acts as social connection (interconnection). It includes: the subjects of this connection, the subject of the connection, the mechanism for implementing the connection and its regulation. The behavior of a person living in the world depends not so much on himself, but on the people living and acting together.

Social connection is expressed through:

social contact- when it comes to external, shallow connections between single people or multiple nature (communication with the seller controller);

social interaction- a system of interdependent social actions, in which the actions of one subject are the cause and consequence of the response actions of others.

The social behavior of people and their groups is meaningful, and their social actions, as a rule, are endowed with a certain meaning. What problems, what solution does social action analysis indicate? This is a problem of needs as a source social development and the problem of motivation as a meaning-forming beginning of activity.

The most widespread is value-rational action, subject to certain requirements accepted in society by values, whether in the form of religious norms, moral duty, or aesthetic principles.

Affective action due purely emotional state. It is characterized by minimal values of consciousness reflection.

And standing in the center sociological research - purposeful action- the individual acts whose behavior is focused on the goal, means and side results of his actions, who rationally considers the relationship of the means to the goal and side results, that is, he acts not affectively and not traditionally.

According to P. Sorokin, social interactions are divided:

1. By the number of subjects of interaction:
- a) two with each other;
- b) one and many;
- c) many and many;
2. By the nature of the relationship between the subjects of interaction:
- a) one-sided and two-sided;
- b) into solidary and antagonistic;
3. According to its duration:
- a) short-term;
- b) long-term;
4. By the presence or absence of organization:
- a) organized;
- b) unorganized (rallies);
5. According to the consciousness of interaction:
- a) conscious;
- b) unconscious;
6. According to the “matter” of exchange:
- a) ideological;
- b) sensual;
- c) strong-willed.

The importance of studying the structure of social action, as well as the comparison of individual social actions, cannot be overestimated. Considering, for example, a series of interactions between managers and subordinates, one can judge from individual actions the causes of tension in relationships, the methods of leadership influence, the degree of disunity or, conversely, coordination of subordinates, etc. Any social organization It operates effectively only in the case of unidirectionality and consistency of individual social actions of its members.

Social action

Social action- “a human action (regardless of whether it is external or internal, reduced to non-interference or to patient acceptance), which, according to the meaning assumed by the actor or actors, is correlated with the action of other people or is oriented towards it.” The concept of social action was first introduced into scientific circulation by the German sociologist Max Weber. In addition, Max Weber developed the first classification of types of social action based on the degree of rationality of individuals' behavior. Thus, they distinguished: goal-rational, value-rational, traditional and affective. For T. Parsons, the problems of social action are associated with the identification of the following characteristics: normativity (depending on generally accepted values and norms). voluntariness (i.e. connection with the will of the subject, providing some independence from environment) the presence of sign regulation mechanisms. Any social action is a system in which the following elements can be distinguished: the subject of the action, the influencing individual or community of people; the object of action, the individual or community at which the action is directed; means (instruments of action) and methods of action with the help of which the necessary change is carried out; the result of an action is the response of the individual or community at whom the action was directed. It is necessary to distinguish between the following two concepts: “behavior” and “action”. If behavior is the body’s response to internal or external stimuli (it can be reflexive, unconscious or intentional, conscious), then action is only some types of behavior. Social actions are always intentional sets of actions. They are associated with the choice of means and are aimed at achieving a specific goal - changing the behavior, attitudes or opinions of other individuals or groups, which would satisfy certain needs and interests of those influencing. Therefore, the final success largely depends on the correct choice of means and method of action. Social action, like any other behavior, can be (according to Weber):

1) goal-oriented, if it is based on expectation certain behavior items outside world and other people and using this expectation as “conditions” or “means” to achieve one’s rationally set and thought-out goal,

2) value-rational, based on faith in the unconditional - aesthetic, religious or any other - self-sufficient value of a certain behavior as such, regardless of what it leads to;

3) affective, primarily emotional, that is, due to the affects or emotional state of the individual;

4) traditional; that is, based on long-term habit. 1. Purely traditional action, like purely reactive imitation, is on the very border, and often even beyond the limit, of what can be called “meaningfully” oriented action. After all, often this is only an automatic reaction to habitual irritation in the direction of a once learned attitude. Most of the habitual everyday behavior of people is close to this type, which occupies a certain place in the systematization of behavior not only as a borderline case, but also because loyalty to the habit can be realized here in various ways and to varying degrees (more on this below). In a number of cases, this type approaches type No. 2. 2. Purely affective action is also on the border and often beyond the limit of what is “meaningful”, consciously oriented; it may be an unimpeded response to a completely unusual stimulus. If an action driven by affect finds expression in conscious emotional release, we speak of sublimation. In this case, this type is almost always close to “value rationalization”, or to goal-directed behavior, or to both. 3. The value-rational orientation of action differs from affective behavior in the conscious determination of its orientation and consistently planned orientation towards it. Their common property is that the meaning for them is not in achieving any external goal, but in behavior itself, which is definite in nature. An individual acts under the influence of affect if he seeks to immediately satisfy his need for revenge, pleasure, devotion, blissful contemplation, or to relieve the tension of any other affects, no matter how base or refined they may be. A purely value-rational act is one who, regardless of possible consequences, follows his beliefs about duty, dignity, beauty, religious destiny, piety or the importance of a “subject” of any kind. A value-rational action (within the framework of our terminology) is always subordinated to “commandments” or “demands”, in obedience to which a given individual sees his duty. Only to the extent that human action is oriented towards them - which is quite rare and to a very varying, mostly very insignificant extent - can we talk about value-rational action. As will become clear from the further presentation, the significance of the latter is so serious that it allows us to distinguish it into a special type of action, although no attempt is made here to give an exhaustive classification of the types of human action in any sense. 4. The individual whose behavior is focused on the goal, means and side results of his actions acts purposefully, who rationally considers the relationship of the means to the goal and side results and, finally, the relationship of various possible goals to each other, that is, he acts, in any case, not affective (primarily not emotional) and not traditional. The choice between competing and colliding goals and consequences can, in turn, be value-rationally oriented - then behavior is goal-oriented only by its means. The individual can also include competing and clashing goals - without a value-rational orientation on "commandments" and "demands" - simply as given subjective needs on a scale according to the degree of their consciously weighed necessity, and then orient his behavior in such a way that these needs, as far as possible satisfied in in the prescribed manner(the principle of “marginal utility”). The value-rational orientation of action can, therefore, be in different relationships with the goal-rational orientation. From a goal-rational point of view, value rationality is always irrational, and the more irrational, the more it absolutizes the value on which behavior is oriented, because the less it takes into account the consequences of the actions performed, the more unconditional for it is the self-sufficient value of behavior as such (purity of belief. beauty, absolute goodness, absolute fulfillment of one's duty). However, the absolute purposeful rationality of action is also essentially only a borderline case. 5. Action, especially social action, is very rarely oriented only towards one or another type of rationality, and this classification itself, of course, does not exhaust the types of action orientations; they are conceptually pure types created for sociological research, to which real behavior more or less approximates or - which is much more common - of which it consists. For us, only the result of the study can serve as proof of their feasibility.

Notes

Literature

Weber M. Basic sociological concepts // Weber M. Selected works. - M.: Progress, 1990.
Kravchenko E.I. Theory of social action: from Max Weber to phenomenologists // Sociological Journal. 2001. No. 3.
Parsons T. On the structure of social action. - M.: Academic project, 2000.
Efendiev "General Sociology"

Psychological classification of actions.

This classification is simpler. Any human activity consists of actions that are of four types:

Instinctive actions. They are genetically determined and have virtually no relation to conscious activity, for example, grasping and sucking impulses in a newborn. However, they can influence conscious actions, for example, the instinct of self-preservation or the instinct of reproduction can cause a chain of conscious actions.
Reflex actions. They are also not related to conscious activity and are more of interest to biology. Everyone knows that sneezing is a response to irritation of the nasal cavity, not consciously controlled by a person; but this has no value for social science.
Impulsive actions. They are of two types - unconscious and partially conscious. Example: when frightened by something (a non-standard irritant), a person can react with an exclamation, an exclamation in the form of an interjection, or use obscene language to characterize (and sometimes in very detail) the reason for his fear. The second option is a partially conscious reaction; I won’t give examples due to censorship, but you’ve already pictured them in your mind.
Volitional actions. These are actions that are fully conscious, the basic actions studied by the social sciences. There are a lot of examples: from “brush your teeth” to “get the old lady across the road.” An interesting fact is that volitional actions can turn into impulsive ones. For example, you listened to your boss screaming at you for a long time, held back (volitional action), and then couldn’t stand it and said everything you thought about him (impulsive).

Sociological classification of actions.

In the sociological classification of actions, the key concept is social action. Social action is an action of a person or group of people that is oriented towards another person (or group of people). Simply put, this action has something to do with the actions of other people. The decision to go to a rally with a group is a social action that has a connection with their decision to organize a rally.

Of greatest interest to social science are the classifications of actions by the German sociologist Max Weber and the German sociologist-philosopher Jurgen Habermas.

Weber classification.

Max Weber was the first to develop a classification of social actions. He took as a basis the degree of awareness of human behavior and identified four types of social actions:

Purposeful action. This action is based on a predetermined and thought-out goal. Key moment- expectation, expectation of some specific behavior of people or objects to which this action is directed. That is, asking a question on an online forum is a purposeful action.
Value-rational action. An action based on belief in some value - moral, religious, aesthetic, etc. At the same time, the moment of waiting is not key here or is absent altogether. You don't expect anything special other than gratitude from the old lady you helped cross the road, right?
Affective action (emotional action). The same as impulsive action with a partially conscious character in psychology. More details - see above.
Traditional action. The same as unconscious impulsive action in psychology, sometimes also instinctive action.

In the concept of social action, Weber outlined two types of motivation:

subjective motivation(personal motivation of a specific person or group);
behavior orientation(waiting for the reaction of another person or group).

Classification according to Habermas.

Jurgen Habermas studied Weber's classification, reinterpreted it and identified his four types of social action.

Strategic action. Personal or selfish actions with subjective motivation. Selfish, in this case, does not mean negative towards others, since these actions may not be relevant to other members of society. For example, the desire to make yourself coffee in the morning to put your thoughts in order does not make you selfish.
Regulatory action. Actions based on a system of rules and values operating in a particular community. In essence, it is the same as value-rational action in Max Weber.
Dramatic action. the main objective This action is self-expression, disclosure of one’s individuality, self-presentation, that is, simply put, it is the creation of one’s own image or authority. When a girl opens her closet in the morning and begins to choose a dress, choosing a handbag and shoes to match it, this is a dramatic action. This type of action is directed towards other members of society and has a moment of anticipation.
Communicative action. This is a joint action of two or more subjects aimed at achieving some common goal. Communicative actions include both ordinary communication and the work of an entire enterprise. Main tool of this action - language and speech.

Social action is a system of actions aimed at changing the actions, actions, opinions or views of another person or social group.

Social action is any manifestation of social activity (activity, behavior, reaction, position, etc.) aimed at other people. This is the simplest unit (single act) social activities, presupposing (taking into account) certain expectations and reactions of other people.

In classical sociology, researchers identify two main approaches, two points of view on the motivation of social action.

Thus, according to E. Durkheim, human activity and behavior are strictly determined by external objective factors ( social structure, social relations, culture, etc.). M. Weber, on the contrary, gave subjective meaning to social action. He believed that in any social conditions a person has a certain opportunity to express his individuality.

The concept of “social action” was introduced into sociology by M. Weber to denote the action of an individual (separate individuals) aimed at solving life problems and consciously oriented towards other people. The main features of social action (according to M. Weber) are conscious motivation and orientation towards others. M. Weber identifies four types of social action:
1) goal-oriented action - a conscious action aimed at achieving a specific goal. In this action, the goal is the main motive;
2) value-rational action - an action based on the belief that the action being performed has a certain value. Consequently, in this type of social action the main motive is value (ethical, religious, ideological, cultural, etc.);
3) traditional action - an action performed due to habit, tradition, as if automatically, for example, we walk down the street and do not think about how we need to move our feet. Thinking “connects” only when any difficulties arise in movement. According to M. Weber, traditional action is performed subconsciously, and for this reason it is the subject of research in psychology, ethnology and other sciences, but not in sociology;
4) affective action - an action determined by emotions and for this reason also not conscious, i.e., not subject to sociological analysis.

T. Parsons proposed his general system of human action, which includes a social system, a personality system, and a cultural system. Each of the listed systems (subsystems) has common system social action its functional significance. Social system solves problems of social interaction and integration of society; cultural system - preservation and reproduction of images; personal system - fulfillment of goal-achieving functions.

The structural-functional theory of social action proposed by T. Parsons largely “limites” (predetermines) the activity of an individual by the existing institutional system, for which it (the theory) has been repeatedly subjected to reasoned criticism.

The theory of social action was further developed in the works of such sociologists as A. Touraine, F. Znaniecki, J. Habermas, J. Alexander, P.L. Berger, etc. Modern researchers in their concepts strive to take into account both objective facts and subjective motives of social actions, as well as the latest scientific and technical achievements and changes that have occurred in last years in civil society, in world cultures and civilizations. In this case, priority is given to the motivational and activity component of social action.

Thus, an active supporter of the concept of post-industrial society, the French sociologist A. Touraine introduces the concept of “social subject” into the theory of social action, under which social level he understands social movements. P.L. Berger believes that there are essentially no contradictions between Durkheim’s objective determination of social action and Weber’s subjective motivation of social action. It’s just that both of these phenomena exist simultaneously, conditioning and explaining each other: “society determines us, and we, in turn, determine society”2. According to J. Alexander, social action is determined by three main components: culture, individuality and social system.

Is it possible to find a person completely isolated from others on Earth? Obviously not, since in order to satisfy his needs a person must interact with other individuals, enter social groups, and participate in joint activities. Moreover, the mere knowledge of the presence of other people somewhere can quite significantly change the behavior of an individual. In all episodes of his life, a person is connected with other people, directly or indirectly. Social relationships have various grounds and many shades depending on the personal qualities of the individuals entering into the relationship. Let us try to trace their development, focusing on the most important example, namely social action.

Concept "social action"- one of the central ones in sociology.

Action in general, it is an action, energy, process in view of a personally significant goal. It is always characterized by a set of properties and has meaning and significance.

The significance of social action is due to the fact that it is the simplest unit, an element of any type of social activity of people. Indeed, even such social processes, How social movements, major social conflicts, mobility of social strata, consist of individual actions of individuals interconnected in complex chains and systems.

The essence of social action

The essence of social action. For the first time in sociology, the concept of “social action” was introduced and scientifically substantiated by Max Weber. He called social action “a human action (regardless of whether it is external or internal, whether it comes down to non-interference or patient acceptance), which, according to the meaning assumed by the actor or actors, is correlated with the action of other people or is oriented towards it.”

Thus, in the understanding of M. Weber, social action has at least two features:

· firstly, it must be rational and conscious.

Secondly, it must necessarily be oriented towards the behavior of other people.

Based on this understanding of social action, it is impossible to call social actions the actions of people associated with an orientation towards non-social, material objects. For example, making tools, fishing, and hunting in themselves are not social actions if they do not correlate with the behavior of other people. An example given by M. Weber is typical in this regard: an accidental collision of two cyclists may be nothing more than an incident, like a natural phenomenon, but an attempt to avoid a collision, abuse following a collision, a brawl or a peaceful resolution of a conflict is already a social action. It is obvious that it is extremely difficult to draw a clear line between social and non-social, so-called natural, or natural, actions.

It is even more difficult to determine awareness and rationality of behavior, which is an integral feature of social action. Many people’s actions are completely unconscious, automatic, for example, a person’s behavior as a result of attacks of anger, fear, irritation, when he acts without thinking about what is happening. Even if such actions are aimed at: other people, in accordance with M. Weber’s theory they cannot be considered social. It’s another matter if an individual acts deliberately, setting goals and achieving their implementation, while changing the behavior of other people. Such actions can be considered social. However, numerous studies show that a person never acts fully consciously. High degree awareness and expediency, say, in the actions of a politician fighting his rivals, is largely based on intuition, feelings, and natural human reactions. In this regard, fully conscious actions can be considered an ideal model. In practice, obviously, social actions will be partially conscious actions pursuing more or less clear goals.

Social action is a rather complex phenomenon. It should include:

1) character;

2) the need to activate behavior;

3) the purpose of the action;

4) method of action;

5) another actor on whom the action is directed;

6) the result of the action.

Social actions, unlike reflexive, impulsive actions, are never performed instantly. Before they are carried out, a sufficiently stable urge to activity must arise in the consciousness of any acting individual. This urge to take action is called motivation.

Motivation

Motivation- this is a set of factors, mechanisms and processes that provide the emergence of an incentive to achieve the goals necessary for the individual. In other words, motivation is the force that pushes an individual to perform certain actions. The mechanism of social action thus contains need, motivation and the action itself.

The importance of studying the genesis and structure of social action, as well as comparing individual social actions, cannot be overestimated. Considering, for example, a series of interactions between managers and subordinates, one can judge from individual actions the causes of tension in the relationship, the methods of leadership influence, or, conversely, the consistency of the actions of subordinates, etc. Any social organization operates effectively only if the individual social actions of its members are unidirectional and consistent. In this way, social actions are the next step after contacts in the formation and development of complex social relationships.