Relations between Russia and Turkey have been tense for a long period of time. And the basis of the constant conflicts between the two states was the desire of both countries to control the North and South Caucasus, Northern Black Sea region, be able to freely conduct their ships through the straits. An important factor was the struggle of Russian sovereigns for the rights of Christians living in the Ottoman Empire.
First Russian-Turkish War 1568 – 1570
Russian- Turkish war The period 1568-1570 began after the death of the ruler of the Ottoman Empire, Suleiman 1, who sought to return his former influence to the territories of the Astrakhan and Kazan Khanates. They were subordinated to Ivan the Terrible in 1552 (Kazanskoye) and 1570 (Astrakhanskoye). The new ruler, who replaced Suleiman 1, instructed Kasim Pasha to lead the campaign. In the summer of 1969, a nineteen-thousand-strong army reached Astrakhan. The army was defeated by the city commandant, Prince Serebryany. The attackers tried to build a canal that would connect the Volga with the Don. Considerable forces were allocated to protect the workers - 50 thousand soldiers. But they too were defeated by Russian troops. The Azov fleet was almost completely destroyed by a fierce storm. This war ultimately ended in victory for Russia.
Second Russian-Turkish War 1676 – 1681
The Russian-Turkish War of 1676 – 1681 was caused by the Ottoman Empire’s attempts to gain control over Right Bank Ukraine, as well as to intervene in the Russian-Polish confrontation. The main events of the campaign took place in the area of the city of Chigirin. The capital of the Cossacks of Ukraine, Chigirin was captured by the pro-Turkish Hetman Doroshenko in 1676. The city was recaptured thanks to the soldiers of Hetman Samoilovich and Prince Romodanovsky. The Treaty of Bakhchisaray in 1681 established the border between Russia and Turkey along the lower reaches of the Dnieper.
Russian-Turkish War 1735 – 1739
This conflict was a consequence of the aggravation of contradictions during the war between Russia and Poland and the increasing frequency of raids Crimean Tatars. Particularly important for Russia was the possibility of gaining access to the Black Sea. In the period from 1735 to 1737, the Russian army inflicted a number of sensitive defeats on Turkey. They had to abandon their positions due to the outbreak of a plague epidemic and an acute shortage of fresh water. Austria, which also entered this war, faced a disadvantage drinking water. For almost everything next year no active actions were taken by either side. In 1739 the Peace of Belgrade was concluded. Russia regained Azov.
Russian-Turkish War 1768 – 1774
For development international trade Russia needed free access to the Black Sea coast. The Ottoman Empire, regarding the caution of the government of Catherine 2 as a clear weakness, began another war. Results Russian-Turkish war for the Ottoman Empire were extremely disappointing. Thanks to the skillful leadership of Rumyantsev, the Turks were prevented from entering the interior of the country. And in 1770, after a series of major victories, the turning point of the entire campaign came. At the same time, the squadron under the leadership of Spiridonov made the transition from the Baltic to eastern part Mediterranean Sea (the first in history) and appeared in the rear of the Turkish fleet. Soon the fleet of the Ottoman Empire was destroyed in the Battle of Chesme. Russia had every chance to build on its success. But the country sought to make peace as quickly as possible. The Treaty of Kaynardzhi was signed in 1774. Russia received Little Kabarda, Azov and other territories. Crimea also gained independence from Turkey.
Russian-Turkish War 1787 – 1791
The cause of the Russian-Turkish war of 1787–1791 was an ultimatum put forward by the Ottoman Empire. It contained whole line absolutely impossible requirements for Russia. Austria participated in this war as Russia's ally. Initially, the actions of the Turkish army in the Russian-Turkish war of 1787 - 1792. were successful. But soon field marshals Rumyantsev-Zadunaisky and Potemkin radically changed the situation. On the sea, Turkish fleet, despite a certain numerical advantage, also suffered defeats from rear admirals Voinovich, Ushakov, Mordvinov. According to the Treaty of Yassy in 1791, Russia received Crimea and Ochakov.
Russian-Turkish War 1806 – 1812
The Ottoman Empire, after concluding an alliance with Napoleon, provoked the war of 1806–1812. The conflict began at the turn of 1805 - 1806. Increasingly tense relations with France led to Russia striving with all its might to end it. The peace treaty signed in Bucharest assigned Bessarabia to Russia. The Russian-Turkish wars of the 18th century allowed Russia to significantly strengthen its position in the Black Sea region.
Russian-Turkish War 1828 – 1829
After Russia, France and England supported the liberation movement that began in Greece, Turkey declared a holy war on Russia. In April 1828 the first fighting. The principalities of Dobruja, Wallachia, and Moldova were occupied by Wittgenstein's army. The offensive began across Bulgarian territory. Paskevich occupied Poti, Bayazet, Akhaltsikhe, Kare, Ardagan in the Caucasus. The army under the command of Dibich at Kulevcha defeated Turkish troops, whose number was forty thousand people. The path to Istanbul was open. According to the peace treaty signed in September, the mouth of the Danube was ceded to Russia, the Black Sea coast to Batumi, the Dardanelles and the Bosphorus became open to Russian ships.
Russian-Turkish War 1853-1856.
The cause of the conflict was the desire to gain a dominant position in the Balkans. Russia's opponents were the Ottoman Empire, France, and the Kingdom of Sardinia. This war showed a clear backwardness of equipment Russian army. Together with increasing political isolation, this became the reason for Russia's capitulation. The mouth of the Danube and Bessarabia were ceded to Turkey by the Treaty of Paris in 1856. The Black Sea was declared neutral.
Russian-Turkish War 1877 – 1878
The reason for this military conflict was the strengthening of nationalist sentiments in Bulgaria and the growth of people's self-awareness. Russia and the allied Balkan states took part in this war on the one hand, and the Ottoman Empire on the other. Osman Pasha's army capitulated after Russian troops crossed the Danube and captured the Shipka Pass. The act of surrender was signed in Plevna. The return of Bessarabia, Batumi, Ardahan, and Kars to Russia was recorded at the Berlin Congress. During this war, the independence of Bulgaria was proclaimed, and the territories of Montenegro, Serbia, and Romania increased.
Many contemporaries are convinced that in the past historians paid little attention to such an event as the Russian-Turkish War of 1877-1878. Briefly, but as clearly as possible, we will discuss this episode in the history of Russia. After all, like any war, it is in any case the history of the state.
Let's try to analyze such an event as the Russian-Turkish war of 1877-1878, briefly, but as clearly as possible. First of all, for ordinary readers.
Russian-Turkish War 1877-1878 (briefly)
The main opponents of this armed conflict were the Russian and Ottoman empires.
During it many things happened important events. The Russian-Turkish War of 1877-1878 (briefly described in this article) left its mark on the history of almost all participating countries.
On the side of the Porte (the historically acceptable name for the Ottoman Empire) were Abkhaz, Dagestan and Chechen rebels, as well as the Polish Legion.
Russia, in turn, was supported by the Balkans.
Causes of the Russian-Turkish War
First of all, let's look at the main reasons for the Russian-Turkish War of 1877-1878 (briefly).
The main reason for the outbreak of the war was the significant increase in national consciousness in some Balkan countries.
This kind of public sentiment was associated with the April Uprising in Bulgaria. The cruelty and mercilessness with which the Bulgarian rebellion was suppressed forced some European countries (especially the Russian Empire) to show sympathy for Christians located in Turkey.
Another reason for the outbreak of hostilities was the defeat of Serbia in the Serbo-Montenegrin-Turkish War, as well as the failed Constantinople Conference.
Progress of the war
On April 24, 1877, the Russian Empire officially declared war on the Porte. After the Chisinau solemn parade, Archbishop Paul at a prayer service read out the manifesto of Emperor Alexander II, which spoke of the beginning of military action against the Ottoman Empire.
In order to avoid intervention by European states, the war had to be carried out “quickly” - in one company.
In May of the same year, troops of the Russian Empire were introduced into the territory of the Romanian state.
Romanian troops, in turn, began to take an active part in the conflict on the side of Russia and its allies only three months after this event.
The organization and preparedness of the Russian army was noticeably affected by the military reform carried out at that time by Emperor Alexander II.
The Russian troops included about 700 thousand people. The Ottoman Empire had about 281 thousand people. Despite the significant numerical superiority of the Russians, a significant advantage of the Turks was the possession and equipping of the army with modern weapons.
It is worth noting that the Russian Empire intended to spend the entire war on land. The fact is that the Black Sea was completely under the control of the Turks, and Russia was allowed to build its ships in this sea only in 1871. Naturally, it was impossible to build a strong flotilla in such a short period of time.
This armed conflict was fought in two directions: Asian and European.
European Theater of Operations
As we mentioned above, with the beginning of the war, Russian troops were brought into Romania. This was done to eliminate the Danube fleet of the Ottoman Empire, which controlled the crossings of the Danube.
The Turkish river flotilla could not resist the actions of enemy sailors, and soon the Dnieper was crossed by Russian troops. This was the first significant step towards Constantinople.
Despite the fact that the Turks were able to briefly delay the Russian troops and gain time to strengthen Istanbul and Edirne, they were unable to change the course of the war. Due to the inept actions of the military command of the Ottoman Empire, Plevna capitulated on December 10.
After this event, the active Russian army, which at that time numbered about 314 thousand soldiers, was preparing to go on the offensive again.
At the same time, Serbia resumes hostilities against the Porte.
On December 23, 1877, a raid through the Balkans was carried out by a Russian detachment, which at that moment was under the command of General Romeiko-Gurko, thanks to whom Sofia was occupied.
On December 27-28, the battle of Sheinovo took place, in which the troops of the Southern detachment took part. The result of this battle was the encirclement and defeat of the 30 thousandth
On January 8, the troops of the Russian Empire, without any resistance, captured one of the key points of the Turkish army - the city of Edirne.
Asian Theater of Operations
The main objectives of the Asian direction of the war were to ensure the security of their own borders, as well as the desire of the leadership of the Russian Empire to break the Turks’ concentration exclusively on the European theater of operations.
The Abkhaz rebellion that occurred in May 1877 is considered to be the beginning of the Caucasian Company.
Around the same time, Russian troops leave the city of Sukhum. It was possible to return it back only in August.
During operations in Transcaucasia, Russian troops captured many citadels, garrisons and fortresses: Bayazit, Ardagan, etc.
In the second half of the summer of 1877, hostilities were temporarily “frozen” for the reason that both sides were awaiting the arrival of reinforcements.
Beginning in September, the Russians began to adhere to siege tactics. So, for example, the city of Kars was taken, which opened the victorious path to Erzurum. However, its capture never took place due to the conclusion of the San Stefano Peace Treaty.
In addition to Austria and England, Serbia and Romania were also dissatisfied with the terms of this truce. It was believed that their services in the war were not appreciated. This was the beginning of the birth of a new - Berlin - Congress.
Results of the Russian-Turkish war
At the final stage, we will summarize the results of the Russian-Turkish war of 1877-1878 (briefly).
There was an expansion of the borders of the Russian Empire: more specifically, Bessarabia, which was lost during the
In exchange for helping the Ottoman Empire defend against the Russians in the Caucasus, England stationed its troops on the island of Cyprus in the Mediterranean Sea.
Russian-Turkish War 1877-1878 (briefly discussed by us in this article) played a big role in international relations.
It gave rise to a gradual shift away from confrontation between the Russian Empire and Great Britain for the reason that countries began to focus more on their own interests (for example, Russia was interested in the Black Sea, and England in Egypt).
Historians and the Russian-Turkish War 1877-1878. Briefly, in general terms, we characterize the event
Despite the fact that this war is not considered a particularly significant event in history Russian state, a considerable number of historians have studied it. The most famous researchers whose contribution was noted as the most significant are L.I. Rovnyakova, O.V. Orlik, F.T. Konstantinova, E.P. Lvov, etc.
They studied the biographies of participating commanders and military leaders, significant events, and summed up the results of the Russian-Turkish war of 1877-1878, briefly described in the presented publication. Naturally, all this was not in vain.
Economist A.P. Pogrebinsky believed that the Russian-Turkish War of 1877-1878, which briefly and quickly ended with the victory of the Russian Empire and its allies, had a huge impact primarily on the economy. Important role The annexation of Bessarabia played a role in this.
According to the Soviet politician Nikolai Belyaev, this military conflict was unjust and aggressive in nature. This statement, according to its author, is relevant both in relation to the Russian Empire and in relation to the Porte.
It can also be said that the Russian-Turkish war of 1877-1878, briefly described in this article, primarily showed the success of the military reform of Alexander II, both in organizational terms and in technical terms.
The Russo-Turkish War of 1877-1878 was a war between the Russian Empire and Ottoman Turkey. It was caused by the rise of national liberation movement in the Balkans and the aggravation of international contradictions in this regard.
Uprisings against Turkish rule in Bosnia and Herzegovina (1875-1878) and Bulgaria (1876) caused social movement in Russia in support of the fraternal Slavic peoples. Responding to these sentiments, Russian government came out in support of the rebels, hoping that if they were successful, they would strengthen their influence in the Balkans. Great Britain sought to pit Russia against Turkey and take advantage of the weakening of both countries.
In June 1876, the Serbo-Turkish War began, in which Serbia was defeated. To save it from death, Russia in October 1876 turned to the Turkish Sultan with a proposal to conclude a truce with Serbia.
In December 1876, the Constantinople Conference of the Great Powers was convened and tried to resolve the conflict diplomatically, but the Porte rejected their proposals. During secret negotiations, Russia managed to obtain guarantees of non-interference from Austria-Hungary in exchange for the Austrian occupation of Bosnia and Herzegovina. In April 1877, an agreement was concluded with Romania on the passage of Russian troops through its territory.
After the Sultan rejected new project reforms for the Balkan Slavs, developed at the initiative of Russia, on April 24 (April 12, old style), 1877, Russia officially declared war on Turkey.
In the European theater of operations, Russia had 185 thousand soldiers; together with its Balkan allies, the size of the group reached 300 thousand people. Russia had approximately 100 thousand soldiers in the Caucasus. In turn, the Turks in the European theater had a 186,000-strong force, and in the Caucasus they had approximately 90,000 soldiers. The Turkish fleet almost completely dominated the Black Sea; in addition, the Porte had the Danube flotilla.
In the context of the restructuring of the entire internal life of the country, the Russian government was unable to prepare for a long war, and the financial situation remained difficult. The forces allocated to the Balkan theater of operations were insufficient, but the morale of the Russian army was very high.
According to the plan, the Russian command intended to cross the Danube, cross the Balkans with a swift offensive and move on the Turkish capital - Constantinople. Relying on their fortresses, the Turks hoped to prevent Russian troops from crossing the Danube. However, these calculations of the Turkish command were disrupted.
In the summer of 1877, the Russian army successfully crossed the Danube. An advance detachment under the command of General Joseph Gurko quickly occupied the ancient capital of Bulgaria, the city of Tarnovo, and then captured an important passage through the Balkans - the Shipka Pass. Further advance was suspended due to lack of forces.
In the Caucasus, Russian troops captured the fortresses of Bayazet and Ardahan, defeated the Anatolian Turkish army during the Battle of Avliyar-Alajin in 1877, and then captured the fortress of Kars in November 1877.
The actions of Russian troops near Plevna (now Pleven) on the western flank of the army were unsuccessful. Due to gross mistakes by the tsarist command, the Turks managed to detain large forces of Russian (and somewhat later Romanian) troops here. Three times Russian troops stormed Plevna, suffering huge losses, and each time without success.
In December, the forty thousand-strong garrison of Plevna capitulated.
The fall of Plevna caused the rise of the Slavic liberation movement. Serbia entered the war again. Bulgarian militias fought heroically in the ranks of the Russian army.
By 1878, the balance of power in the Balkans had changed in favor of Russia. The Danube Army, with the assistance of the Bulgarian population and the Serbian army, defeated the Turks while crossing the Balkans in the winter of 1877-1878, in the battle of Sheinovo, Philippopolis (now Plovdiv) and Adrianople, and in February 1878 reached the Bosporus and Constantinople.
In the Caucasus, the Russian army captured Batum and blocked Erzurum.
The ruling circles of Russia faced the specter of a big war with the European powers, for which Russia was not ready. The army suffered heavy losses and experienced supply difficulties. The command stopped the troops in the town of San Stefano (near Constantinople), and on March 3 (February 19, old style), 1878, a peace treaty was signed here.
According to it, Kars, Ardahan, Batum and Bayazet, as well as Southern Bessarabia, were ceded to Russia. Bulgaria and Bosnia and Herzegovina received broad autonomy, and Serbia, Montenegro and Romania received independence. In addition, Türkiye was obliged to pay an indemnity of 310 million rubles.
The terms of the treaty caused a negative reaction from Western European states, which feared Russia's enormously increased influence in the Balkans. Fearing a threat new war, for which Russia was not ready, the Russian government was forced to revise the treaty at the international congress in Berlin (June-July 1878), where the San Stefano Treaty was replaced by the Berlin Treaty, which was unfavorable for Russia and the Balkan countries.
The material was prepared based on information from open sources
Lesson summary on Russian history in 8th grade
The date of the: 04/21/2016
Lesson topic: "Russian-Turkish War of 1877–1878."
Lesson type: learning new material.
Lesson objectives:
1. Identify the causes and prerequisites of the war; assess the strength of the Russian army on the eve of the war; characterize and describe the course of hostilities; consider the main battles of the war; analyze and compare the Treaty of San Stefano and the Treaty of Berlin; name the reasons for the victory of the Russian army in the war;
2. To develop students’ ability to work with the text of the textbook, with a historical map and media files; analyze historical documents;
3. Foster a sense of pride for your country, instill a love for the glorious victories of Russian weapons.
Expected results: During the lesson, students will be able to:
Name the causes and prerequisites of the Russian-Turkish War of 1877–1878.
Describe the course of the fighting.
Name the dates of the main battles between the Russian and Turkish armies.
Show on historical map: a) places of battles; b) directions of movement of troops; c) the place where the Treaty of San Stefano was concluded; d) states such as: Serbia, Bulgaria, Montenegro, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Romania.
Conduct an independent search for information, working with the text of the textbook and documents in accordance with the assignments.
Analyze the Treaty of San Stefano and the Berlin Agreement.
Name the reasons for the victory of the Russian army and tell the results of the war.
Equipment: Danilov A.A., Kosulina L.G. Russian history. EndXVI – XVIIIcentury 8th grade: textbook. For educational institutions. – M.: Education, 2009; map "Russian-Turkish War of 1877–1878".
Lesson Plan
1. Causes and prerequisites for the outbreak of war, the Balkan crisis.
2. Progress of hostilities.
3. Conclusion of the San Stefano Peace Treaty and the Berlin Congress.
4. Final results of the war and reasons for victory Russian Empire.
During the classes
Examination homework: what topic did we learn in the last lesson?What was your homework assignment?
Name the tasks of Russian foreign policy during the reign of AlexanderII .
Name the main directions of Russian foreign policy during the reign of AlexanderII .
What are the results of Russian foreign policy in all directions?
What is the main result of Russian foreign policy during the reign of AlexanderII ?
Introductory word: Today in class we will talk about the Russian-Turkish War of 1877–1878.
Foreign policy Alexander II, §27.
Restoration of international prestige and the abolition of the terms of the Paris Peace.
European, Caucasian, Central Asian, Far Eastern, Alaska.
In the European direction: searching for an ally, establishing friendly relations with Prussia;
In the Caucasian direction: end Caucasian War, annexation of occupied territories, suppression of the actions of local tribes and military leaders;
In Central Asian:
Annexation of Bukhara and Khiva Khanates, formation of the Turkestan region as part of the Russian Empire;
In the Far Eastern direction:
The conclusion of the Aigun and Beijing treaties with China, the establishment of a clear border between Russia and China; establishing the border between Russia and Japan;
Selling Alaska to the USA.
Russia was able to regain international prestige and authority and restore its status as a great power.
2. Studying new material.
1) Causes and prerequisites of the war, the Balkan crisis.
2) The course of hostilities.
3) Conclusion of the San Stefano Peace Treaty and the Berlin Congress.
4) The final results of the war. Reasons for Russia's victory.
What role did Russia play in relation to the Christian peoples of the Balkan Peninsula?
What was Turkey's policy in this region?
So, in the mid-70s of the 19th century, on the basis of religious and ethnic oppression, an uprising broke out in Bosnia and Herzegovina, which was supported by the Serbs and Bulgarians, who also rebelled.
Do you think the rebel peoples could have resisted for a long time? Give reasons for your answer.
Russia comes out in support of the rebel peoples, convenes a number of international conferences about this question. Russia, Germany and Austria openly call on Turkey to respect the rights of Christians, to which Turkey refuses. Russia presented Turkey with an ultimatum, which the Turkish side ignored.
Do you think it was fair for Russia to start a war in this situation?
The government assessed the forces of the parties in favor of Russia, which made it possible to start a war. Based on the text of the textbook on pages 198-199, second paragraph of the paragraph “Beginning of hostilities,” answer the following questions:
Was the Russian army ready for war? What were her main problems?
So, in June 1877, the Russian army crossed the Danube. At first, the campaign was successful: no serious resistance was encountered, and the ancient Bulgarian capital of Tarnovo was liberated. The Bulgarians actively began to join the ranks of the militia. Our troops occupied the strategically important Shipka Pass and Nikopol. So, take a look at the map: after the Shipka Pass, a direct road to Istanbul opens.
I bring to your attention a video fragment that will convey to us the atmosphere of military battles on Shipka. Answer the question:
While our troops were fiercely repelling enemy attacks on Shipka, a serious threat arose in the rear of our troops: the Turks occupied Plevna, which our command considered an unimportant object. Look at the map and answer the question:
What position did Plevna occupy in relation to the Russian troops?
Russian troops besieged Plevna, made 3 unsuccessful attempts to storm, lost a large number of soldiers and moved on to a “proper” siege. The Turks surrendered only when they ran out of supplies.
The forces liberated from Plevna in November 1877 were sent to help our troops on Shipka.
What was unusual about this move by the Russian command?
Reinforcements arrived in time and pushed the Turkish forces back from Shipka and immediately launched an attack on Istanbul. From that moment on, the outcome of the war was completely clear. Within a few months, Russian troops reached the suburb of Istanbul, Andrianapol. The Turks requested a truce. Not far from Istanbul, in the town of San Stefano, a peace treaty was concluded. Open textbook page 201, find the item “Treaty of San Stefano. Berlin Congress" and read the first 2 paragraphs.
So, what were the terms of this peace treaty?
However, Western countries did not like these conditions, and they insisted on convening the Berlin Congress, in which Russia was forced to take part. Read the next two paragraphs and write down the terms of the Berlin Agreement.
As you can see, European countries, fearing the strengthening of Russia, tried to crush it at the diplomatic level.
Based on what you learned in today's lesson, tell me: why did Russia win the war?
Russia acted as their protector and patroness.
Turkey's policy was aimed at oppressing local Christian peoples on religious and ethnic grounds.
The rebel peoples were not able to resist for long, since they did not have strong, combat-ready armies.
Russia rightly started the war, because... Türkiye did not comply with the demands of the international community and continued its active actions in the Balkans.
The Russian army was ready for war, military reform began to produce positive results: the army was rearmed, retrained, and recruited according to new principles. The main problem The army had a command staff representing the old officer school and outdated views on warfare.
Write down the main information in notebooks following the teacher.
They find the Shipka Pass and analyze the nature of the area.
They are watching a video clip from the film “Heroes of Shipka”.
Heroic, brave, courageous.
Plevna was located in the rear of the Russian troops, creating a serious threat.
The troops were not withdrawn to winter quarters and continued fighting in the winter, which was not typical for that time.
Read the text of the textbook.
Southern Bessarabia is returned to Russia;
The Transcaucasian fortresses of Batum, Kars, and Ardagan joined;
Serbia, Montenegro and Romania gained independence;
Bulgaria received autonomy;
Read the text of the textbook
Partition of Bulgaria;
The territories of Serbia and Montenegro have been reduced;
Russia's acquisitions in Transcaucasia have been reduced.
Military reform began to produce positive results; a balance of forces favorable for Russia; the courage and heroism of soldiers; high level patriotism throughout society; support of the local population.
3. Consolidation.
What is the significance of the Russian-Turkish War of 1877-1878 for Russia?
They analyze the information received during the lesson and determine the significance of the Russian-Turkish War of 1877-1878 for Russia.
Analyze their work in class using tables and give themselves a grade.
2 – unsatisfactory;
3 – satisfactory;
4 – good;
5 – excellent.
5. Assessing results and recording homework.
Setting and commenting marks. Verbal assessment of the activity of the class as a whole.
Instructions for completing homework.
Recording homework: comparative analysis The Treaty of San Stefano and the Berlin Agreement in writing.
The war between the Russian and Ottoman empires lasted from April 12, 1877 to February 18, 1878. A number of Balkan states also acted on Russia’s side. The result of the war was the liberation of the Balkan peoples from Ottoman rule, the independence of Romania, Serbia and Montenegro, as well as the acquisition of broad autonomy by Bulgaria. In addition, Russia annexed the Kara region and Southern Bessarabia, and Romania annexed Silistra. Also, part of the territory of the Ottoman Empire was occupied by Great Britain and Austria-Hungary.
Prerequisites
The 19th century was marked by an intensification of the struggle for independence among the peoples of the European part of the Ottoman Empire. After a series of uprisings in 1815, autonomy was achieved for Serbia. In 1829, under the Treaty of Adrianople, Turkey granted autonomy to Moldavia and Wallachia, and in 1830, after many years of war, it recognized the independence of Greece. In 1866-1869 there was an uprising in Crete, which was suppressed by the Porte. Nevertheless, the islanders managed to achieve a number of privileges. In 1875, the Bosnian uprising began, in 1876 - the April uprising in Bulgaria, which were suppressed by the Ottoman government. The cruelty of the Turks caused outrage in Europe. Serbia and Montenegro declared war on Turkey, and numerous Russian volunteers fought on the side of the Serbs. Russia, eager to reassert its influence in the Balkans, began mobilizing its army, but to start the war it was necessary to ensure that the Western powers would not enter the conflict on Turkey's side. The Constantinople Conference of the Great Powers was convened and tried to resolve the conflict diplomatically, but the Porte rejected their proposals. During secret negotiations, it was also possible to obtain guarantees of non-interference from Austria-Hungary in exchange for the Austrian occupation of Bosnia and Herzegovina. On April 24, 1878, Russia officially declared war on Turkey.
Strengths of the parties
In the European theater of operations, Russia had 185 thousand soldiers; together with its Balkan allies, the size of the group reached 300 thousand people. Russia had approximately 100 thousand soldiers in the Caucasus. In turn, the Turks in the European theater had a force of 186 thousand, and in the Caucasus about 90 thousand soldiers. In addition, the Turkish fleet almost completely dominated the Black Sea, and the Porte also had the Danube flotilla.
Progress of the war
In May 1877 Russian troops entered the territory of Romania, on June 27 the main forces of the Russian army crossed the Danube and began to advance deeper into enemy territory. On July 7, General Gurko’s detachment occupied Tarnovo and moved around the Shipka Pass, trying to encircle the Turkish troops located there. As a result, on July 19, the Turks occupied Shipka without a fight. On July 15, the troops of General Kridener occupied Nikopol, but at the same time a large Turkish army under the command of Osman Pasha occupied the fortress of Plevna, which was located on the right flank of the Russian troops. To successfully continue the campaign, it was necessary to take the fortress, but two hasty assaults on July 20 and 31 were unsuccessful. In August, Turkish troops tried to dislodge Russian units from Shipka, but encountered fierce resistance and were forced to withdraw four days later.
On September 11, the third assault on Plevna was launched, despite local successes, which also ended unsuccessfully for the Russian troops. After this, it was decided to begin a tight siege of the fortress, for which General Totleben was called from St. Petersburg. At this time, Suleiman Pasha’s army tried several times to break through the Shipka Pass, but failed each time.
In December 1877, the garrison of Plevna attempted to break through the positions of the Russian troops, but the grenadier corps withstood the attack of the Turks, after which they retreated back to the city and capitulated.
After the capture of Plevna, Russian troops, despite the harsh winter, continued to move south. On December 25, General Gurko’s detachment crossed the Churyak pass and occupied Sofia on January 4, 1878. In early January, the main forces of the Russian army crossed the Balkan ridge. On January 10, detachment M.D. Skobelev and N.I. Svyatopolk-Mirsky defeated the Turks at Sheinovo, capturing 22 thousand soldiers and officers. Suleiman Pasha's army retreated to Plovdiv, where on January 15-17 it was defeated by Gurko's detachment, losing more than 20 thousand people.
On January 20, Skobelev occupied Adrianople, and on January 30, Russian troops approached the suburbs of Istanbul.
In the Caucasian theater, the Turks managed to occupy the Black Sea coast in May after the uprising in Abkhazia, but already in August they were forced to retreat. On October 15, Russian troops defeated the army of Ahmed Mukhtar Pasha at the Battle of Aladzhi and besieged Kars, which surrendered on November 18.
Results
On March 3, 1878, the Peace of San Stefano was signed. According to it, Kars, Ardahan, Batum and Bayazet, as well as Southern Bessarabia, were ceded to Russia. Bulgaria and Bosnia and Herzegovina received broad autonomy, and Serbia, Montenegro and Romania received independence. In addition, Türkiye was obliged to pay an indemnity of 310 million rubles. The terms of peace were not satisfied by the great powers, and under their pressure Russia was forced to take part in the Berlin Congress, at which the results of the peace were revised. The territory of Bulgaria was reduced, Bayazet remained with Turkey, in addition, Great Britain received Cyprus, and Austria-Hungary received Bosnia and Herzegovina.
Nevertheless, the main result of the war - the independence of the Balkan peoples - was not revised.
In artistic culture
Painting:
Artist V.V. Vereshchagin dedicated his Balkan series of paintings to the war. In addition to him, a series of paintings dedicated to the war was created by N.D. Dmitriev-Orenburgsky.
Literature:
Garshin V.M. From the memoirs of Private Ivanov. 1885.
Akunin Boris. Turkish gambit. 1998.
Pikul V. Bayazet. 1960.
Vasiliev B. They were and were not. 1981.
Cinema:
Heroes of Shipka, 1960
Yulia Vrevskaya, 1978 (dir. Nikola Korabov)
Bayazet, 2003 (dir. Andrey Chernykh, Nikolay Istanbul)
Turkish Gambit, 2005 (Dir. Janik Faziev)
Institute of Noble Maidens, 2010-2013 (dir. Yuri Popovich, Sergei Danelyan)