Process, methods and technologies of public administration. Process control technology

Topic 8

Management process

This topic will cover the following topics for management students:

The concept of the management process;

Properties of the control process;

Stages of the management process;

Stages of the management process;

The role of control influence in the management process;

Constant impacts;

Periodic exposures;

Concepts: “action”, “impact”, “interaction”;

Directions and types of impact;

Sources of influence in the management process.

In the previous topic, we showed that each of the enterprise systems (as management systems) - managed and control - has its own organizational structure, which serves as a form of process existence. Consequently, each of the named systems has its own process. Earlier we discussed the process of a controlled (production) system, called production, regardless of whether it is material or spiritual (immaterial) production, where it takes place.

The control process taking place in the control system is similar to the production process and has its own characteristics, explained by nature managerial work. The production process is aimed at the production of goods and services, and the result of the management process is the preparation of control actions and decisions. This is the main difference between these processes.

8.1. Concept of management process

Process (from Latin processus - advancement) means:

Consistent change of phenomena, states in the development of something;

A set of sequential actions to achieve a result (production, preparation of decisions).

Management process - this is a set of purposeful actions of the manager and management staff to coordinate the joint activities of people to achieve the goals of the organization.

Table 8.1.1.

Options	Processes
	Management process	Manufacturing process
Subject of labor	Information	Material, blanks, part, etc.
Means of labor	Tools, office equipment, computer equipment, etc.	Equipment, accessories, devices, etc.
Product of labor	Information in transformed form (decision, plan, report)	Part, unit, unit, product
Performer of the labor process	Manager, specialist, technical executive	Production worker
Process stages	Goal setting, information work, analytical work, choosing an action option (decision development), organizational and practical work	Procurement, processing, assembly, testing
Process components	Operations, procedures	Operations
Workplace of the labor process performer	With wide boundaries	With narrow boundaries

Control process parameters. All processes occurring in an enterprise (in the sphere of production and management) are, first of all, labor processes, since both production and management are the joint work of people performing purposeful actions according to a specific program. The parameters (characteristics) of the management process include:

Subject of labor;

Labor tools;

Product of labor;

Performer of the labor process (Fig. 8.1.1.).

Rice. 8.1.1.

General functions are performed in all organizations with material and spiritual production without exception. The formation of specific functions depends, as is known, on the specifics of the production system and the areas of activity of the enterprise. Therefore, the list of specific functions can be as small or as large as desired, depending on the size of the organization and the scale of its production.

At each specific enterprise, the management process involves general and specific functions for preparing management actions, preparing, making and implementing decisions.

8.2. General characteristics of the management process

Management process – This is the activity of the subject of management in coordinating the joint work of workers to achieve the goals of the organization.

As a scientific concept, the management process appears in the unity of its three sides:

2) organizations;

3) implementation procedure (control technology).

1. From the content side, the management process can be characterized as a targeted impact on the state of the elements that form the management system. This process expresses the unity of various partial processes (technical, economic, social, etc.) performed by the management apparatus within certain spatial and temporal boundaries in relation to specific objects and levels of management.

2. The organizational characteristic of the management process expresses the spatial and temporal sequence of its occurrence, determined by the management cycle. The latter includes 1) defining goals and 2) implementing management functions. An important role in this aspect belongs to the division of the management process according to the components of the management system and its levels.

At the enterprise level, the following typical components of the control system are distinguished as objects of the control process application:

1) line management subsystem;

2) target subsystems;

3) functional subsystems;

4) control support subsystem.

The line management subsystem includes all line managers - from the foreman to the director of the enterprise. Target subsystems cover:

Management of implementation of the production and supply plan;

Product quality management;

Resource management;

Production development management;

Management of social development of the workforce;

Environmental management.

Functional subsystems characterized by specialization management activities to perform the relevant 1) specific and 2) special management functions.

Control support subsystem covers:

1) legal support;

2) information support;

3) organization and implementation of regulatory management;

4) office work;

5) equipping the enterprise with technical means of management work.

3. On the procedural (technological) side, the management process is a connection between certain of its stages and phases, which are expressed and consolidated in their further division into types of work, operations and actions, as well as procedures, algorithms, etc.

The concept of the management process is closely related to the category of management potential, which is understood as the totality of management capabilities and resources available to the management system: information, material, labor, financial, experience and qualifications of personnel, and management traditions.

The management process from the content side may look like this (Fig. 8.3.1.):

Rice. 8.3.1.

Methodological content,

Functional content,

Economic content,

Organizational content,

Social content

Methodological content of the management process involves the identification of certain stages that reflect both the general features of a person’s work activity and the specific features of management activities. The stages characterize the sequence of qualitative changes in work in the management process, being stages of internal development impact in every act of its implementation

Stage – this is a set of operations (actions) characterized by qualitative certainty and homogeneity and reflecting the necessary sequence of their existence.

The management process can be represented as a sequence of the following stages:

Goal setting (goal setting),

Assessments of the situation,

Definitions of the problem

Workings management decision.

Let us reveal the step-by-step sequence of the control process visually (Fig. 8.3.2).

Rice. 8.3.2.

Target is the manager’s idea of ​​what the system he manages should be like. In a scientific definition, it can be formulated as an ideal image of the desired, possible and necessary state of the system. The management process begins with setting an impact goal. If it is a consciously carried out process, purposeful and expedient, it can only begin with understanding, defining and setting the goal of influence.

Situation – this is the state of the controlled system, evaluated relative to the goal. By situation it would be incorrect to understand only deviation from the program or conflicting cases of work. Management is carried out regardless of whether there is a deviation or not, whether the situation is conflict or non-conflict. The state of the system can never be identical to the goal, therefore, a situation always exists.

The difference between a situation and a goal usually involves many contradictions. The act of influence is necessary to resolve these contradictions, to bring the state of the system closer to the goal. But this is only possible if we find a leading contradiction, the resolution of which will lead to the resolution of all the others.

Problem – this is the leading contradiction of the situation and the goal, the resolution of which should be aimed at. Without defining the problem, a management decision is impossible.

Management decision – this is finding ways to solve a problem and organizational work to implement a solution in a managed system. It is the final stage of the management process, its connection with the production process, the impulse of influence of the control system on the controlled one.

Functional content of the management process. It manifests itself in the large-scale consistency and preference for the implementation of basic management functions. The following stages can be distinguished here:

Planning;

Organization;

Motivation;

Control.

The leadership function is carried out through these stages.

Economic content of the management process. It is due to the fact that in the management process the use of production resources finds its expression - from assessing their availability to transforming them into a product. Based on this, the economic content of the management process can be represented as stages of the use of resources, the movement of funds, which is carried out by labor in the managed system, but is determined by the activities of the management system. The economic content of the management process can be expressed in the following stages:

Establishing economic needs;

Assessment of resource availability;

Resource allocation;

Resource usage.

Organizational content of the management process. It manifests itself in the sequence of use of organizational levers of influence in stages:

Regulation;

Rationing;

Instructing;

Responsibility.

Each act of influence requires that the manager must clearly formulate the task (what needs to be done). This is a regulation that may vary in duration. Next you need to establish their permissible deviations. These are the standards. Then it is determined how best to perform the task, what to use, what to follow, etc. This is instruction. Each task must include an indication of the extent of responsibility for failure to complete it or incorrect execution.

In a multi-level management system, the organizational content of the management process is also manifested in the order of interaction of various links and levels of this management system. The order of interaction is determined by the nature of the specific goal and the peculiarities of the situation, which does not allow constructing a general scheme of organizational interaction between the links and stages of the system. It is different for each specific act of influence.

The social content of the management process is revealed by the role of man in its implementation. Each stage of the management process requires the indispensable participation of humans. At the same time, the management process requires mechanization and automation of its operations. The most appropriate stages for using modern technology are the stages of assessing the situation, searching for a problem and developing solution options, i.e. those stages, the implementation of which largely depends on information processing.

Consequently, the social content of the management process can be represented as a sequence of purely human and man-machine operations. With any degree of mechanization of managerial work, the management process begins and ends with purely human activity.

8.4. Control Process Properties

The management process has specific properties that reflect its characteristics. These properties are the following (Fig. 8.4.1.):

Rice. 8.4.1.

1. The property of variability (dynamism), observed in the constant change of the management process in its direction, problems, and the nature of its implementation. This property is manifested in the dynamic interaction of its various stages and operations. The control process moves from one stage of the control system to another, carried out through various interactions of control units (bodies).

The property of variability is sometimes called the property of flexibility of the management process, meaning its ability to switch to new problems and new management methods.

Of course, such variability has permanent boundaries. This reflects another property of the management process, which is in a dialectical connection with the first.

2. Property of stability. It manifests itself in the emergence in the management process and the corresponding consolidation of certain channels for its implementation. They form the natural structural basis of the management system, which is fixed in organizational acts of its stabilization and serves as a systematizing factor in the management process. Thanks to this property, a control system is formed, which is a set of established connections of the control process between the links that carry it out.

3. Property of continuity. The management process is also characterized by a property that reflects an important feature of its implementation - the continuity of the management process while the production process is carried out. It can manifest itself in different ways depending on the level of management, the characteristics of the production process itself (in single, serial, mass production, etc.). But the very essence of the named property does not change.

4. The property of discreteness complements and, in a certain sense, opposes the property of continuity. It manifests itself in the fact that in its internal features the management process proceeds unevenly, initially accumulating the potential for influence when setting a goal, assessing the situation, identifying a problem and then turning into an impulse for active organizational work at the solution stage. This property has nothing to do with assault. It reflects the specifics of management activities and does not deny the need for a uniform rhythm of work. On the contrary, it requires the rhythmic activity of the management apparatus.

5. Sequence property. It characterizes the mandatory sequence of stages in the management process. The latter cannot be built according to its stages except as a goal, situation, problem, solution. Each of these stages is mandatory and plays a big role in management efficiency.

Often a solution is developed only on the basis of the management goal, without sufficiently careful consideration of the existing state of affairs, real conditions work, current circumstances. Such a management process cannot be effective, because in this case the decisions turn out to be either erroneous, premature, or simply voluntaristic. Another extreme is also possible, when insufficient attention is paid to goal setting in the management process. Decisions are developed on a situational basis, without sufficient understanding of the goals they pursue. And here solutions are not effective enough, often contradictory, lacking perspective and long-term orientation.

The goal systematizes decisions, gives a general direction and perspective; the situation determines the reality and practical significance of the decision; the problem is its specificity and effectiveness. Each stage of the management process is required, as is the sequence of their implementation.

6. Property of cyclicity. Each act of influence ends with the transition of the controlled system to a new state. This necessitates either setting a new management goal (depending on what kind of new state it is), or adjusting and supplementing the previous goal, the achievement of which requires a new act of influence. The control process is repeated again, a new cycle is carried out.

It is quite possible that a situation may arise in which there is no need to change the management goal. But this should also be the subject of analysis in the management process, and thus, the goal-setting stage still remains a necessary stage of the management process.

Understanding the properties of the management process is of great importance in successfully solving all problems of its improvement.

8.5. Distribution of operations in the management process

The management process, in its content, features and properties, requires a certain sequence of operations and their combination. These operations differ in the stages of the management process (from purely intellectual to operations of practical organizational work).

The stage reflects the transition to certain groups of operations without taking into account their qualitative homogeneity or difference. Let's call these stages (Fig. 8.5.1.):

Rice. 8.5.1.

The general sequence of control operations corresponds to the sequence of identifying their groups by stages, but allows for a certain parallelism their implementation with an increase or decrease in the importance of certain groups of operations. We will show the composition of operations by stages and stages of the management process (Fig. 8.5.2.).

Rice. 8.5.2.

The management process begins with the development of the impact goal, goal setting that determines its initial operations, the complexity of which decreases as the formulation of the impact goal is clarified. In parallel with goal setting, information work is carried out, since without sufficiently complete information it is difficult to correctly formulate the goal of influence.

Information operations, starting from the target stage, continue throughout the entire management process. The role of information in the management process is great. But the management process cannot be reduced only to information processing and all management operations cannot be considered only as informational. The management process is a complex phenomenon of socio-psychological and organizational-economic nature. This determines the specifics of its operations. The same information about the control object leads to different decisions if they are developed by different managers.

As the impact goal is formed, there is a need to adjust it and link it with available means and possible management methods. This underlies the implementation of operations to assess the available means of influence and select management methods with the help of which it is possible to achieve the set goals. This work covers several stages of the management process and is carried out in parallel with its other operations.

The choice of action option is determined not only by the goal, but also by the availability of information about certain areas of activity, the results of analysis showing weak spots work. The significance and complexity of choosing management methods increases over the stages of the management process, reaching final certainty at the stage of developing a solution.

The cycle of the management process is completed by the operations of organizational practical work in the managed system. These operations are often called implementing the decision. At this stage, operations can be performed to adjust the control goal, as well as information work related to bringing to the performers additional information that deciphers the decision.

8.6. Impact and management process

Production management is a purposeful organizational, technical and socio-economic process of influencing teams. Therefore, IMPACT is an essential and necessary element of the management process.

Impact in the management process - This various shapes the influence of the subject of management on the managed object in order to change the ways of its functioning by changing the composition or interaction of elements of the managed system.

Management as a purposeful influence on groups of people in the production process can be carried out in various ways:

Influence in a directive manner with the help of orders and instructions that prescribe strictly defined changes in the system that are mandatory for execution;

Create a new system of planning, cost-accounting relations, incentives and other forms of influence, which would automatically influence the activities of the team under changing external and internal circumstances, promoting the search for effective production.

Impact reflects the essence of the management process: the management process is impossible without impact.

The concept of “action”, “impact” and “interaction”. When considering the essence of impact, it is necessary to distinguish between three interrelated concepts, namely: “action”, “impact” and “interaction”. All these concepts are used in the management process and differ, despite their common characteristic feature, which is that they all represent the form of influence of one element of the system on another. Let's present the differences and essence of these three concepts in graphic form (Fig. 8.6.1).

Action

Impact

Interaction

Rice. 8.6.1.

These concepts are closely related to the main factors of production:

Human (answering the question “who?”);

Real (answering the question “what?”). Factors of production are considered as elements of the socio-economic system (active and passive).

Elements of the system that answer the question “who?” or “what?”, can be (Fig. 8.6.2):

Rice. 8.6.2.

Action – the influence of the active element on the passive one (the worker performs the operation).

Impact – the influence of one active element on another active element (instruction from a master to a worker to perform a specific job).

Interaction – coordinated impact of two or more active elements on passive or active elements (the foreman brings to the site workers the labor standards approved by the director for specific work).

These concepts are in the following relationship (Fig. 8.6.3):

Rice. 8.6.3.

Understanding the differences in these three concepts allows you to more correctly understand the management process and determine the main directions and types of influence.

Impact as a form of influence on the production system is aimed at developing two contradictory trends:

1) ensuring the stability and permanence of the system;

2) ensuring flexibility, dynamism, and constant development.

Different directions of influence lead to the emergence of different types of influence, some of which are focused on maintaining stability, others on the mobility of the system.

Main directions and types of impact. The following directions and types of influence are distinguished:

1) organizational;

2) economic;

3) social.

The formation of targeted influence on production teams and individual workers is directly related to motivation, i.e., the study of the factors that determine human behavior in a team during the production process. In the system of factors that determine human behavior, important role his needs and interests play. A conscious need is embodied in a goal, encourages one to achieve it, determining human behavior.

Types of impact are classified according to those classification characteristics that underlie the direction of impact.

1. Organizational type of impact. This type of influence is aimed at organization, i.e., the formation of stability, coherence, compliance of elements and their interaction, establishing paths leading all elements to a single goal. All this characterizes the organizational direction of influence.

The organizational type of influence makes it possible to use in the management process a person’s desire for orderly organizational activity, leading to a certain relationship between the main elements of the enterprise - means of labor, objects of labor and the workers themselves. This type of impact is direct in nature, since it unambiguously determines the future state of the system that must be achieved. Organizational influence takes the form of organizational and organizational-production structures and various regulatory and normative acts that determine the composition and interaction of elements of the production system.

2. Economic type of impact. This direction includes the influence on material interests and the use of material motivation. The latter is used both in the form of material rewards for the quantity and quality of labor, and in the form of material sanctions for inappropriate quality and insufficient quantity. In this case, both individual and collective material interests are used.

The economic direction of impact has its own specific characteristics and differs primarily indirect the nature of the impact: assessment of the effectiveness of such impact is indicative, probabilistic in nature. The so-called sensitivity threshold, which we focus on, for example, when establishing the amount of individual material remuneration, is far from easy to determine (the sensitivity threshold is considered minimum size material rewards that encourage increased work activity).

The sensitivity threshold, even for the same person, changes significantly under the influence of a large number of factors (the possibility of more complete satisfaction of needs, the nature of the needs, the cost of labor and working time, the importance and nature of the tasks being solved, etc.). It is all the more difficult to determine the effect of influence on material interests in a more or less large team. It must also be borne in mind that unreasonable material remuneration leads, as a rule, to negative final results and often excludes from the arsenal of influence very effective incentives for increasing production efficiency.

The economic type of impact is focused on identifying, developing and using economic levers to enhance mobility and production efficiency.

The economic type of impact is focused on identifying, developing and using economic levers to enhance the activity of the system, increasing its mobility and efficiency.

3. Social type of influence. Refers to the indirect impact on social interests. Social motivation involves focusing on professional, cultural, psychological, moral, national, family and other social interests. Methods of influencing social interests include both encouragement and various forms of sanctions. The use of social motivation is particularly complex due to the diversity of social needs that exist in a team.

If, when influencing the economic (material) interests of workers, it becomes possible to use a single channel for satisfying these needs - money, then when influencing social interests it is necessary to satisfy them in diverse, specific and specific forms. This leads to the need for a detailed study of possible means of influencing these social motives and interests.

In addition to the above types of impact, a distinction is made between “horizontal” and “vertical” impact.

The “horizontal” type of influence is manifested in the fact that one department of the control system influences another, located at the same management level.

The “vertical” type of influence is carried out along lines of linear or functional subordination at different levels of management.

Let's summarize the difference in types of impact (Fig. 8.6.4):

Rice. 8.6.4.

Sources of influence in the management process. Defining in general terms the sources of influence in the management process, we can say that the main source of influence on the managed system is the control system. However, although this definition is correct, it nevertheless does not give a clear idea of ​​the complex system of influence in the management process.

The control system must constantly change forms, methods, techniques of management and at the same time be stable in relation to the implementation of the management process. This system itself is influenced by the external environment, i.e., enterprises and organizations interconnected with this enterprise, and, finally, by the managed system. The control system, in turn, influences the controlled system by changing the composition of the elements of its subsystems or the conditions of their functioning.

The source of influence from the control system is its individual links and control stages. The management process is greatly influenced by the qualifications of personnel and the methods by which they perform their duties. The source is also the individual and his activities in the management process.

Continuous and periodic impacts. Control influences, depending on the duration of influence on teams, are divided into two groups:

1) permanent;

2) periodic.

Permanent influences appear as:

Effective management functions;

Organizational structure of management;

Distribution of powers;

Charter of the enterprise;

Regulations on the division;

Job description of the employee;

Internal labor regulations;

Operating hours of the enterprise;

Staff standards;

Safety instructions;

Regulatory legal acts, etc.

Permanent effects are used for a long time until they are canceled or replaced with new permanent ones.

Periodic impacts are in the nature of short-term acts. These include:

Issuing tasks to subordinates;

Establishing incentives to work;

Communicating labor standards to performers;

Making decisions;

Issuance of orders, instructions;

Delegation of powers to subordinates;

Transfer of information about the internal and external environment of the enterprise;

Setting goals and tasks for performers;

Improvement of equipment, production technology, working conditions, etc.

Control influences reflect the specifics of the “management” category and occupy a central place in the management process. Therefore, those mastering management and novice managers need to firmly grasp the concept of control influence and comprehensively study all its aspects. Here it is also important to try to determine the arsenal of control influences on the employee, teams for line and functional managers at management levels, specialists and technical performers.

General theory of control

Management principles

Rice. 1.1. Management process

·

· Compensation principle

· Feedback principle

· spontaneous

· conscious

At hierarchical management

connection.

control.

feedback.

cybernetic

control system.

–

Communication system includes direct link X, feedback channel Y,

signal W)

1. Decision making functions (

3. Information exchange functions

Complex organizations.

Complex organizations have kit interrelated goals .

The mission of an organization is an expression of its philosophy and meaning of existence. The mission usually declares the status of the enterprise, the principles of its work, the intentions of management, is aimed at the future and should not depend on the current state of the organization. The mission is formed by the top management of the organization, which bears full responsibility for its implementation by setting and implementing the organization's goals.

· The mission of each company is determined by five elements:

· story,

· existing preferences of owners and managers,

· market environment,

· resources,

· Certain business abilities and capabilities.

There are two types of goals: long-term and short-term. Short-term goals are characterized by much greater specificity and detail in matters of achievement than long-term ones. If the need arises, between long-term and short term goals intermediate goals are also set, which are called medium-term.

The main role in the development of an organization is played by its organizational structure. Organizational structure of the management apparatus– a form of division of labor in managing an organization.

The organizational structure regulates: the division of tasks into departments and divisions; their competence in solving certain problems; the general interaction of these elements.

Any organization has its own internal environment and external environment in which its operations are carried out.

Internal variables are goals, structure, tasks, technology, people. All internal variables are interrelated. A change in one of them affects all others to a certain extent.

TO external environment organizations include suppliers, competitors, buyers, business partners, the state and its structures, culture, morality, traditions, economic and political factors, and the international environment.

Highlight:

· external environment of direct influence(suppliers, competitors, buyers, business partners, government and its structures)

· external environment of indirect influence(political, economic, social, technological, environmental and legal components of the macro- and mega-economic environment) .

Life cycle of organizations – a certain sequence of typical changes in the state of an organization since its creation. Applying the concept of the life cycle, it can be seen that there are distinct stages through which organizations pass, and that transitions from one stage to another are predictable rather than random (Figure 3.1).

Life cycle includes a trace. Stages:

1. creation

3. maturity

Numerous studies show that organizations throughout their life cycle

· confident are developing, when they have a sound strategy and use resources effectively;

· are being rebuilt, when they cease to meet the chosen goals;

· die, when they find themselves unable to perform their tasks.

Methodological foundations of management;

Methodology in the literal meaning (logos - word, concept, science, knowledge, and method - path, direction of knowledge) a system of principles and methods of organizing and constructing theoretical and practical activities, as well as the doctrine of this system

A methodology can be defined as a system that implements three functions:

1) Obtaining, creating new knowledge;

2) Structuring this knowledge in the form of new concepts, categories, laws, hypotheses, theoretical ideas, theories;

3) Organization of the use of new knowledge in social practical activities (training, education, production activities, culture and art, everyday life).

Management infrastructure

Infrastructure(from Latin infra - below, under and structura - structure, location) - a complex of interconnected, serving structures that constitute and/or provide the basis for solving a problem (task).

At each level of management, depending on the situation, the specifics of management, the object of management, it is also required specified types of management support from the following set:

scientific and methodological support: includes the development of original or the use of existing modern scientific methodologies and methods for implementing the management process, research into managed systems, advanced domestic and foreign experience, selection of management tools, conducting research on labor markets, conducting research on the development prospects of the organization;

financial support: includes justification, planning and obtaining financial resources for carrying out work on managing the facility (budgeting), drawing up cost estimates for management and monitoring its implementation;

logistics provision: availability of funds
organizational technology, obtaining and processing information necessary for management;

organizational support: includes the development and implementation of projects for the division of labor, organization, specialization and cooperation of jobs based on modern principles, organization of maintaining an information and reference apparatus, structuring the management system;

legal support includes a thorough
legal framework for all actions related to management, including economic, civil, administrative, labor and other types of law, as well as regulatory documents at all levels regulating the activities of employees, departments, and the organization as a whole;

Information Support: receiving and processing all
available information for making management decisions, including information about the state and trends in the external environment and in the organization itself;

staffing: the presence in the management system itself at all positions of qualified personnel who are able to carry out the entire range of work listed above independently or with the involvement of specialists.

Management system is a holistic set of interrelated and regularly performed actions that allows you to effectively manage a company and achieve long-term entrepreneurial success with maximum profit for a specific business by ensuring the competitiveness of products and the commercial enterprise as a whole.

Management infrastructure (management system structure) is a set of scientific approaches, principles and methods, as well as target, supporting, managed and control subsystems (Fig. 5.1).

Power is main

Four of the seven functions, to a first approximation, can be arranged in a sequence - a certain sequence of actions is planned, an organizational structure adequate to the plan is created, participants in the process are motivated, and the preparation, progress and results of the process are monitored.

There are also other options for separating management functions.

Thus, management functions can be concentrated in three main groups:

· general management(establishment regulatory requirements and management policies, innovation policies, planning, work organization, motivation, coordination, control, responsibility);

· management of the structure of the enterprise (its creation, subject of activity, legal forms, connections with other enterprises, territorial issues, organization, reconstruction, liquidation);

· specific areas of management (marketing, R&D, production, personnel, finance, fixed assets).

Communications

Communications - the process by which information is transmitted and exchanged between two or more people, usually for the purpose of motivating or influencing behavior.

Information moves within an organization from level to level through vertical communications. It can be transmitted via descending, i.e. from higher levels to lower ones. In this way, subordinate levels of management are informed about current tasks, changes in priorities, specific tasks, recommended procedures, etc.

Upstream communications those. from bottom to top, also perform the function of notifying the top about what is happening at the lower levels. In this way, management becomes aware of current or emerging problems and suggests possible options correcting the situation. Upward exchange of information usually occurs in the form of reports, proposals and explanatory notes.

In addition to sharing information downstream or upstream, organizations need horizontal communications. An organization consists of many departments, so the exchange of information between them is necessary to coordinate tasks and actions. Horizontal information sharing often involves committees or task forces. Additional benefits from horizontal communications include the formation of equal relationships. It has been proven that such relationships are an important component of employee satisfaction in an organization.

Types of communes within companies

1Communication “Manager-subordinate”. Although they provide an example of vertical information exchange, this type of information exchange is considered separately because it constitutes a major part of the manager's communication activities. Research has shown that 2/3 of this activity is carried out between managers and managed.

2Communications “Leader – working group”. In addition to the exchange of information between the leader and the subordinate, there is an exchange between the leader and his working group. Communication with the work group as a whole allows the leader to increase the effectiveness of the group's actions.

3Informal communications. The channel of informal communications can be called a channel for spreading rumors. Since information is transmitted much faster through rumor channels than through formal communication channels, managers use the former for planned leaks and dissemination of certain information or information of the “just between us” type. Channel accuracy is from 70 to 90%.

Communication process is the exchange of information between two or more people.

In the process of information exchange, one can distinguish four basic elements.

1. Sender, a person who generates ideas or collects information and communicates it.

2. Message, the actual information encoded using symbols.

3. Channel, a means of transmitting information.

4. Recipient, the person to whom the information is intended and who interprets it.

Commun process stages:

1. The birth of an idea.

2. Encoding and channel selection.

3. Transfer.

The birth of an idea. Information exchange begins with the formulation of an idea or the selection of information. The sender decides what meaningful idea or message should be exchanged. You need to be aware of what ideas are intended to be conveyed before you send a message, and be confident in the adequacy and appropriateness of your ideas given specific situation and goals.

Encoding and channel selection. Before conveying an idea, the sender must symbolically encode it using words, intonation and gestures (body language). This encoding turns an idea into a message.

The sender must also select a channel that is compatible with the type of symbols used for encoding. Some commonly known channels include speech and written communications, as well as electronic communications, including computer networks, email, videotapes and videoconferencing

Broadcast. In the third stage, the sender uses a channel to deliver a message (an encoded idea or set of ideas) to the recipient. It's about about the physical transmission of a message, which many people mistakenly take for the communication process itself. At the same time, as we have seen, communication is only one of the most important stages that must be passed through in order to convey an idea to another person.

Decoding. After the sender transmits a message, the recipient decodes it. Decoding is the translation of the sender's symbols into the recipient's thoughts. If the symbols chosen by the sender have exactly the same meaning to the recipient, the latter will know what exactly the sender had in mind when his idea was formulated. If no reaction to the idea is required, the process of information exchange should end there.

Communication network– A communication network describes communication relationships and information flows between individuals.

3 types of comm networks

1. “Chain” - may be acceptable for solving fairly simple problems that require little interaction between group members. Such networks are more centralized with information flows in given channels.

2. "Wheel" - also known as the star, the most centralized network. Such a network is most effective for simple tasks. Such problems are solved quickly with a small number of errors and minimal information flows. If, however, the task is complex, more connections are required and efficiency decreases.

3. “Omnichannel” – a completely decentralized network with open communications. This network is good for high level interactions between all group members when solving complex problems. Leadership is not expressed here. Under pressure from the leader, such a network disintegrates or transforms into a wheel.

General theory of control

Management theory - the science of management principles and methods various systems, processes and objects.

This area of ​​knowledge is well developed and is widely used in modern technology. Here based on system analysis a mathematical model of the control object (CO) is compiled, after which a control algorithm (CA) is synthesized to obtain the desired characteristics of the process or control goals.

In socio-economic systems, management theory is devoted to techniques and methods of analysis, forecasting and the possibilities of regulating the activities of various communities of people (the world community, regional associations, nations, socio-economic groups).

a limitation arising from the principle - “the system cannot explain itself.”

The management process can be divided into several stages:

1. Collection and processing of information.

2. Analysis, systematization, synthesis.

3. Setting goals on this basis. Choice of management method, forecast.

4. Implementation of the selected management method.

5. Assessing the effectiveness of the selected management method (feedback).

The ultimate goal of control theory is universalization, which means consistency, optimization and greatest efficiency functioning of systems.

Management principles

Rice. 1.1. Management process

Control methods considered by the theory of control of technical systems and other objects can use any of three fundamental principles:

· Open-loop control principle consists in the fact that the control program is hard-coded in the memory device or by external influence G(t), and the control does not take into account the influence of disturbances on the process parameters. Examples of systems are a clock, a tape recorder, etc.

· Compensation principle is used to neutralize known disturbing influences if they can distort the state of the control object to unacceptable limits. When the connection between the state of the object and the disturbance is known a priori, the value of the signal u(t) is adjusted inversely proportional to the disturbance x(t). Examples of compensation systems: a bimetallic pendulum in a clock, a compensation winding of a DC machine, etc. The advantage of the compensation principle is the speed of response to disturbances. The disadvantage is the impossibility of taking into account all possible disturbances in this way.

· Feedback principle most widespread in technical systems control, while the control action is adjusted depending on the output value y(t). If the value y(t) deviates from the required value, then the signal u(t) is adjusted in order to reduce this deviation. The connection between the output of the op-amp and the input of the control device that corrects the signal u(t) is called the main feedback (FS).

Management can also be divided into:

· spontaneous: impact occurs as a result of the interaction of subjects/processes (synergetic management);

· conscious: systematic influence of the subject of management on the object of management (hierarchical management).

At hierarchical management The purpose of the system’s functioning is set by its supersystem.

Fig.2.2. Organization as a cybernetic system with control

According to the cybernetic approach, management is considered, first of all, as a process of information transformation: information about the control object is perceived by the control system, processed in accordance with one or another control goal and transmitted to the control object in the form of control actions.

The processes of obtaining information, storing and transmitting it in this case are identified with the concept connection.

The processing of perceived information into signals that direct activity in an object is identified with the concept control.

If systems are able to perceive and use information about the results of their functioning, then they are said to have feedback. Feedback creates the possibility of effective control under changing operating conditions of the control object, even in cases where disturbing influences cannot be measured or when their influence is not known in advance.

Controlled or goal-directed systems are called cybernetic. These include technical, biological, organizational, social, economic systems and etc.

The control system together with the communication system forms control system.

The main element of organizational and technical management systems is decision maker (DM)– an individual or group of individuals who have the right to make final decisions on the choice of one of several control actions.

Communication system includes direct link X, which transmits input information, including command information, and feedback channel Y, through which information about the state of the op-amp is transmitted.

The external environment influences both the functioning of the control object ( signal W), and is taken into account when developing control actions in the control system.

The functions of the control system can be divided into three groups:

1. Decision making functions ( transformation of information content) – are expressed in the creation of new information in the course of analysis, planning (forecasting) and operational management(regulation, coordination of actions). This is due to the transformation of the content of information about the state of the OS and the external environment into control information when solving logical problems and performing analytical calculations carried out by the decision maker when generating and selecting alternatives. This group of functions is the main one, since it ensures the development of information impacts to maintain the existing position or when transferring the system to a new state;

2. Routine information processing functions cover accounting, control, storage, search, display, replication, transformation of the form of information, etc. This group of information transformation functions does not change its meaning, i.e. these are routine functions not related to meaningful information processing;

3. Information exchange functions are associated with bringing the generated impacts to the OS and the exchange of information between decision makers (restricting access, receiving (collecting), transmitting management information in text, graphic, tabular and other forms by telephone, data transmission systems, etc.).

Approaches to the management process

· Process The approach is based on the idea of ​​the existence of some universal control functions.

· System the approach was based on general theory systems: a system is a kind of integrity consisting of interdependent subsystems, each of which contributes to the functioning of the whole.

· Situational approach considers any organization as an open system that constantly interacts with external environment Therefore, the main reasons for what happens inside the organization should be sought outside it, that is, in the situation in which it actually operates.

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The management process in public relations is, in a more simplified sense, the strategy of a PR man, that is, the development and implementation of targeted PR programs. There are several more or less different approaches to modeling a PR-man's activity program. However, all of them in one form or another (they can be divided into smaller stages) contain a number of stages, the sequence of which is determined by the logic of the activity:

1. Problem Definition includes probing and tracking the problem, clarifying the points of view, attitudes and behavior of those public groups that are influenced by the organization's policies and on whose actions its activities depend. Actions should answer the question - “What is happening at the moment?”

2. Planning and programming. The information collected in the first stage is used to make decisions regarding public outreach programs, defining objectives and content practical steps, communication strategies and tactics. Actions should answer the question - “What do we need to change, do or say, based on what is already known about the situation?”

3. Action and communication— implementation of a program of action and communication aimed at achieving specific changes in each of the public groups to move closer to the overall program goal. Actions should answer the question - “Who should do this, say when, where and how exactly?”

4. Program Evaluation includes assessment of preparation, implementation progress and results achieved programs. Actions should answer the question - “How are things going or how did we work?”

First stage- identification of problems in the organization's public relations. It consists of several blocks of actions:

Problem Statement summarizes everything that is already known about the problem situation, describes it in the form of the following specific concepts that can be measured. Essentially, it is a search for answers to the following questions: What is the source of anxiety? Where is the problem? When did the problem worsen? Who is involved in it or who suffers from it? How did they become involved in the problem and were affected by it? Why does this concern the organization and its public? The formulation of the problem does not yet provide for ways to resolve it.

Analysis of the situation is a complete collection of all the information that is known about the current problem, including the history of its development, the forces influencing the situation, as well as those who are involved in it and who are affected by it inside and outside the organization. The collected materials related to the analysis of the situation are presented in the form dossier, consisting of two separate sections: internal factors; external factors.

In chapter internal factors documents and materials related to organizational issues and procedures related to the identified problem situation. The analysis should begin with a thorough review of the opinions and actions of key figures in the organization, its structural divisions those responsible for the problem, and a chronicle of the organization's involvement in the problem. This section should also contain communication audit. It makes it possible to analyze the state of the organization’s relations with its employees, with the neighboring community, and to assess the quality of the communication channels used by the organization. A communications audit helps to identify:

Bottlenecks of information flows;

Uneven communication loads (employees work contrary to each other);

Hidden information within the organization that can be used to its detriment;

Conflict of concepts in terms of what the organization really is and how it operates.

A mandatory part of the first section must be updated calendar-chronicle of the organization's work. This good reference for the ongoing work of the organization and a source of ideas and information for writing speeches, preparing brochures, special reports, exhibitions and meeting information requests from the media. Openness and accuracy of information about the history of the organization’s activities and the movement of its management personnel are valuable for peer managers a means of combating gossip and unfounded rumors.

Approximate contents of the “internal factors” section:

1. Organizational mission statements, charter, bylaws, history and structure of the organization.

2. Letters, biographies, photographs of leading executives, board members, managers, etc.

3. Description and history of programs, products, services, etc.

4. Statistics on resources, budget, staff, trade, profits, shareholders, etc.

5. Formulate policy and procedural issues related to the problem situation.

6. Formulation of positions (quotes) of leading managers regarding the problem situation.

7. Description of how the organization this moment copes with a problematic situation.

8. List and description of key stakeholders within the organization.

9. List of internal media (two-way) for communication with interest groups.

In chapter external factors Positive and negative information about events outside the organization is collected. It contains a chronologically ordered overview of the external aspects of the problem, a detailed study of public groups and institutions related to the problem situation and in one way or another influencing its development.

Among the “interested” groups, first of all, there should be shareholders, consumers, suppliers, etc.. This should contain information about what they know, feel, and how deeply they are aware of the current problem situation and the actions that the organization’s management is resorting to.

In section external factors must be substantiated in the course of research answers to the following questions: How much information do people use when analyzing a problem situation? What kind of information do people use? How do people use information? What determines the use of information? In other words, you need to know how different individuals see themselves as involved in the situation, or consider themselves victims of it.

Approximate contents of the “external factors” section:

1. Clippings of articles and messages from newspapers, magazines, trade union publications, press bulletins, which talk about the organization and the problematic situation.

2. Reports, transcripts, audio and video recordings of radio and television broadcasts regarding the problematic situation.

3. Results of content analysis of media materials.

4. List of media, journalists, reporters, radio commentators, columnists and editors involved in reporting on the organization and the problem situation.

5. A list and basic information about individuals and groups that share the organization's concerns, interests, and positions regarding the problem situation (including internal and external channels of information that they control).

6. List and basic information about individuals and groups that do not share the organization's concerns, interests and positions regarding the problem situation (including internal and external channels of information that they control).

7. Results sociological research and public opinion polls regarding the organization and the problem situation.

8. Schedule of special events, events and other important organizational data related to the problem situation.

9. List government agencies, legislators, other officials vested with executive and legislative powers affecting the organization and the problem situation.

10. Copies of relevant decrees, statutes, bills to be paid, results of referendums, government printed materials and reports of hearings.

12. List of important reference literature, protocols, indexes indicating the places of their storage in the organization.

A detailed analysis of internal and external factors in a problem situation serves as a source of information for the PR manager, on the basis of which he can assess the strengths and vulnerabilities of the organization, and then determine its capabilities and the danger to it from the external environment.

Research work and its methods

PR specialists must have knowledge of the research process and appropriate methodology. Even if this activity is transferred to special research organizations, PR people must be able to explain what they need, what problems concern them and how to study them. Research work is a continuous process. It becomes an integral part of all PR activities.

The process begins with a clear statement of the problem being studied. Sample list test questions used when choosing a research method:

1. How will the research results be used?

2. Which specific group of the public should be studied and how should the sample be selected?

3. What type of technique is most suitable in this case?

4. If a case study will be used, what type of fieldwork (mail, telephone, or personal interview) will be most effective?

6. What kind of work experience does the research organization you are planning to contact have? professional training its employees?

7. How will the data be analyzed and in what form will the results be provided?

8. How quickly can you get research results?

9. How much will the study cost?

Research work in the field of public relations covers mainly two types of research: formal and informal.

Formal studies provide strict methods collecting information based on the formation of scientifically determined representative samples. According to their methodology, they are divided into qualitative and quantitative. Qualitative research (qualitative analysis) is based on the theoretical foundations of sociology, individual experience, observations, analysis of personal and official documents, etc. (historiographical or biographical method, study of personal documents (diaries), in-depth interviews, focus groups, panel studies). Quantitative methods - content analysis, public opinion polls and other similar types of sociological research. Each group of methods has advantages and disadvantages.

Informal research do not involve adherence to scientific, generally accepted rules and procedures that require the researcher to accurately replicate the research process. In such research, intuition and personal experience researcher. Informal research is used exclusively to describe specific situations, formal research is used to predict the development of a situation.

Second phase- planning and programming begins after the PR problem is identified and the organization’s weaknesses, reserves and capabilities are identified, public relations specialists are faced with the task of: together with the organization’s management, develop a strategy for resolving the problem and maximum use existing capabilities and reserves.

They develop strategic plans, as a rule, together with the heads of other departments of the organization. The planning and programming process includes the following basic stages:

1. Definition of the role and mission of the organization. The content and scope of work to be performed are agreed upon.

2. Identification of key areas of activity that require changes. Determine where to concentrate attention, energy and intellectual effort.

3. Development of a system of performance indicators. Factors that can be measured and factors on the basis of which goals can be determined are identified.

4. Selection and clarification of the goal. The results that need to be achieved are determined.

5. Preparation of action plans. Ways to achieve further specific goals are being developed. The following are used:

Programming. During it, a logical sequence of actions is established to achieve goals;

Drawing up a schedule. The deadlines for completing activities and achieving goals are established;

Budgeting. Here the sources are determined and distributed financial resources necessary to achieve goals;

Sharing of responsibilities. Those responsible for the final results and implementation of individual tasks are appointed;

Review and revision. The draft plan is tested and discussed before action is taken.

6. Establishing control. It is about ensuring control over the effective achievement of goals.

7. Communication. The intra-organizational communication channels necessary to achieve understanding and support throughout the previous six stages are identified.

8. Implementation. Unanimous approval by all leading leaders of the organization of further practical actions and the appointment of persons responsible for this is ensured.

Mission Statement

The organization, in its official charter or in program documents, must formulate a statement about the immediate and long-term goals of its activities. The essence of the mission is to concisely

e express why the organization exists. Its mission statement proclaims its social commitment and civic responsibility to the community.

Target planning

Goals are the desired results that need to be achieved when communicating with a key public group. Let's consider the goals formulated for individual PR programs. There are two main types of goals used in public relations programs: exit goals and influence goals.

Exit goals, belonging to the lower categories in the hierarchy of goals, represent tasks that need to be completed, namely: distribute and distribute program materials. For example, they can be formulated as follows:

Submit one press release to each major local media channel: daily newspaper, television station and three radio stations;

Prepare oral presentations for your representatives providing distribution important materials in specific five cities.

Influence goals- these are tasks that it is desirable to complete. There is a certain hierarchy of influence goals:

Information purposes cover the presentation of a message, its understanding and retention in memory by the target public. Examples of possible information purposes:

Raise (during the month of August) the level of awareness of all public groups about the time of the day " open doors» institutions (by 10%);

Raise the level of awareness of employees about the new internal rules in the institution (by 50% during three months of the campaign to strengthen labor discipline).

Setting goals are aimed at changing the audience’s attitude towards the organization (client), its work, products or services through the formation of an attitude; securing the installation; installation changes. Examples of such goals:

Create public attitudes favorable to the operation of a new department store (among 25% of customers during the store's opening celebration);

Strengthen a favorable public opinion of the non-profit organization (among 80% of its former donors during October-December of the current year).

Change (within one year) existing negative attitudes and ill will towards the organization (among 20% ​​of its former and current clients).

Behavioral Goals may involve the formation or stimulation of new behavior, consolidation or intensification of existing favorable behavior, changing the negative behavior of a group of the public in relation to the organization. For example:

Achieve acceptance of the new internal rules (among 75% of the institution’s employees);

Convince (30%) vehicle drivers to regularly use seat belts;

Dissuade the public from the idea of ​​demolishing an architectural monument in a city park (20% of local residents).

For each goal, you can include a corresponding time frame. At the same time, quantitative indicators and time frames should be the object of control and constant study.

Programming

In the practice of public relations, it is necessary to distinguish between the concepts of strategies and tactics. Strategy refers to the overall concept, approach, or master plan for developing a program to achieve intended goals.

Tactics for PR-men is the development of an action program for the consistent development of relations with various public groups to implement the social mission of the organization.

Public relation programming in each specific case has a special content. But there is a list elements, which are always present in the process of programming PR activities.

1. Determining the topic of the action program and preparing messages addressed to public groups.

2. Determining the content of actions and the nature of special measures to which the organization must resort.

3. Determine the media (controlled or uncontrolled) that will be used to communicate with public groups.

4. Selection of principles of effective communication.

This list of elements provides for the need to develop working concept, on the basis of which the content of the listed elements of PR activity will be determined. This document will tell you how to plan a special event, write a press bulletin or press release, or compose a speech or appeal to a target group of the public.

In cases where there is no gap between theory and practice, programming the public relation process brings the highest practical results.

Third stage- action and communication is a stage of program implementation filled with direct activity. Any problem cannot be solved through communication efforts alone. To neutralize the negative impact of the source that caused the problem, corrective PR actions are necessary.

PR campaigns - these are socially responsible events or actions that the organization resorts to, based on the advice of public relations specialists. PR campaigns should serve the mutual interests of both the organization and its public.

The organization and its activities in modern conditions are open systems , in which public relations are built on the basis of a two-way symmetric model. This means that the planned changes must be equally beneficial to both the internal and external public of the organization and occur both within the organization and in its immediate social environment. At the same time, it is desirable not only to improve the image of the organization, but also to “purify” the actions themselves, i.e. the organization's use of correct actions.

Promotions and special events

During its existence, the public relation system has accumulated great experience using a variety of promotions and events to create favorable attitudes towards an organization or individuals. When implementing programs, PR people use method for creating special events (pseudo-event). They put event creation into programs to trigger news creation. This is especially necessary when Everyday life the organization does not generate a minimum amount of new information. But at the same time, empty pseudo-events do more harm to the organization’s reputation than good. Signs of a pseudo-event:

1. This event is planned, arranged or initiated. It should not carry negative information. A train crash or a factory accident cannot be a pseudo-event.

2. It is most often arranged in advance so that it is reported and this information is repeated again.

3. It has an ambiguous connection with reality. Thanks to this ambiguity, interest in the event grows. Without a certain amount of such ambiguity, a pseudo-event cannot generate much interest.

Based on these characteristics, pseudo-events have a number of advantages over spontaneous events:

Pseudo-events are more dramatized;

Pseudo-events spread faster and are vividly remembered, because they are planned for wide coverage;

If desired, pseudo-events can be repeated, thus enhancing the impression of them;

Creating pseudo-events requires funds. There is always someone interested in publicizing, exaggerating, promoting and praising them as events worthy of attention and trust. Pseudo-events are advertised and replayed in advance in order to return the investment;

Pseudo-events are more understandable and therefore more convincing because they are planned to be understood;

Pseudo-events are more “social”, they are talked about more, they are more accessible to observation;

Awareness of a pseudo-event - what was reported about it, what was organized and how it was organized - turns into an indicator of the level of our “awareness”. Pseudo-events become the topic of general conversations;

Pseudo-events exponentially produce other pseudo-events.

The list of promotions and special events includes dozens and hundreds of different events. Among the actions or special events widely used in public relations practice are the following:

trade shows, expositions, exhibitions, fairs, festivals;

meetings, seminars, round tables, conferences, congresses, symposiums, congresses, people's councils;

anniversaries, anniversaries, significant dates;

special awards, greetings, farewell to retirement;

open days, tours of the enterprise, meetings with veterans;

rallies, public debates, theme evenings;

parades, beauty contests;

sponsorship awards, personalized scholarships, donations;

concerts and theater tours;

visits, special trips as a reward for special merits;

picnics, outings;

opening ceremonies of new construction sites, laying the first stone in the foundation;

demonstrations of finished products, traveling expositions;

visits of distinguished and distinguished people, meeting and farewell ceremonies;

problem resolution reports, reporting of statistical data;

announcement of the results of public opinion polls and sociological studies;

opening ceremonies of festivals, sports days and other large-scale events;

announcement of new appointments to responsible positions; proclamation of a new political course, programs, changes in political course, activity programs;

school graduations, school assemblies, concerts, Olympiads;

dance evenings, discos, balls; film festivals, fashion shows;

exhibitions of pets (dogs, cats, birds);

sports and recreational activities, hiking, skiing, amateur competitions;

participation in social events, improvement of parks, streets, playgrounds, etc.;

special events, celebrations of state, national, religious holidays;

themed events and national celebrations historical events and many other events.

It is necessary to ensure that the content of organized events, the scale, composition of their participants and invited guests deserve to be news, then the media will not be able to ignore them in silence. They will cover the event in the form of on-site reports, photographs, excerpts from press releases, with obligatory mention of the initiators of the special event, that is, the organization will receive well-deserved positive coverage, which is very important for the implementation of the PR program.

Communications in implementationPR programs

Composing a message. Messages are a changing genre of documents that, without losing touch with the main theme of the program, are always addressed to specific groups of the public. When composing a message, certain principles should be observed:

Before composing messages, you need to study the essence of the problem situation and the position of the organization’s management in relation to it;

It is necessary to know the needs, interests and concerns of target public groups.

People are at the center of all public relation problems, so bringing their points of view and opinions closer together requires constant communication with them. To achieve specific results, specific messages must be targeted to specific audiences.

There are waste techniques, allowing to overcome differences in the positions of the organization and the attitudes of the target audience or public:

Use media that are closest to the position of the audience;

Use the communication source that is most trusted by the audience on a specific issue;

Minimize discrepancies between the positions of the organization and the audience;

Look for identification with the audience through vocabulary, humor and other techniques, that is, beyond the issue that separates you;

Prove that the organization’s position coincides with the opinion of the majority, while showing that this majority is in the audience itself;

Show discrepancies between audience groups if it helps to achieve a positive reaction. You can do the opposite;

Modify messages to benefit the organization.

When crafting a message for the media and their workers, an understanding of whether it is newsworthy is essential. Here are the media workers' criteria for news:

Influence- implies the number of people who will be affected by the message, the severity of the consequences, the direct connection between cause and effect, and the immediate impact. This criterion applies not only to news, but to any information.

Proximity- this is the distance between the audience and the problem or issue that worries them. This criterion indicates that connections to local issues or events tend to enhance news value.

Timeliness- news tends to quickly become outdated. Electronic means spread news much faster, so newspapers are more interested in the questions “why” and “how” the news came about.

Fame- or recognition, popularity. Many people show interest in famous personalities. Fame means that journalists and their readers (listeners) are interested in the personal lives of political and public figures.

Novelty- something unusual, extravagant, going against the norm, surprising. Sometimes the news itself is called an aberration. Journalists are well aware that people are attracted to the new, the unique, the unexpected.

Conflict- strikes, skirmishes, controversies, wars, crimes, politics and sports - conflicts make up the bulk of the news because the media strives to satisfy people's demand for sensations.

PR-menu, when composing a message you should follow certain rules. Thus, messages must deserve to be news regardless of where they are distributed. Messages must be understandable and easy to understand - i.e. without unnecessary complications, special vocabulary, abbreviations. At the same time, it is very important that they are on this topic or close to a specific area, aroused public interest both in the content of the information and its timeliness. Messages should encourage immediate action. Like events and activities, messages should contain elements mutual benefit for the organization and the public.

Reliability of the message source is a set of expectations that the audience or public has towards it. Reliability often depends on the professional or personal characteristics of the source of information constantly appearing before the audience, its credibility, its dynamism, its visual appeal and the perceived commonality of the source and recipient of information. These characteristics are taken into account by PR people when selecting people to represent the organization. It is clear that communication coming from a reliable and reputable source always favors the implementation of PR programs.

When conducting PR campaigns, experienced practitioners often formulate third batch(force),” the main purpose of which is to influence the attitude of certain groups of the public towards the institution deploying PR campaigns. The “third party” should include people who seem disinterested and do not belong to the organization, but who, due to their position, can influence the public (major publishers, famous scientists, writers, social and political figures, church representatives, athletes, etc. ). As public relations experts note, people tend to believe that “third parties” reflect their own, independent judgments.

Use of communication means. The effectiveness of the communication component of the PR program implementation largely depends on what forms of communication are used to disseminate messages. Conventional means of communication are classified into uncontrolled and controlled.

Uncontrolled means:

Press releases for all types of media. Articles, essays. Photographic materials. Press conferences. Press kits. Radio and television announcements (non-profit organizations). Various types of interviews. Personal appearances on radio and television. Special programs for radio and television. Reports from the scene. Informing editors, journalists and reporters. Special articles on business issues. Financial publicity. Product publicity. Illustrated publicity. Additional materials for editing (argumentation). Letters to the editor. Refutations (responses to accusations), etc.

Controlled means:

Print communication media: own press; brochures, information materials; reference books, manuals, books; letters, newsletters; notice boards, posters, leaflets; information shelves; internal periodic buildings; annual reports; memorial signs; exhibitions, expositions; mobile libraries, bookstores; reviews of information materials; boxes for complaints and suggestions; instructions and orders; paid tabs; written reports; tab accounts; financial calculations; price lists; educational materials, messages, benefits; information materials for consumers and other groups of the population; collections of legislative acts; displays of printed materials.

Audiovisual communication media: films about the work of the organization; slide materials; films; overhead projectors and bench presentations of materials; telephone calls, telephone directories, tape recordings; multi-screen presentation of materials; cassettes for VCRs; oral presentations using video materials; training games and messages; specially equipped vans and other vehicles.

Facilities interpersonal communication : official speeches, lectures and seminars; meetings " round tables"; joint discussions; question and answer sessions; oral statements, evidence; employee meetings; medical and other consultations; consultations; meetings, committee meetings; production meetings; informal discussion; demonstrations; learning programs; interview; personal instructions, advice; collective events; personal reports.

PR advertising (not intended for direct commercial benefit) : print and radio or television advertisements; appeals to the public, mission statements of an organization or institution, statements regarding positions on certain controversial issues; advertising the organization by mail; external design: posters, signs, logos, symbols; institutional advertising in Yellow Pages collections; advertising in transport and on vehicles, using aviation, balloons; advertising using special products: on calendars, ashtrays, pens, pencils, matchboxes, notebooks and other stationery or textile products; tricks or clever tricks that attract attention.

Principles of effective communication:

Truthfulness. Communication begins with creating a climate of trust.

Context. The context of the situation must provide opportunities for people to participate in events and respond to communication efforts.

Clarity. Communications should be submitted in a simple form. Words and wording must be equally understandable to both the recipient of the message and the sender.

Continuity and consistency. It is necessary to constantly maintain public interest in the organization.

Channels. It is necessary to use those existing communication channels that people turn to and trust.

Audience readiness. Communication should be done taking into account the ability of the audience.

The listed principles do not exhaust the conditions for effective communication. After all, it is not action and communication that are the goal of public relations, but the specific results of a PR program, formulated in the form of goals.

Fourth stage- program evaluation.

Components of the Appreciative Research Process

The range of issues of PR activities that can be assessed:

The total volume and individual components of the target program, compliance of the developed program with the goals, cost of expenses;

The focus of the program, activities in accordance with the plan;

Efficiency in achieving the intended goal, consequences, cost of services, efficiency of using available resources in comparison with alternative ways of using them.

Preliminary steps of the assessment process:

1. Agreeing on assessments with those who will use the results. Without such coordination, research ends up accumulating vast amounts of underutilized and unnecessary data.

2. Organizational commitment to evaluate and use research as a core component of implementationPR programs. Evaluative research should permeate the entire process of managing the sphere of public relations; should be financially supported as one of the central elements of activity at the stages of problem definition, planning and programming, implementation and evaluation of the program.

3. Achieving consensus within the department (structure)public relation regarding evaluation research.

4. Formulating clear, measurable program goals. Without the formulation of specific, measurable program goals, it is impossible to develop an evaluation study of program impact.

5. Determining the most effective criteria.

6. Determining the best ways to gather facts. Research is not always the best way determining the effectiveness of the PR program. An organization's documented records can often contain more reliable data.

7. Keeping Detailed RecordsPR programs.

8. Consideration of data from previous assessments. Each new cycle of the PR program implementation process can become more effective if the assessments of previous cycles are taken into account.

9. Assessment report. It is important to develop a reporting process to the organization's senior management.

10. Enrichment of professional knowledge.

Researchers in the field of public relations, as a rule, identify the following: assessment levels PR programs:

Preparation of criteria for evaluating the program plan;

Assessing the progress of the program;

Evaluation of program implementation results.

Criteria for evaluating a PR program. The criteria for evaluating a PR program at the stage of its preparation are a combination of subjective and objective assessments, including:

Completeness of source data. When drawing up the plan, some key positions may not be taken into account (priority public groups, new circumstances of the development of the situation);

Compliance of disseminated information and practical actions of the organization;

Determining quality criteria for presenting messages and conducting other elements of the program (evaluating the presentation of the message, its understanding and memorability).

Further assessment activities are related to determining the immediate effectiveness of the PR program.

During evaluation of the implementation of the PR program certain methods are used. Among them are methods for assessing the communication component of the implementation of a PR program. To study the reading audience, the following is used:

1. Maintain complete records of quantity prepared or common messages. The number of messages used by the media is recorded separately.

2. Determining the number of representatives of the target public who received messages (it is necessary to distinguish between the general and effective audience).

3. Determining the number of people who actually learned about the content of the message using technology - recognition method. This method involves segmenting readers into three levels:

Readers who notice (they easily remember seeing the ad);

Comprehensive readers (who have read half the text material and are willing to recall a significant part of it to prove it).

When studying radio and television audiences, four main methods are used:

Diary- when the respondent constantly keeps detailed records of everything he heard on the radio and saw on television. This method has the disadvantage of the presence of an element of bias. Method electronic meter allows you to keep electronic records of the use of home radio and television receivers, record waves, channels and time during the day. But at the same time, the counter cannot record who (how many people) watches TV or listens to the radio. This disadvantage is overcome by " live counter- when each family member has his own button that he presses when watching TV. The counter records who in the family is watching and what program, and sends information about this via telephone lines to the main computer. The disadvantage is the high cost of equipment for research. Telephone interview used during the broadcast of a certain program, or immediately after its completion.

The above methods are used by PR people to estimate implementation progress their programs. The next step is to evaluate the implementation of the PR program.

Evaluation of the results of the PR program is intended to document the extent to which the goals set out in the overall program plan have been achieved in relation to each priority public group. To do this, you need to find out the following things:

What exactly are people remember from messages that were disseminated by the organization during the implementation of the program.

The number of those who remembered the content of messages.

How many people have changed their opinion about the organization.

The number of people who changed their attitudes (stable, situation-independent inclinations).

The number of people who changed their behavior and began to act in the desired way.

The number of people who responded to the organization’s calls and actually demonstrated the expected line of behavior. In politics, achieving a planned goal or actually solving an acute problem.

When assessing the impact of a PR program on public behavior, they resort to direct and indirect research methods.

TO direct methods One can include calculations of the number of those who took part in organized events, came to a rally, called or sent a letter on a specific issue to an organization, etc. These observations do not require contacting special research organizations or developing special sociological methods.

TO methods indirect observations changes in people's behavior can include, for example, registration and reports on the reception of citizens by institutions and organizations on relevant issues, telephone calls, the number of visits to the stand at the exhibition. These are “unobtrusive” methods of informal research.

Interpretation of PR program evaluation results. A full and final assessment of the results of a PR program includes indicators of its impact:

On outgroups the public;

On the very organization;

General for the first and second social and cultural environment. This is difficult to do, so it is not always done research on a full assessment of the implementation of the PR program.

Particular attention should be paid to the interpretation of the results obtained. After all, you can interpret the negative results obtained from the PR program in three different ways:

1. Could be wrong theory, on which the program strategy was built.

2. The reason for the ineffectiveness of the program could be errors made during the preparation and (or) implementation of the program.

3. The program could have been successful, but the evaluation methods did not allow us to record the successful results of its implementation.

Effective use evaluation studies requires development special program their implementation throughout the entire process of implementing the PR program. Planning a PR program and planning an evaluation program are inseparable. The shortcomings of a PR program are quickly discovered as soon as it begins to be evaluated. If a program has sound conceptual foundations, is well designed, has clear objectives and is based on sound operating methods, evaluation is relatively easy. And vice versa.

Typology of the management process

Main stages of the management process

Management process

Organization management appears as a process of implementing a certain type of interrelated actions to form and use the organization’s resources to achieve its specific goals. Available various points perspective in defining the management process.

Let's introduce some of them:

1. Control How activity is implemented in a set of management processes, that is, targeted decisions and actions carried out by managers in a certain sequence and combination.

These management processes are improved along with the development of the organization itself. Management processes contain both hard, formal elements (rules, procedures, official powers), and quite soft ones (leadership style, organizational values). The goal of a specific management process is to change or maintain the existing management situation, which has, or may have an impact on the development of the organization.

2. Control organization appears as a process of implementing a certain set of specific interrelated actions. The peculiarity of the management process is that in its substantive interpretation it is not equivalent to all the activities of the organization to achieve certain interrelated goals, but includes only those functions and actions that are associated with coordination and establishment of interaction within the organization, with incentives to implement production and other activities.

Contents and set of actions and functions carried out in the management process directly depend on the type of organization (business, administrative, public, educational, military), on the size of the organization, as well as on the scope of its activities (production of goods or provision of services), on the level of management hierarchy(top management, middle level management, lower level of management), from the function within the organization (production, marketing, personnel, finance) and from many other factors.

The management process within an organization is characterized by the presence of homogeneous activities.

Scientists believe that it is possible to group all types of management activities into general management functions:

To this we must add that goal setting, i.e. the choice of goals and the formulation of tasks also relates to management.

Management process consists of the alternation of certain stages and manifests itself as a continuous sequence of purposeful actions of the management apparatus and the manager to achieve certain results.

Separation process into stages is a specific analytical tool that allows you to identify patterns in the management process and highlight those ways that will be able to improve it in a certain way.

Management process stage can be defined as a set of management operations and actions, which is characterized by qualitative certainty and homogeneity, reflecting the need for their existence.

Traditional management process is presented in the form of successively changing stages, such as goal setting, situation assessment, problem definition, and development of a management decision. Schematically this process presented in Fig. 1

Rice. 2 Contents of stages in the management process

According to a number of scientists, the logical diagram of the management process is as follows.

1 . First step At the beginning of the development of the management process, new goals emerge and new tasks are structured. Therefore, goal setting can be considered as the first step towards a logical scheme for the development of management as a process.

2 . The second step in this scheme is the development in the management system of a reaction to new tasks - which should lead to the development of the management process. Three types of reactions are possible.

First type- an attempt not to change anything in management or to carry out small, partial changes, focusing the main attention on identifying the reasons that require change..

Second type - stereotyped approach to solving emerging problems. This is an attempt to solve management problems almost independently of their content, nature and dynamics using previously proven approaches to transforming the management system. The most widespread approach to solving any new problems is to carry out organizational restructuring in management and create new management bodies.

Third type- comprehensive restructuring of the management system in accordance with the content and essence of new tasks arising before management, and the possibility of transforming management.

3 . The third step The logical scheme for the development of management is the restructuring of the fundamental principles on which the management system is built. This involves carrying out the principles underlying the management system in accordance with the essence and content of the tasks that management faces.

After a new subsystem of principles is formed in the management system, the next step begins

4 Fourth step restructuring of the structure and elements of the management system. Often this step is considered as an equivalent to the management process itself, because it is the restructuring of the structure, management methods, and management personnel that is considered as a management process.

Restructuring the structure and elements in the management system, the logical diagram of management development does not end. The final step remains - consolidating in the management process the new qualities and properties instilled in it during the process of change. This implies, Firstly, the corresponding development of the information-behavioral subsystem. Secondly , at this step, a regular study of the progress of development and analysis of the results of activities carried out as part of the restructuring are carried out.

Third, at this step, targeted adjustments are made to both the entire management process and its individual components. The adjustment is carried out with the aim of abandoning areas of management development that are not justified or impossible for full implementation, as well as carrying out new, previously unforeseen management transformations, the feasibility and necessity of which arose in the process of its development.

The identification of certain stages of the management process is associated with taking into account certain aspects of the process.

The relevance of the question about the stages of the leadership process is due to the fact that it runs like a red thread through all the activities of the organization. Efficiency can be compared to a clock. A well-functioning and clear mechanism will lead to the planned result. At the same time, a good management system is characterized by flexibility - the ability to adapt to new conditions.

The essence of management

Management refers to the management of an object or subject (person). Management as a process is a set of various types activities, coordination, maintaining order necessary for the successful operation of the enterprise, achieving goals and development.

The management process includes solving a tactical and strategic problem:

• the task associated with tactics requires maintaining the harmony, integrity and effectiveness of the elements of the controlled object;
• strategy implies development, improvement and positive change in state.

Characteristics of management processes

The management process is continuous and cyclical. It consists of managerial labor, subject, means and final product. Management of any object is associated with periodic repetition of individual stages of work. These may be phases of collecting and analyzing data, developing an organization for its implementation.

The technology of the management process is improved along with the development of the organization. If a manager is late in making decisions, then the management process becomes chaotic and inertial.

A closed sequence of management actions repeated to achieve goals is called the management cycle. The beginning of the cycle is the identification of the problem, the result is the achievement of a working result. The frequency of management processes helps to find patterns and principles common to organizations of different profiles.

Management principles

The foundations of management processes are expressed through fundamental principles. They are objective and consistent with the laws of management. The list of general principles of management that can be found in textbooks is not small. Among them are:

• focus;
• feedback;
• information transformation;
• optimality;
• prospects.

The formation and operation of a management system is based on several other principles.

Division of labor	Management functions are separated from each other and become the basis for the management structure. Departments and teams appear that perform different but uniform types of work.
Combining functions	Combination of operations in management functions. The relationship between the functions of governing bodies and the internal structure.
Centrism and independence	The management process and organizational structure remain centralized and independent from the external environment.
Subordination in the management system	The information flow links top, middle and lower management levels in stages.

The implementation of the principles contributes to the effective integration of management functions and strengthening ties at all levels of management bodies.

Management functions

The professional activities of managers gradually reflect management functions.

Grouping functions	The management process includes activities
General (universal) functions	Planning, forecasting, coordination, organization, control, accounting function and others. Contribute to the development, improvement and interconnection of management processes.
Special Features	Administration, personnel management, motivation. As tools for common functions, they help organize productive activities.
Secondary functions	Maintenance of management processes for the successful functioning of all

Based on the nature of the activity, the functions used in various fields related to production, business, economics, technology.

Henri Fayol divided the management functions of an industrial organization into 6 groups: administrative, commercial, production, accounting, insurance and accounting activities.

Stages of the management process

Every management action and decision is accompanied by the unity of information, goals, society and other aspects. The essence of management reflects which can be presented as a set of stages.

The management process includes stages that alternate continuously.

In addition to the above stages, the management process includes actions to implement a management decision.

7 stages of the HR process

Management tasks in the field of human resources are varied. The human resource management process consists of seven stages.

• Planning of staffing for all functions of the enterprise.
• Attracting personnel, forming personnel reserve, selection and recruitment.
• Work motivation. Creation of material ( wage, bonuses) and a non-material motivation system for the formation of a stable team.
• System of adaptation and career guidance for employees. As a result, everyone must get to work quickly, know corporate goals, and understand the essence and requirements for their activities.
• Evaluation of employees and labor. Assessment of knowledge, skills, skills for efficient work. A system for evaluating everyone’s work and informing the team as a whole.
• Relocation, career planning, personnel rotation.
• Training personnel to replace managers. Improving the qualifications of management workers.

An effective personnel management process is impossible without developing and increasing the professional potential of workers. This factor becomes decisive in production and labor productivity.

Project management

Project management processes are a collection of functions and specific activities.

The entire project and each performer can be assessed using a number of indicators. This is the volume, period and quality of work performed in accordance with the deadlines, the amount of invested resources (material, financial), the personnel composition of the project team, the expected level of risk.

Project management processes are associated with solving the following tasks:

• formulation of project goals;
• search and selection of solutions for project implementation;
• creating a structure (team of performers, resources, deadlines and budget);
• connection with the external environment;
• management of a team of performers and coordination of work progress.

Information Management

Information is a body of knowledge, information about any event, fact, phenomenon or process. In production management, information becomes a necessary means of communication between employees.

The great importance of information in a management system is associated with its versatility. It is not only the subject and product of managerial work, but also a set of data on the state of the management system, internal and external environment.

Information management processes represent the stages of collecting, transmitting, transforming, processing and applying information. Storage and destruction of the information base are distinguished as separate processes.

Management of risks

Risk management in any company is not a one-time event, but an ongoing necessity. Risk management has become a stage of business management, without which it is impossible to make a profit and achieve goals. includes five stages of targeted action.

In practice, these processes are not always performed in this order or can be carried out simultaneously.

The overall picture should be supplemented with feedback for each stage, meaning a return, if necessary, to the completed stage. The final stage is associated with conclusions and final evaluation. The results should be used when working to assess and minimize risks in the future.

Production technology management

Depends on organizational structure, which is presented at modern enterprises in three versions.

• The centralized method of management involves the concentration of functions in departments. In production, only line management is actually present. Therefore, centralization is applicable only in small production.
• Decentralization - the structure of the management process is associated with the transfer of all functions to workshops. The workshops become partially independent divisions.
• A combination of centralization and decentralized systems is used by most manufacturing enterprises. Operational issues are resolved in workshops or bureaus, and management methods and quality control remain with management departments. The workshops have their own management apparatus and conduct the entire technological process.

Financial management

A financial management system should be present even in a small company and consist not only of accounting. The management process includes five areas of financial work.

Business process control	Helps identify possible cash losses
Creation of a financial department	The financial structure and the allocation of financial departments mean a clear distribution of responsibilities and effective control of cash flows.
Control of the movement of money and goods	Carried out using financial plan cash flows.
Introduction of management accounting	It is implemented after the development of indicators to assess the state of finances and the efficiency of departments.
Budget management	The management process includes financial departments based on analytical information.

Management process analysis

The main purpose of management analysis is to provide management with information to make informed decisions. It includes three areas of analysis:

• retrospective (examines information about past events);
• operational (analysis of the current situation);
• perspective (short-term and strategic analysis possible situation in the future).

Improving the management system

The process of improving the management system is carried out on the basis of analysis of management data, accounting. To assess its effectiveness, it is necessary to calculate a number of coefficients: controllability, level of labor automation, labor efficiency, economic management efficiency, management effectiveness, labor productivity.

Improving the management system is an inevitable process for a successful organization. At this stage the management process includes, for example:

1) audit of the management system;

2) checking compliance with legislation, international standards, recommendations of the Bank of the Russian Federation;

3) development of measures to improve the management system and update internal documentation;

4) cooperation of the board of directors with shareholders and the formation of proposals.

The current state of society and the economy contributes to a rethinking of management and managerial professionalism. It becomes important for the manager to actively work on the development of personnel, the main resource of the enterprise. A successful manager knows how to look to the future and show flexibility in making decisions in the face of complete unpredictability of the external environment.