From the first times of Christianity, the shepherd's crook became one of the indispensable attributes of a bishop. The Pope, as Bishop of Rome, also used it. But over time, this tradition disappeared, and since the 15th century, the high priest of the Western Church did not use a staff. To some extent it was replaced by the so-called ferula, the papal cross, which was carried out on some occasions. For example, when opening jubilee years (then multiples of a century), the pope knocked with a ferula on the Holy Doors of St. Peter's Basilica, after which the doors remained open for twelve months.
The high staff could be crowned with a simple cross, but more often with a special, triple one, and this, like the papal tiara, symbolized not only the Trinity, but also the possession of the three kingdoms. By the 19th century, the idea had become established that ferula meant, first of all, the earthly, autocratic power of the Roman pontiff. And for several centuries the bishop’s pastoral staff had a curved pommel, which emphasized not so much Christian humility as subordination to the hierarchy.
In the second half of the twentieth century, the Catholic Church decided to reconsider its relevance to the era. In 1962, Pope John XXIII convened the Second Vatican Council, which adopted many important decisions and documents, in particular on the possibility of using living national languages in the liturgy. The meeting was overshadowed by the fact that John XXIII died in 1963. But the new pontiff, Paul VI, brought the matter to an end. To symbolically embody the renewal, he ordered a new ferula. The order was completed by the Neapolitan sculptor Lello Scorcelli. And at the last meeting of the Council, December 18, 1965, the pope found himself in the hands of a new staff, of extraordinary simplicity and expressiveness. The sight of the ferule with the Savior crucified on a rough, uncouth cross amazed everyone. Conservatives, of whom there were many at the Renovation Council, were horrified.
Pope Paul VI at the festive service in St. Peter's Basilica. Vatican, June 29, 1978
Paul VI liked the new staff so much that he took it in his hands at all solemn events, including mournful ones. The pontiff held the memorial service for Aldo Moro, a politician and friend, who was killed by terrorists, with Ferula Scorcelli. In 1978, the staff went first to John Paul I and then to John Paul II. Karol Wojtyla, the first Slav pope in history, made it a symbol of his pontificate. The main thing for him was an appeal to the equality of all people before God and the mystery of the Cross, to Faith as Freedom. Always and everywhere, on all continents, the staff was with him. We saw the cheerful Pope Wojtyła, full of physical strength, when he, with a crucifix in his hands, told the world: “Do not be afraid!” With this staff he welcomed the new millennium, opening the Holy Gates in the anniversary year 2000. Then we saw how the bent, exhausted by illnesses, John Paul II prayed with concentration, closing his eyes, hugging his staff and pressing his cheek to the feet of the crucified Christ.
The popes of our century - Benedict XVI and Francis - use other ferules most often. But Lello Scorcelli's staff serves. The pontiffs take it in their hands, reciting the prayers of the Rosary.
Material from the Encyclopedia of Signs and Symbols
| staff, stick An ancient emblem of strength, symbolically associated with the energy of trees. One of the main attributes of participants in various rituals (including ritual rounds), deities and demons. The magical properties of the staff, productive and protective, are often associated with its “origin”. Special power is attributed to a staff or stick that was in contact with a snake. In the traditional view, a staff, especially one made of specific types of wood (for example, hazel), serves as an emblem of personal power or its source. The shepherd's crook (a stick curved at the upper end with a hook) is an attribute of many gods (for example, all the Good Shepherds) and saints. Gradually it transformed into a pastoral (for example, episcopal) crozier. Closely associated with the symbolism of the phallus, snake, hand (or pointing finger), etc. Similar to a rod, a rod, a branch, as well as some household utensils (poker, grip, broom, shovel). As a weapon, the staff is identical with the club or mace as the royal weapon. Basic values:
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The whip and the shepherd's staff (Augur stick), as signs of the pharaoh, carry symbolism of power and submission (limitation), respectively.
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The staff represents masculine strength, power, dignity, magical power, travel, pilgrimage. Symbol of the Sun and the world axis. The staff is an attribute of all Good Shepherds. For Buddhists it means law and order, the staff of the Buddha, i.e. his teachings. Christ as Good Shepherd, pilgrimage. The staff with rings signifies the power and authority of the bishop; the staff, which is carried in front of those holding a high church position, symbolizes the dignity of the official position; a staff in the left hand indicates the rank of cardinal, archbishop, bishop, abbot or abbess. The pilgrim's staff became a symbol of Saints John the Baptist, Jeremiah, Christopher, Ursula and others. The staff covered with shoots is a symbol of Saints Ethelred and Joseph of Arimathea. Among the Egyptians, the staff and flail are the main attributes of Osiris as the judge of the dead; a staff with a pen for writing symbolizes the awakening soul and is an attribute of Teuth. In the Greco-Roman tradition, the messenger's staff, like the caduceus, is the main attribute of Hermes (Mercury). Among the Indians, three sticks tied together in a staff in the Vaishnava tradition symbolize the three realities or three gunas that make up the phenomenal world, the control of thought, word and deed of a saint or sage.
Dictionary of symbols. 2000 .
Synonyms:See what “Staff” is in other dictionaries:
Husband. staff (from a plow, bipod, pole), traveler's stick, cane (reed), batog, badig, batozhok, prop, church, old. rod, stick (staff with a stick, or with a crutch), companion; In general, a staff is longer than a cane or a stick. Bishop's staff, staff, like... ... Dahl's Explanatory Dictionary
See stick to take hold of a pilgrim's staff... Dictionary of Russian synonyms and expressions similar in meaning. under. ed. N. Abramova, M.: Russian Dictionaries, 1999. staff club, stick, staff, stick, stick, cane, crutch, pateritsa, cane Dictionary... ... Synonym dictionary
STAFF, staff, plural. staves of staves, husband. A long cane with a stick or knob. Wanderer with a staff. “Where is your walking staff?” Lermontov. “Plunging the tip of his staff into the oak floor, Patriarch Joachim entered.” A.N. Tolstoy. Ushakov's explanatory dictionary. D.N.... ... Ushakov's Explanatory Dictionary
STAFF, ah, husband. A long and thick stick with a pointed supporting end. Wanderer with a staff. P. shepherd. Bishop's, abbot's p. (a sign of their ecclesiastical authority). | decrease road, shka, husband. Ozhegov's explanatory dictionary. S.I. Ozhegov, N.Yu. Shvedova. 1949… … Ozhegov's Explanatory Dictionary
staff- staff, pl. staves, gen. staves (staffs, staffs are not recommended) ... Dictionary of difficulties of pronunciation and stress in modern Russian language
STAFF- a symbol of the path and knowledge, which is the only support of a person. The staff serves as a symbol of the human Buddha (Bodisattva) and an attribute of a Buddhist monk, although strict ritual prohibits Buddhist monks from touching the ground with the staff. At home they hang it on... ... Symbols, signs, emblems. Encyclopedia
Good Shepherd (Jesus holds a shepherd's crook in his hand) The crook is a cane of a special type and purpose. It is believed that in ancient times the staff ... Wikipedia
Staff- 1. See Rod. 2. The bishop's staff, different from the staff of the staff that he uses during divine services. The daily bishop's staff is usually a long wooden stick with a frame and a thickening at the top made of carved bone, wood,... ... Orthodoxy. Dictionary-reference book
STAFF- If someone gives you a staff in a dream, the dream means that you will receive the expected support. Go with the help of the staff, your problems are already solved. Look closely at the staff. Perhaps you will see some patterns on it, words on an unfamiliar... ... Big family dream book
P'osoh is a stick on which one leans when walking (2 Samuel 3:29). It was also an accessory for a shepherd (1 Samuel 17:40) and was sometimes made with a hook at the end to catch a sheep by the leg. In some cases, the word “staff” is used as a symbol of strength (Ps. ... Bible. Old and New Testaments. Synodal translation. Biblical encyclopedia arch. Nikifor.
Books
- Staff. Sunset Staff. Veil of the night. Cup of darkness. Sword of Dawn, Sergei Ratkevich. Beggar? Minstrel? Mage? Monster? Kurt doesn't even know who he is. Fate hands him a magician's staff, and an unknown prophecy calls him to go through all the dangers of war. But life is not worth...
A staff is a cane of a certain type and purpose. The main function of the staff was to support it when walking. It is worth highlighting the monastic staff - a sign of the power of the bishop. There are “liturgical” and “non-liturgical” staves. The top of the “liturgical staff” is crowned with a cross; such staffs are intended for ceremonies and, therefore, are more richly decorated. “Non-liturgical” staves look simpler and are used in everyday life.
This dry definition in no way can express the respect that ordinary peasants felt for unfamiliar travelers wandering along the road, leaning on a staff, cannot tell about the amazing attitude towards this simple object. The staff... This is not just a stick that beggar wanderers leaned on in the past. In ancient times, staves were endowed with special powers, often magical. The staff represents strength, power, dignity, wisdom and old age, magical power. It is no coincidence that the attribute of almost all legendary elders and simply respected wanderers was a staff: the sage Lao Tzu and the god Shousin in China, the wandering poets Saigyo and Basho in Japan, the epic elders in Russia, the bard Ossian and the Druids in Ireland and Scotland, Moses ... This list can be continued endlessly. In many European pagan beliefs, the staff was associated with the axis of the world and the sun (the head of the staff was often round, symbolizing the Sun).
You might think that in all countries the attitude towards the staff was the same, but this is not true. In each culture, it was associated with something specific, characteristic only of that cultural environment.
In Ancient Egypt, almost all gods and goddesses were depicted with a staff; each of them, from Ra to Set, had his own special staff. It was the main attribute of Osiris, the god-judge of the dead; a staff with a feather was a mandatory attribute of the god of writing Thoth (aka Teuth).
Among the Indian Vaishnavas (Hindu who worship Vishnu and his forms), a staff consisting of three sticks symbolizes the three gunas (three components of reality): the guna of goodness, the guna of passion, the guna of ignorance - which determine the way of life, thinking and activity of the soul. A saint or sage, possessing such a staff, demonstrated his belonging to this direction of philosophy.
In the ancient tradition, a staff with wings (the staff of the messenger) was inseparably associated with Hermes (Mercury in Rome), and a staff entwined with a vine was an indispensable attribute of Bacchus, the god of wine and his companions the Bacchae.
In Christianity, a staff is an attribute of all “Good Shepherds” (usually shepherds walked a lot - the pastures were far from the settlements, and they also used staffs to drive cattle). In Catholicism and Protestantism, Christ as the “Good Shepherd” is also depicted with a staff. In general, the theme of staves in Christianity is very well developed: all the Old Testament elders walked with staves, and pilgrims also used them. The Christian staff is an attribute of wisdom and power. At ceremonies it is carried in front of a person occupying a high position, and, when held in the left hand, it indicates the post of abbey or cardinal.
And finally, the most powerful and kind wizard of our time, Santa Claus, never parts with his staff.
Lamb
John called Christ the Lamb of God, and therefore, over time, the lamb became the main iconographic attribute of John himself. This gentle beast, symbolizing the sacrifice that Christ made for the redemption of mankind, stood at the feet of the Baptist, sat on the book that he held in his hands, or was placed in a round medallion nearby.
Keys
The Galilean fisherman, who became the “prince of the apostles”, and then the first bishop of Rome and, as was considered in the West, the head of the universal Church, was usually depicted in the Middle Ages with one or two keys in his hands. These were the keys to the Kingdom of Heaven, which, as stated in the Gospel of Matthew, were given to him by Christ himself: “Whatever you bind on earth will be bound in heaven, and whatever you loose on earth will be loosed in heaven.” The Keys of Peter over time became the most important symbol of the power of the papacy, and therefore in the 16th century, when a wave of Protestant iconoclasm swept across Europe, their numerous images (as well as the figures of the chief apostle themselves) became one of the main targets for destruction.
Sword
The main attribute of the Apostle Paul was the instrument of his execution. Like Peter, he was killed during the persecution organized by Emperor Nero. But if Peter, a Jew by origin, was crucified (according to legend, as a sign of humility, he asked the executioners to nail him to the cross not like Jesus, but upside down), then Paul was a Roman citizen and had the right to a more humane execution: his head was cut off.
Sink
Many attributes of saints have nothing to do with their earthly biography. James the Elder, one of the first disciples of Christ, who was executed in Jerusalem around 44, would be very surprised to learn that his main sign was the scallop shell. The history of this symbol began in medieval Spain, where the legend spread that it was Jacob who once baptized these lands and that his remains, with angelic help, were transferred from the Holy Land to the west of the Iberian Peninsula, to Santiago de Compostela (from the Spanish name Apostle - Iago). Pilgrims who from the 10th–11th centuries went to the tomb of St. Jacob from all over Europe brought back seashells - this was a sign that they had truly achieved their goal. Over time, shells turned into the main symbol of pilgrimage, and Jacob himself began to be depicted in the guise of a pilgrim - with a bag, a staff and a wide-brimmed traveling hat with a shell sewn to it.
Oblique cross
The elder brother of the Apostle Peter, who was the first of the twelve disciples to follow Christ, according to legend, was crucified in Greek Patras on an oblique cross in the shape of the Latin letter X. In the Middle Ages, many lands (from Georgia and Rus' to Scotland and Burgundy) declared him their baptist or patron saint. According to Scottish legend, in 832, the Pictish king Aengus II, preparing for battle with superior English forces, promised that if he won, he would make St. Andrew as the patron of his kingdom. On the day of the battle, a cross of clouds appeared in the sky, and Aengus defeated the enemy. That is why, as legend has it, the flag of Scotland became a white St. Andrew's cross on a blue background.
Knife
The Apostle Bartholomew preached Christianity in Asia Minor and Mesopotamia, reached India, then, together with Judas Thaddeus, brought a new faith to Armenia and there, in the city of Albanople, was martyred. The most common version of his deeds is that he was flayed alive and then crucified. Therefore, in the Middle Ages, he became the patron of everyone who works with leather (from dyers and tanners to glovemakers and bookbinders), and his main attributes were his own skin, which he often holds in his hands, or a knife - an instrument of terrible torture.
Square
Thomas, whom ancient legends declared the baptist of India, was considered the patron of builders and architects in the Middle Ages, and therefore was often depicted with a square. The thing is that the apocryphal “Acts of Thomas” (III century) told how the Indian king entrusted the experienced carpenter Thomas with the construction of his palace, after which he managed to convert many of his subjects, and then the sovereign himself, to Christianity.
Angel
Since the 4th–5th centuries, in theology and then in iconography, the four evangelists (Matthew, Mark, Luke and John) were correlated with the four beings mentioned in the vision of the Old Testament prophet Ezekiel and in the Revelation of John the Theologian. Both texts describe four winged animals with the characteristics of a lion, a calf, a man and an eagle, which surround the heavenly flame or throne of the Lord. The attribute of Matthew, the author of the first of the Gospels, which opens with the earthly genealogy of Jesus Christ, was chosen to be a man or an angel.
a lion
In front of the Venetian Doges' Palace stands a granite column with the figure of a winged lion - this is the symbol of the Evangelist Mark, whom, according to legend, the Apostle Peter sent to preach in Egypt, where he became the first bishop of Alexandria. In the 9th century, Venetian merchants stole his relics from there (Alexandria had long since fallen under Muslim rule) and transported the shrine to their homeland. A luxurious basilica was built for the remains (its successor, which began to be built in the 11th century, has survived to this day). Over time, St. Mark, having displaced St. Theodore, became the main patron of Venice, and his attribute, the winged lion, became the coat of arms of the republic and a symbol of its dominion.
Taurus
Unlike the attributes of other saints, which appeared much later, the symbols of the evangelists were often depicted not with them, but instead of them. Taurus is Luke, just as the lion is Mark, and the eagle is John. In the early Middle Ages, you can sometimes find “monster” evangelists - with a human body crowned with the head of the corresponding beast. When the attribute animal, as happens more often, appears side by side with its “master,” it may appear in a separate segment of the image (like a coat of arms placed above the owner’s head) or lie at his feet like a pet. Sometimes, perched behind the evangelist, he seems to be dictating a sacred text to him or holding a scroll already written in his teeth. St. Luke, the author of the third Gospel, in the Middle Ages was considered the patron of doctors (in the New Testament he calls himself a physician) and artists (it was believed that he painted the first image of the Virgin Mary).
Eagle
John, the beloved disciple of Christ, who is considered the author of the Apocalypse and the last of the Gospels, has two main attributes - an eagle and a cup from which a dragon or snake emerges. Moreover, if in the iconography of the ancient Greek god-healer Asclepius, the snake on the cup symbolized the power of healing (this is where modern symbols of medicine come from), then in the cup of John the reptile personifies deadly poison. According to legend, during the persecution started by Emperor Nero, the apostle was taken in chains to Rome, where he was sentenced to death and given a cup of poison to drink, but he remained unharmed.
Stones
Stephen, who along with six other deacons was responsible for distributing relief to the poor members of the Jerusalem Christian community, is considered the first martyr. According to the Acts of the Apostles, he was accused of “blasphemous words against Moses and God” and - either by the verdict of the Sanhedrin, or on the initiative of the crowd - he was stoned outside the city walls. In the Middle Ages, Stephen was most often depicted with the instruments of his murder - stones that were stuck into his head or lay in his hands or on a book.
Vessel of peace
The harlot, so revered in the Middle Ages, who became a repentant sinner, was “born” from the merger in the Christian tradition of three different women who were mentioned in the Gospels. This is the nameless sinner, who in the house of the Pharisee, in tears, anointed Christ’s feet with myrrh and wiped them with her hair, Mary of Bethany, sister of Martha, who begged Jesus to raise their brother Lazarus, and “Mary called Magdalene,” who was delivered by Christ from evil spirits and was present at his crucifixion and burial. In the Middle Ages, Mary Magdalene became the patroness of prostitutes, hairdressers (because, having repented, she went naked and covered only with long hair), gardeners (due to the fact that the risen Christ appeared to her in the guise of a gardener) and perfumers (in memory of the world that she anointed Jesus' feet and was about to anoint his dead body). Her main attribute, a vessel with incense, is also connected with the last episode.
Crucifix in the horns of a deer
According to legend, the Roman military leader Placidus became a Christian (and changed his name to Eustathius) after he had a vision while hunting. Between the antlers of a deer, which he had been chasing for a long time, the crucified Christ appeared to him, asking him: “Why are you pursuing me, because I desire your salvation?” As a result, he and his entire family suffered martyrdom when, by order of Emperor Hadrian, they were thrown into a red-hot copper bull. In the Middle Ages, Eustathius became the patron saint of hunters, and then, from the 14th century, one of the fourteen patron saints (Saints George the Victorious, Dionysius of Paris, Margaret of Alexandria, Barbara, Christopher, Erasmus, etc.), who were considered especially effective in the fight against diseases and other misfortunes. The story of the vision of Christ (or the crucifixion) in the antlers of a deer from the life of St. Eustathia later migrated into the legend of St. Hubert of Liège (VII–VIII centuries), who also became the patron saint of hunters, so it is easy to confuse them in the images.
Organ, harp
One of the most popular Roman martyrs at the end of the Middle Ages was declared the patroness of music, and she began to be depicted with various musical instruments (most often with a portable organ). A young Christian of noble blood, she took a vow of chastity, but her parents decided to marry her to the pagan Valerian. Walking to the crown, she prayed to God and, without listening to pagan music, sang spiritual chants or, according to a later version, played the organ. As a result, she managed to dissuade her husband from married life and convince him to accept Christianity. When the prefect of Turkey Almachius ordered her to make a sacrifice to the pagan gods, she refused and was sentenced to death. However, the executioner was unable to cut off her head, and she lived for three more days, calling on those around her to convert.
Lattice
The archdeacon of the Roman Christian community was martyred during the persecution begun in 258 by Emperor Valerian. Since Lawrence was responsible for the property of the Church and for helping those in need, the Roman prefect demanded that he hand over all the treasures to the authorities. Having asked for a three-day reprieve, Lawrence distributed almost the entire treasury to the poor and came to the prefect with the poor, the crippled and the blind - “the true treasure of the Church.” After that, he was fried alive on an iron grate. According to legend, during his execution he mockingly said to his tormentors: “You baked one side, turn it to the other and eat my body!” In the Middle Ages, Lawrence was revered as the patron saint of the poor. The Escorial monastery dedicated to him, which the Spanish king Philip II (1556–1598) erected near Madrid, resembles in plan the grate on which the martyr was once roasted.
Arrows
The head of the Praetorian Guard and secret Christian was executed by order of Emperor Diocletian: the executioners shot him with bows and threw his body. However, despite his wounds, he remained alive and boldly went to the emperor to show his steadfastness in faith. Then they threw stones at him, and his corpse was thrown into the Great Sewer. The execution scene became Sebastian's iconographic signature. Apparently, thanks to the arrows that covered his martyr, from the 14th century he began to be revered as an intercessor against the plague - the attack of the epidemic has since ancient times been likened to the arrows that an angry Lord sends to people.
Shoes
The patrons of shoemakers, the brothers Crispin and Crispinian, according to legend, were born into a noble family, and then trained as shoemakers, settled in Soissons and, in order to convert poor customers to the true faith, began to give them free shoes.
Head in hands
In medieval iconography there are many cephalophore saints (“head-bearers”). The most famous of them is St. Dionysius, considered the first bishop of Paris. We know little about him reliably, but around 250 he was beheaded along with his comrades, the priest Rusticus and the deacon Eleutherius. According to legend, after the execution he took his head in his hands and walked north through Montmartre (translated as “hill of martyrs”). In the place where he fell, he was buried. In the 7th century, under the Frankish king Dagobert, the monastery of Saint-Denis arose there, which became the tomb of the French monarchs.
Ticks, breasts
Agatha is one of those martyrs whose iconographic attributes were both the instrument of torture and the injured organ. A young Christian of noble blood, she rejected the advances of the Roman prefect Quintian. He sent Agatha to a brothel, then they threw the girl into prison and there they tore off her breasts with tongs. However, the Apostle Peter, who appeared before her, healed her wounds, and during the next round of torture, an earthquake occurred in the city, and the prefect's palace collapsed. Nevertheless, Agatha eventually died in prison. A year after her death, the Etna volcano erupted, but the inhabitants of Catania saved their city from fire and lava by putting out a cover that covered the saint’s grave. In the Middle Ages, Agatha was revered as the patroness of Catania and all of Sicily, a protector from earthquakes, eruptions, fires and lightning and, of course, a healer who helped with breast diseases.
Wool comb
Often the instrument of a saint’s martyrdom not only became an iconographic attribute, but also determined his posthumous specialization as an intercessor. Blasius, an Armenian physician who became the bishop of Sevastia (now the city of Sivas in Turkey), was revered in the medieval West as the patron of wool carders. According to legend, before being beheaded, he was tortured with a metal comb, which is used to comb sheep's wool. Blasius was also often depicted with candles - in memory of two candles that were brought to him in prison by a poor woman whose pigs he miraculously saved from a wolf. In the Germanic lands, where the name Blasius was associated with the verb “blasen” (“to blow”, “to blow”), he was represented with a horn and was considered a protector from storms and storms.
Baby Jesus
Throughout late medieval Europe, huge frescoes depicting a giant carrying the infant Christ on his shoulders could be seen either inside churches or on their external walls. This is St. Christopher, who was revered as the patron saint of travelers and protector from sudden death, was believed that whoever looked at his image would not die that day. According to legend, this giant once entered the service of Satan, but when he saw that the devil was afraid of the cross, he realized that God was stronger, went over to his side and began to carry travelers across a stormy river. One day, among his burdens was a child. Taking him in his arms, Christopher felt that the burden was becoming heavier. "Who are you?" - asked the giant, and the child replied that he was Christ, the creator of the world, and as proof he ordered Christopher to drive a staff into the ground: it would flourish and bear fruit every day. And so it happened. In the Christian East, it was believed that the saint came from the people of the Dog-Glavians, and on icons he was often depicted with a dog’s head
Flask with urine
The lives of the brothers Cosmas and Damian, like many other early Christian martyrs, barely emerge through the fog of legend (it is unknown whether they even existed). According to legend, these Christian doctors did not take money from patients for treatment, healed not only people, but also animals, and were tortured in Syria during the persecution organized by Emperor Diocletian. Their most famous miracle was the salvation of a Roman clergyman from gangrene, to whom they appeared in a dream, cut off his diseased leg, and replaced it with the healthy limb of a recently deceased Moor. In the medieval West, Cosmas and Damian were revered as the patron saints of doctors and were depicted with the appropriate attributes - surgical instruments, jars of medicine or a bottle of urine (from which the doctor was supposed to make a diagnosis).
Ticks
According to the testimony of the church historian Eusebius Pamphilus, “the pagans grabbed Apollonia, a wonderful old virgin, beat her in the jaws, knocked out all her teeth; they made a fire outside the city and threatened to burn her alive if she did not utter blasphemous exclamations with them. Apollonia, having prayed a little, stepped aside, took a running jump into the fire and was burned.” The main attribute of this saint, who, according to legend, died during the persecution of Emperor Decius, was the pliers with which the executioners pulled out her teeth. She herself turned into an intercessor against dental diseases and the patroness of dentists.
Torture wheels
The main attribute of St. Catherine, one of the most popular Christian martyrs and patroness of students, wheelwrights and millers, became her instrument of torture - a spiked wheel. A young intellectual from a noble family, she converted to Christianity, after which Christ appeared to her, gave her a ring and called her his bride. When Emperor Maxentius began persecuting Christians, she was not afraid to shame him and easily defeated 50 pagan sages who were assigned to debate with her. Captivated by Catherine's beauty and wisdom, the emperor invited her to marry him, and for her refusal he sentenced her to death. For this purpose, an installation was built that consisted of four wheels studded with spikes. When Catherine touched the execution instrument, the wheels fell apart. In some images they lie at her feet, in others she holds their tiny “models” in her hands.
Tower
According to legend, which places the action either in Nicomedia (now in Turkey) or in Iliopolis Phoenician (Lebanon), Barbara was the daughter of the local aristocrat Dioscurus. To protect his daughter’s beauty from attacks, her father imprisoned her in a tower. This did not stop Varvara from accepting Christianity and keeping the faith, despite threats and torture. In the end, her father himself beheaded her, for which he was incinerated by lightning. In the Middle Ages, Varvara was considered a protector against lightning and fire, and then became the patroness of artillery. Her main attribute is a tower, most often with three windows: according to legend, during the reconstruction of her “elite” prison, she ordered not two, but three windows to be made there - as a reminder of the Trinity.
Eyes
Sometimes the name of a saint gives birth to, or at least corrects, a legend about him. Lucia, a young Christian from Syracuse in Sicily, decided to preserve her virginity and refused to marry a pagan. He reported her to Governor Paskhazia, who ordered the girl to sacrifice to idols, and when she again refused, he ordered her to be taken to a brothel. But nothing came of it: even a team of bulls could not move Lucia from her place. As a result, the Christian woman was cut with a sword. Apparently, later, due to the fact that the name of the martyr contains the root “lux” - “light”, a legend arose that Lucia tore out her eyes and sent them to her hated fiancé, but the Lord restored her sight. So in the Middle Ages, Lucia, who was often depicted with eyes in her hands, on a book, a tray, and even on a twig, became a holy healer of eye diseases.
The Dragon
Once one of the most popular Christian saints, the patroness of pregnant women and women in labor. In 1969, the Vatican deleted St. Margaret from the church calendar, since her life was too reminiscent of the legend. According to legend, during the time of the emperors Diocletian or Maximian, this young Christian woman, having rejected the sexual advances of the governor Olybrius, was imprisoned. There the devil appeared to her in the guise of a dragon and swallowed her. But Margarita had a small crucifix in her hands: with its help, a hole formed in the belly of the demonic monster, and the girl got out to freedom. Therefore, in the Middle Ages, Margarita was depicted rising from the belly of a dragon (often the hem of her dress sticks out from its mouth) or trampling on her defeated enemy.
Lamb
The white lamb standing next to Agnes or sitting in her arms is one of the most ancient attributes of saints, which apparently arose from consonance. Although the name of the martyr comes from the Greek root “agnos” (“pure”, “immaculate”), it is similar to the Latin word “agnus” - “lamb”. This gentle beast recalls the sacrifice of Christ, whom John the Baptist called the Lamb of God. According to legend, Agnes, like many other early Christian martyrs, in an effort to preserve her virginity, rejected the matchmaking of the son of a Roman prefect, and then refused to make a sacrifice to the pagan gods and was eventually beheaded. In the Middle Ages she was revered as the patroness of virgins and betrothed girls.
Three purses, Three young men in a barrel, Ship
Patron of sailors, travelers, virgins, children, orphans, prisoners and many others, St. Nicholas, Archbishop of Myra in Lycia, was and remains one of the most popular Christian saints. His many specializations and attributes go back to the benefits and miracles he performed: helping three poor girls whom their father was ready to turn into prostitutes because he could not raise a dowry to marry them off (St. Nicholas secretly planted a purse of gold on each of them); the rescue of three children (according to other versions, young men or soldiers), who, during a famine, were cut into pieces by a butcher (or tavern owner) and thrown into a barrel (St. Nicholas resurrected them); the resurrection of a sailor who fell from the mast in a storm, etc. Due to the consonance of the name of the city of Mira and the word “mirra,” Nikolai also became the patron saint of perfumers. At the end of the Middle Ages, the idea arose that it was he who brought gifts on Christmas night - thus Santa Claus was born.
A vat or barrel of water, a millstone
Often the biographies of early saints begin to change rapidly over time to explain their later specialization. St. Florian, a Roman Christian military leader who was martyred in Lorch (Upper Austria) for refusing to persecute his co-religionists and sacrifice to the Roman gods, at some point became revered as a protector from fire and patron of firefighters: according to legend, he once extinguished fire using a barrel of water. Apparently, after this, episodes began to be added to his actions that were supposed to reinforce this role (for example, as if he commanded a detachment of firefighting soldiers). Since he was killed by drowning with a millstone in the River Enns, Florian was also considered a protector against floods and a savior of drowning people. In 1184, Pope Lucius III transferred part of his relics to Krakow. So Florian became the patron of not only Upper Austria, but also Poland.
Capstan with spooled rope
How did it happen that the bishop of the Italian city of Formia, who was martyred under the Roman emperor Diocletian, became both a patron of sailors and a healer for stomach pains in the Middle Ages? According to one legend, the executioners pulled out the saint’s entrails by winding them around a winch. Historians believe that this legend may have arisen from a misinterpretation of numerous earlier images where Erasmus, as the patron saint of sailors, held a capstan with a rope wound around it. Someone mistook the rope for guts - and thus the story of monstrous torture was born.
Basket with flowers or fruits
The patroness of the gardeners, according to legend, was a Christian from Caesarea in Cappadocia and suffered martyrdom during the persecution under the emperor Diocletian. On the way to the place of execution, she met a young lawyer named Theophilus, who, in mockery, asked to send him fruit from the garden of her fiancé, that is, Christ. Before her death, an angel appeared to the martyr with a basket of apples and roses, which she sent to Theophilus. He converted to Christianity and subsequently also became a martyr. Since all information about Dorotheus historically looks too dubious, her feast day was crossed out from the Catholic calendar in 1969.
Cloak
In the Middle Ages and early modern times, St. Martin was one of the most popular French saints and patron of the French monarchy. A Roman officer from Pannonia (now part of Hungary), he served in Gaul (modern France). At the gates of Amiens, Martin once met a beggar who was freezing from the cold. The officer cut his cloak in two and gave him half. The next day, Christ appeared to Martin in a dream, dressed in half a cloak, and thanked him for his kindness. Martin decided to leave the army and convert to Christianity. He later founded a monastery and was then elected Bishop of Tours. Thanks to this story, the Latin word “capella” and its derivatives in other Romance languages were born. For the first time this name was given to the chapel where the main relic of St. Martina is that part of the cloak (“cappa”) that remained with him.
Leo, Cardinal's Robe
Since the 14th century, St. Jerome, a Christian polymath, translator of the Bible into Latin, desert ascetic and secretary of the pope, began to be depicted as a cardinal - in a long red robe and a wide-brimmed hat of the same color. However, at the time of Jerome, the rank of cardinal did not yet exist at all, and the red outfit in which artists began to dress the saint appeared only in the 14th century. Its main iconographic attribute was a lion: the saint healed the beast by removing a splinter from its paw, and in gratitude it became his faithful companion in her hermitage.
Pig, Fire
Anthony the Great, a Christian who went to the deserted places of Thebaid to lead a perfect life of self-restraint, was not the first Christian hermit, but remained in tradition as the founder of hermit monasticism. In late medieval Europe, Anthony was revered primarily as a hermit who tirelessly fought with devilish temptations, endured many tortures from demons and defeated them, and also as a holy sufferer and a stern healer who healed from the “holy fire”, or “holy fire” Anthony" (this was the name given to ergotism and other similar diseases). Therefore, flames were often depicted next to him. His second attribute is a pig. The Antonite monks were engaged in breeding these animals, and the pigs belonging to the order had the exclusive right to run everywhere in search of food (to distinguish them from other pigs, a bell was hung on them, which also became one of the symbols of St. Anthony).
Three loaves of bread, hair covering the whole body
Like Mary Magdalene, Mary of Egypt in the Christian tradition embodied the power of spiritual transformation. The harlot of Alexandria, she went to Jerusalem, but there an unknown force did not allow her to enter the Church of the Holy Sepulchre. After this, she repented and went beyond the Jordan into the desert, where she spent 47 years in asceticism and self-denial. The main attributes of Mary are long hair that hides her nakedness (in some images it looks more like wool), and three loaves - in memory of how a certain person gave her three coins, with which she bought three loaves. From the heat of the desert they became hard as stone, and Mary ate them for 17 years.
Fetter
According to legend, which was written down only in the 11th century, Leonard was one of the close associates of the Frankish king Clovis (481/482–511). Together they were baptized, and the sovereign gave Leonard the privilege of granting freedom to any prisoners. The saint began to be revered as the patron of prisoners, and shackles were brought to his relics in gratitude for his release.
Candle
According to legend, in 451, when Paris was threatened by hordes of Huns led by Attila, Genevieve convinced the Parisians not to flee and to resist the enemy - however, in the end the conqueror bypassed the city. Later, she persuaded the clergy to erect a church over the grave of Dionysius, the first bishop of Paris. One night, when she and other nuns came to a building under construction, the demon, with a gust of air, extinguished the candle with which they were lighting their way. Genevieve took it in her hand, it immediately lit up, and the evil spirit could no longer do anything.
Hammer, Anvil, Tongs
A jeweler who became custodian of the royal treasury under the Frankish king Dagobert I (629–639), and then a priest and bishop, Eligius was revered in the Middle Ages as the patron of fellow jewelers and blacksmiths. According to legend, one day, in order to shoe a bucking horse that was possessed by the devil, he cut off its leg, and then miraculously “put it back” back. In another story, which also inspired many of Eligius' depictions, the tempting demon appeared to him in the guise of a girl. The saint recognized the deception and grabbed the unclean spirit by the nose with tongs.
Shovel
In the early Middle Ages, one of the main preachers and founders of monasteries in France and Germany were Irish monks. One of them, Fiacre, received from Faro, Bishop of Meaux, a promise to give him as much land for the creation of a monastery and hospice as he could dig in one day. The hermit simply outlined the area with his staff, and the earth itself miraculously dug up. Because of this story, Fiacre was revered as the patron saint of gardeners. In addition, he specialized in the treatment of hemorrhoids, which were called St. Fiachra.
Flashlight
According to legend, St. Gudula, patroness of Brussels, went every morning to the Church of the Savior, located two leagues from her castle. Each time the devil tried to put out the fire in her lantern, but the angel lit it again.
Deer
The holy hermit Aegidius, according to legend, lived in a forest in the south of France in the company of a doe who fed him with her milk. Once, during a royal hunt, Aegidium was hit by an arrow from the king, who was aiming at a deer. As atonement, the monarch founded a monastery, and made the hermit himself abbot. Later, the Abbey of Saint-Gilles-du-Gard became an important pilgrimage center on the way to Santiago de Compostela, to the relics of the Apostle James the Elder, and Egidius himself, or Gilles, patron of the crippled, beggars and blacksmiths, was considered one of the fourteen most effective in the late Middle Ages patron saint and specialized in madness, epilepsy and demonic possession. In Italy, in consonance with the name Gilles, his attribute became the lily (“giglio”).
Cross, Scourge, Demon
As the life of Procopius tells, he left the monastery and settled as a hermit in the valley of the Sazava River. Local peasants saw him plowing the fields, harnessing the devil to a plow and driving him with a cross. Therefore, the demon and the cross (or whip) became the iconographic attributes of the saint. Procopius later became the first Czech to be officially canonized by the Roman throne (1204) and one of the patron saints of the Czech Republic.
hive
Saint Bernard was one of the most influential spiritual leaders of the medieval West, the founder of the Clairvaux monastery and ideologist of the Cistercian order, a fiery preacher of the Second Crusade (1147–1149), an enemy of the Cathar heresy, a persecutor of the philosopher Abelard, a stern ascetic and mystic. In the Middle Ages, he was depicted with a small demon on a chain (as a sign of how hard he fought against heresy), with a white dog (as a reminder of his mother’s dream - it was revealed to her that she would give birth to a white dog that would scare away the enemies of the Church), or with a hive or swarm of bees (since for his eloquence he was nicknamed doctor mellifluus - “the honey-drinking doctor”).
Stigmata
The son of a wealthy merchant from Assisi, Francis decided to literally follow in the footsteps of Christ in his poverty, restlessness and service to people - and founded a mendicant order. Unlike traditional monasticism, which sought to isolate itself from the world, the first Franciscans wandered from city to city and preached. Francis himself went to Muslim Egypt to convert the Sultan to Christianity (he, however, did not heed the call). In 1224, having climbed Mount Verna, Francis received the highest award - the stigmata. Five wounds appeared on his body - two on his palms and soles and one on his side - like the crucified Savior. In the images, the poor man of Assisi can be distinguished from other Franciscans (in brown cassocks, belted with a rope with three knots) by the “wounds of love” for Christ.
Dog, Star, Lily, Book
A nobleman from Caleruega (Spain), who founded his own order of monastic preachers to combat the Cathar heresy and evangelize the laity, was often depicted with a dog and a star. The legend said that during her pregnancy, Dominic's mother had a dream: her unborn son would be marked with a star on his forehead, and he would be accompanied by two dogs, black and white (another version featured one dog, which stood for Dominic himself). The preaching brothers, who, after his name, began to be called Dominicans, interpreted their name as “Domini canes” - “dogs of the Lord.” Other attributes of the saint are a book (often open to Christ's words "Go into all the world and preach the Gospel") and a lily (a symbol of purity and purity).
Baby Jesus
A Portuguese nobleman who became a poor Franciscan monk, Anthony traveled throughout France, Spain and Italy preaching poverty and repentance (and, according to legend, once preached before the fish, like the founder of his order, St. Francis of Assisi, before the birds), and later became advisor to the pope. Since the late Middle Ages, he is most often depicted with a volume of the Gospel and the baby Jesus in his hands. In his native Portugal, where he became a national saint, such images can still be seen at every turn - not only in churches, but also on the facades of houses, on balconies and in shops.
Knife stuck in the head
A Dominican preacher born into a family of Cathar heretics, Peter devoted himself to the fight against heresy, and in 1251 the pope appointed him inquisitor of Milan and Como. A year later, the Milanese Cathars hired an assassin, Carino from Balsamo, and he, together with an accomplice on a deserted road, first split Peter’s skull and then plunged a dagger into his chest. Just 11 months later, the inquisitor was declared a saint (the fastest official canonization in the history of the papacy), and Carino of Balsamo fled to the Dominican monastery in Forli, repented and later remained there as a lay brother. When the killer died, local residents began to venerate him as blessed, and in 1822 Pope Pius VII began the formal process of glorifying him.
Sun, Star
The gentle Augustinian monk preached and received confessions in the city of Tolentino for about thirty years, welcoming the poor, helping the sick, visiting prisoners, trying to reconcile the warring factions of the Guelphs (supporters of the pope) and the Ghibellines (supporters of the emperor). One of his attributes, along with the crucifix, the lily or the bread that he distributed to the poor, is a star. According to legend, she constantly followed him, illuminating him with her light.
Plaque with the monogram of Christ IHS
A stern Franciscan preacher, ascetic and moralist (who denounced gambling, witchcraft, sodomy, usury), who traveled around the cities of Italy for several decades, where he was greeted by crowds of listeners, Bernardine of Siena actively promoted the cult of the name of Jesus. After finishing his sermon, he showed the crowd a sign with the IHS monogram in gold letters and called on everyone to bow to their redeemer. This cult seemed suspicious to the church authorities, and in 1427 he was summoned to Rome, where they decided to try him for heresy. But in the end they were acquitted, and Bernardin continued his preaching tours.