Main types of speech are description , narration And reasoning .
Description- this is a type of speech with the help of which any phenomenon of reality is depicted by listing its constant or simultaneously present signs or actions (the content of the description can be conveyed in one frame of the camera).
In the description, words denoting qualities and properties of objects (nouns, adjectives, adverbs) are most often used.
Verbs are often used in the form of the imperfect past tense, and for special clarity and descriptiveness of the description - in the form of the present tense. Synonyms are widely used - definitions (agreed and uncoordinated) and denominative sentences.
For example:
The sky was clear, clean, pale blue. Light white clouds, illuminated on one side by a pink shine, floated lazily in transparent silence. The East was red and flaming, shimmering in some places with mother-of-pearl and silver. From beyond the horizon, like giant outstretched fingers, golden stripes stretched up the sky from the rays of the sun that had not yet risen. (A.I. Kuprin)
Description helps to see the object, to imagine it in the mind.
|
Narration- this is a type of speech that talks about any events in their time sequence; sequential actions or events are reported (the content of the narrative can be conveyed only in a few frames of the camera).
In narrative texts, a special role belongs to verbs, especially in the imperfect past tense form ( I came, I saw, I developed etc.).
For example:
And suddenly... something inexplicable, almost supernatural, happened. The mousey Great Dane suddenly fell onto his back, and some invisible force pulled him off the sidewalk. Following this, the same invisible force tightly engulfed the astonished Jack's throat... Jack planted his front legs and shook his head furiously. But an invisible “something” squeezed his neck so tightly that the brown pointer lost consciousness. (A.I. Kuprin)
Narration helps to visualize the actions, movements of people and phenomena in time and space.
Reasoning- this is a type of speech with the help of which a position or thought is proven or explained; talks about the causes and consequences of events and phenomena, assessments and feelings (about what cannot be photographed).
|
In reasoning texts, a special role belongs to introductory words, indicating the connection of thoughts, the sequence of presentation ( firstly, secondly, so, thus, therefore, on the one hand, on the other hand), as well as subordinating conjunctions with the meaning of cause, effect, concession ( in order to, in order that, since, although, despite the fact that etc.)
For example:
If a writer, while working, does not see behind the words what he is writing about, then the reader will not see anything behind them.
But if the writer sees well what he is writing about, then the simplest and sometimes even erased words acquire newness, act on the reader with striking force and evoke in him those thoughts, feelings and states that the writer wanted to convey to him.K. G. Paustovsky)
The boundaries between description, narration and reasoning are quite arbitrary. At the same time, the text does not always represent any one type of speech. Much more common are cases of their combination in various variants: description and narration; description and reasoning; description, narration and reasoning; description with elements of reasoning; narration with elements of reasoning, etc.
Speech styles
Style is a historically established system of linguistic means and methods of their organization, which is used in a certain sphere of human communication (public life): the sphere of science, official business relations, propaganda and mass activities, verbal and artistic creativity, the sphere of everyday communication.
Each functional style is characterized by:
a) scope of application;
b) main functions;
c) leading style features;
d) linguistic features;
e) specific forms (genres).
|
||||||||
Scientific style
|
Scientific style divided into three substyles: actually scientific , scientific and educational And popular science .
Each of the named substyles has its own characteristics. In scientific, educational and popular science substyles, it is allowed to use some (separate) linguistic means characteristic of colloquial speech and journalism, including means of linguistic expressiveness (metaphors, comparisons, rhetorical questions, rhetorical exclamations, parcellation and some others).
All types of speech can be presented in scientific style texts: description, narration and reasoning (most often: reasoning-proof and reasoning-explanation).
Formal business style
|
In formal business style texts, two types of speech are usually presented: description and narration.
Journalistic style
|
Journalistic style is divided into two substyles: journalistic proper and artistic-journalistic.
Actually journalistic substyle characterized by the topicality of the topic, the use of socio-political vocabulary and terminology ( deputy, government, patriot, parliament, conservatism), specific journalistic vocabulary and phraseology ( reporting, peacekeeping, corridors of power, conflict resolution), frequency of use of borrowed words naming new economic, political, everyday, scientific and technical phenomena ( distributor, investment, inauguration, killer, croupier, rating and etc.).
The artistic and journalistic substyle in its linguistic characteristics is close to the style of fiction and is characterized by a combination of the functions of influence and persuasion with an aesthetic function, as well as the widespread use of figurative and expressive means of language, including tropes and figures.
In the texts journalistic style All types of speech can occur: description, narration and reasoning.
For artistic and journalistic substyle reasoning and reflection are especially characteristic.
Art style
|
In artistic texts, as in journalism, all types of speech are widely used: description, narration and reasoning. Reasoning in works of art appears in the form of reasoning-reflection and is one of the most important means of revealing the internal state of the hero, the psychological characteristics of the character.
Conversational style
| Scope of application (where?) | Household (informal setting) |
| Functions (why?) | Direct everyday communication; |
| Main style features | Ease, simplicity of speech, specificity, emotionality, imagery |
| Basic language tools | Conversational, including emotional-evaluative and expressive, vocabulary and phraseology ( potato, book, daughter, baby, long, flop, cat cried, headlong); incomplete sentences; the use of expressive syntactic constructions characteristic of colloquial speech (interrogative and exclamatory sentences, word-sentences, including interjections, sentences with parcellation ( Will you come tomorrow? Be silent! I wish I could get some sleep! - Are you at the cinema? - No. Here's another! Oh! Oh you!); |
| Genres | Friendly conversation, private conversation, everyday story, argument, notes, private letters |
Speech is a necessary means of human communication. The scope of its application determines the division into varieties, which are called functional styles. There are five of them in total: scientific, official business, journalistic, conversational and artistic. Each style is implemented both in oral and written forms and has its own lexical, syntactic, and morphological features.
Types of speech are also distinguished separately. The table presented in this article will help you understand this issue.
Reasoning is a type of speech in which cause-and-effect relationships are presented, which determines the following structure: thesis - argument - conclusion. Reasoning is characterized by the use of introductory words,
Basic data describing the types of speech will be presented in the table below.
Composition | Peculiarities |
|
narration | beginning - development - climax - resolution | predominant use of verbs and adverbs |
description | general idea of the subject - individual features of the subject - conclusions, author's judgments | use of imperfective verbs, simple, incomplete, nominative sentences |
reasoning | thesis - argument - conclusion | use of introductory words and complex syntactic structures |
Summarize
The styles and types of speech we have considered in Russian are not static. People choose their own form of communication. Often borderline styles of presenting information are mixed. This is due to the social function of speech.
Stylistics is a branch of the science of language that studies language styles and speech styles, as well as visual and expressive means.
Style (from the Greek stylos - writing stick) is a way of verbally expressing thoughts, a syllable. Style is characterized by features in the selection, combination and organization of linguistic means in connection with the tasks of communication.
Functional style is a subsystem (variety) literary language, having a certain sphere of functioning and possessing stylistically significant (marked) linguistic means.
The following functional styles are distinguished:
conversational style, scientific style, official business style, journalistic style, fiction style.
Scientific style
Scientific style is the language of science. The most common specific feature of this style of speech is consistency of presentation . A scientific text is distinguished by its emphasized, strict logic: all parts in it are strictly connected in meaning and are arranged strictly sequentially; conclusions follow from the facts presented in the text.
Another typical sign of a scientific style of speech is accuracy. Semantic accuracy (unambiguity) is achieved by careful selection of words, the use of words in their direct meaning, and the wide use of terms and special vocabulary.
Abstraction and generalization necessarily permeate every scientific text. Therefore, abstract concepts that are difficult to imagine, see, and feel are widely used here. In such texts there are often words with an abstract meaning, for example: emptiness, speed, time, force, quantity, quality, law, number, limit; formulas, symbols, symbols, graphs, tables, diagrams, diagrams, and drawings are often used.
The scientific style is predominantly in written form, but oral forms are also possible (report, message, lecture). The main genres of scientific style are monograph, article, theses, lecture, etc.
Journalistic style
The purpose of the journalistic style of speech is informing , the transmission of socially significant information with a simultaneous influence on the reader, listener, convincing him of something, instilling in him certain ideas, views, inducing him to certain actions.
The sphere of use of the journalistic style of speech is socio-economic, political, cultural relations.
Genres of journalism - article in a newspaper, magazine, essay, report, interview, feuilleton, oratory, judicial speech, speech on radio, television, at a meeting, report.
The journalistic style of speech is characterized by logic, imagery, emotionality, evaluativeness, appeal
and their corresponding linguistic means. It widely uses socio-political vocabulary and various types of syntactic constructions.
Formal business style
The official business style of speech is used in the sphere of legal relations, official, industrial.
The main stylistic features of the official business style are:
a) accuracy that does not allow any other interpretation;
b) non-personal nature;
c) standardization, stereotyped construction of the text;
d) obligatory-prescriptive nature.
Accuracy formulations for legislative texts is manifested primarily in the use of special terminology, in the unambiguity of non-terminological vocabulary. A typical feature of business speech is the limited possibilities of synonymous replacement; repetition of the same words, mainly terms.
Non-personal character business speech is expressed in the fact that it lacks forms of verbs of the \(1\)th and \(2\)th person and personal pronouns of the \(1\)th and \(2\)th person, and the \(3\)th person forms of the verb and pronouns are often used in an indefinite personal meaning.
In official documents, due to the peculiarity of the wording, there is almost no narration and description.
All documents are devoid of emotionality and expressiveness, so we will not find figurative language in them.
Conversational style
The conversational style is based on colloquial speech. The main function of the conversational style is communication ( communication ), and its main form is oral.
As part of the colloquial style, a literary-colloquial style is distinguished, using generally accepted words that correspond to the norms of the literary language, and a colloquial variety, which is characterized by words and phrases that deviate from literary norms, having a tinge of stylistic decline.
The written form of the conversational style is realized in the epistolary genre (private letters, personal correspondence, and diary entries).
Art style
Artistic style is a tool of artistic creativity and combines the linguistic means of all other styles of speech. However, in artistic style, these visual means play a special role: the purpose of their use becomes aesthetic And emotional impact on the reader. Fiction allows the use of colloquial, dialect words and expressions and even vulgarisms. The language of fiction uses a whole variety of figurative and expressive means (metaphor, epithet, antithesis, hyperbole, etc.). The selection of linguistic means depends on the individuality of the author, theme, idea of the work, and genre. A word in a literary text can acquire new shades of meaning.
When building the foundations of stylistics in Russian linguistics, developing the main directions and tasks, the outstanding Russian linguist V.V. Vinogradov relied on the basic principles of the stylistic theory of S. Bally and the idea of the functionality of linguistic categories of representatives of the Prague Linguistic Circle, as well as on the traditions of Russian linguistic science. He wrote, in particular, “that internal differentiation language styles may not be based on the difference in the functions of language (communication, message and influence) or on the identification of certain varieties of communicative function. It can be carried out on the basis of structural or constructive oppositions and relationships between particular systems of expression within the unified structure of the language (such, for example, synonymy of paradigmatic forms, synonymy in the circle of forms of phrases and sentences, synonymy of words and phrases, etc.). After all, the word functional contains a double meaning. It can also indicate the connection between styles and different functions language, and on the functional delimitation of the spheres of use of these styles" (Vinogradov V.V. Problems of Russian stylistics, 1981, p. 22).
The functional-style system of the modern Russian literary language is multidimensional, that is, its functional varieties are distinguished by for various reasons. For example, scientific, official business, journalistic styles are distinguished when focusing on the relevant areas human activity(science, legislation and office work, politics) that they serve. In addition, the functional varieties that make up the functional-style system are not the same in their importance in speech communication and in their coverage of linguistic material.
In the modern Russian literary language, there are two main varieties - written and oral. It is necessary to distinguish between the concepts “oral” and “spoken”, “written” and “book”. Thus, the concepts of “oral” and “written” are broader, as they can include a larger number of texts. For example, the text of a book speech can be oral - a report, a ceremonial speech, an official information statement, and any spoken text, including those of an everyday colloquial nature, can exist on paper, for example, a note or letter. Consequently, the terms “book” and “colloquial” characterize a text from the point of view of linguistic features that are adequate to a specific communication situation; and the terms “oral” and “written” characterize the form of existence of the text - spoken or written down. The most accurate differentiation of functional types of texts is presented in Table No. 1 of the Appendix.
The general basis for identifying functional-style varieties is a set of parameters that appear in different combinations for each functional style. Let us list the main ones: social task verbal communication(function of communicating information, function of evaluating information, function of influencing, forming a certain point of view on what is being communicated); situation of verbal communication (official, informal); nature of communication (mass, group, interpersonal); form of communication (oral or written speech).
In modern functional stylistics, the priority is considered to be the direction developed by the Czech scientist V. Mathesius, as well as other representatives of the Prague Linguistic Circle - V. Skalicka and B. Havranek. This direction is based on the division of styles depending on the sphere of communication they serve. Thoughts V.V. Vinogradov’s ideas about stylistic differentiation are developed more often in other areas of linguistics. The number of styles identified by various researchers ranges from 4 to 8. V.V. Vinogradov, for example, distinguishes the following styles: everyday-everyday, everyday-business, official-documentary, scientific, journalistic and artistic-fiction (Vinogradov, 1981, p. 29). In modern linguistics, it is customary to distinguish five main functional styles: scientific, official business, journalistic, colloquial and artistic, which can be divided into substyles. Scientific, official business and journalistic functional styles are bookish, serving certain areas of communication. Artistic and colloquial are not styles in the proper sense of the word; rather, they are functional varieties of language that serve the spheres of everyday communication and the aesthetic.
Usually, from the point of view of the speaker’s communicative intention, texts are distinguished in which the message function dominates over the influence function, and texts in which the influence function dominates over the message function; These are texts of an objective informative nature (scientific and official business) and texts of a subjective informative nature (journalism, everyday life). Some also note texts where both functions are in equilibrium, these are certain genres of journalism, primarily informational, certain genres of official business texts - instructions, as well as artistic texts of various genres.
Thus, there is a lot in common between book styles - scientific and official business - since they are equally aimed at the most objectified message. The differences between them lie, first of all, in the purposes of communication, in the communication situation, and in psycholinguistic parameters - methods of presenting content. Between scientific and journalistic texts one can also note the common and different, since certain genres of scientific style - article, abstract, review - are very similar to some genres of journalism - information article, essay, the closeness of these genres is due, first of all, to pragmatic factors that bring conditions closer communication situations of a particular text. Apparently, for this reason, there is still debate about the status of popular science literature, which some researchers classify as scientific literature, while others classify it as journalism.
Let's look at a few texts as an example:
1) Article 48. Establishing the origin of the child.
1. The origin of the child from the mother (maternity) is established by the civil registry office on the basis of documents confirming the birth of the child by the mother in a medical institution, and in the case of the birth of a child outside a medical institution, on the basis of medical documents, testimony or other evidence.
2. If a child was born from persons who are married to each other, and also within three hundred days from the moment of divorce, recognition of it as invalid or from the moment of death of the spouse of the child’s mother, the child’s father is recognized as the spouse ( ex-spouse) mother, unless otherwise proven (Article 52 of this Code). The paternity of the spouse of the child's mother is certified by the record of their marriage.
3. If the child’s mother declares that the father of the child is not her husband (former spouse), paternity of the child is established according to the rules provided for in paragraph 4 of this article or article 49 of this Code.
4. The paternity of a person who is not married to the child’s mother is established by submitting a joint application to the civil registry office by the father and mother of the child; in the event of the death of the mother, her recognition as incompetent, the impossibility of establishing the whereabouts of the mother, or in the event of deprivation of her parental rights - at the request of the child’s father with the consent of the guardianship and trusteeship authority, in the absence of such consent - by court decision... (Family Code of the Russian Federation) , With. 22).
2) SCIENCE, a sphere of human activity, the function of which is the development and theoretical systematization of objective knowledge about reality. During historical development science turns into the productive force of society and the most important social institution. The concept of “science” includes both the activity of obtaining new knowledge and the result of this activity - the sum of the scientific knowledge obtained up to a given moment, which together forms scientific picture peace. The term "science" is also used to designate certain branches of scientific knowledge. The immediate goals of science are the description, explanation and prediction of the processes and phenomena of reality that constitute the subject of its study on the basis of the laws it discovers, that is, in in a broad sense theoretical reflection of reality. Being integral to the practical way of exploring the world, science as the production of knowledge is a very specific form of activity. If in material production knowledge is used as a means of increasing labor productivity, then in science it is obtained in the form of a theoretical description, diagram, technological process, summaries of experimental data, formulas of some kind. drug, etc. - forms the main and immediate goal. Unlike activities, the result of which is, in principle, known in advance, scientific activity gives an increment of new knowledge, that is, its result is fundamentally unconventional. That is why science acts as a force that constantly revolutionizes other activities. Science is distinguished from the aesthetic (artistic) way of mastering reality, the bearer of which is art, that is, its figurative representation, by the desire for logical, maximally generalized objective knowledge. Art is often characterized as “thinking in images”, and science as “thinking in concepts”, with the aim of emphasizing that the former develops mainly the sensory-imaginative side of a person’s creative ability, and science mainly develops the intellectual-conceptual side. However, these differences do not mean an impassable line between science and art, which are united by a creative-cognitive attitude to reality (FES, 1983, pp. 403-404).
3) I first saw it more than 10 years ago - from an airplane, from a plane landing at Wat Thai, the airport of the Laotian capital. It was August, almost the middle of the wet season, when the river is so deep and wide that it is difficult to distinguish where the channel ends and the bank with water-covered rice fields begins. In the light of the setting sun, the water shone red - it seemed to me then that it was the reflection of the sunset. Since then I have seen the Mekong in Laos and Thailand, Cambodia and Vietnam, from above and from the shore; I crossed it on boats, on ferries and on bridges, and walked along it on river boats. I learned that the reddish tint of its water is not a play of sunset colors, but the natural color of the river in its widest part: the continental layer here consists of red clay, and this clay deprives the water of transparency.
The name of the river, known throughout the world, is a historical misunderstanding. In fact, its name consisted of a dozen words and began with the definition “Sacred Moon River.” But the French, who explored in XIX century Mekong basin, most often heard from the local population “menam” and “khong”, which in related Thai and Laotian languages mean the same thing: “river”, “canal”, “reservoir”. The combination of these words was fixed on European maps. (E. Belenky. The river whose bed was laid by snakes // Geo. - No. 8. - 2000. - p. 22).
4) At the hour of a hot spring sunset, two citizens appeared on the Patriarch’s Ponds. The first of them - approximately forty years old, dressed in a gray summer pair - was short, dark-haired, well-fed, bald, carried his decent hat like a pie in his hand, and his neatly shaven face was adorned with supernaturally sized glasses in black horn-rimmed frames. The second - a broad-shouldered, reddish, curly-haired young man in a checkered cap twisted at the back of his head - was wearing a cowboy shirt, chewed white trousers and black slippers. The first was none other than Mikhail Alexandrovich Berlioz, editor of a thick art magazine and chairman of the board of one of the largest Moscow literary associations, called Massolit for short, and his young companion was the poet Ivan Nikolaevich Ponyrev, writing under the pseudonym Bezdomny.
Finding themselves in the shade of slightly green linden trees, the writers first rushed to the colorfully painted booth with the inscription “Beer and water.” Yes, the first strangeness of this terrible May evening should be noted. Not only at the booth, but in the entire alley parallel to Malaya Bronnaya Street, there was not a single person. At this hour, when, it seemed, there was no strength to breathe, when the sun, having heated Moscow, fell in a dry fog somewhere beyond the Garden Ring, no one came under the linden trees, no one sat on the bench, the alley was empty.
(M.A. Bulgakov. The Master and Margarita).
5) “Can you find any fresher Langetics, my dear?” Or a milder anthrecotic?
- “You see, grandma has the wrong address,” the saleswoman answers her, “you don’t need to go to the culinary department, but to the chief doctor... Don’t you see what’s on the counter?
Avdotyushka was offended.
- “Thank you,” he says, “for the advice.”
And to another “killinaria”. Comes in - there is! The kidneys of some hat were broken off.
These kidneys, as in an anatomy study, were wet alone on a dish, and the hat studied and smelled them. Either he takes off his glasses or puts them on. Avdotyushka quickly went to the cash register and beat it off.
- Why, - the intellectual shouts, - I’m the first.
- “You sniffed it, but your mother beat it off,” says the sales worker.
- What about others?
- But there are no others... Buy a delicacy, it rarely happens.
The intellectual looked - something incomprehensible. I read the label: “Caviar on an egg.” I looked closer, and it was really not fresh, but a hard-boiled egg, cut in half. And on the hydrogen sulfide yolk there is black sparrow dung.
(F. Gorenshtein. With a purse / V. Erofeev. Russian flowers of evil: An Anthology. - M., 1997. - P. 244).
Before us are five texts belonging to different functional varieties of the Russian language. The first text represents an official business style, the second is scientific, the third is journalistic, the fourth is an example of artistic speech, and, finally, the fifth text, although it is also artistic, clearly illustrates the features of colloquial speech. It is not difficult to note that all texts are different in language, composition, syntax, and each of them is appropriate only in a certain situation.
Formal business style serves the sphere of written official business relations. In accordance with their character, it is customary to distinguish three substyles: clerical and business, legal, and diplomatic. This style functions in rigid forms of documents of various genres that generalize typical situations of official business communication. Along with certain language norms, it also contains genre norms that regulate the implementation of the structure of the document.
The nature of business relations determines a high level standardization (establishing uniform standards and requirements) and unification (bringing to uniformity) linguistic means. Often business documents represent a certain sequence of language clichés and expressions, where only certain lines must be filled in, for example, the text of a contract, agreements, statements and others. Business style is characterized by clarity of the functions of each message in accordance with the business situation. Features of business texts are associated with the requirements placed on them: accuracy (unambiguity) of wording; logic, consistency, argumentation, consistency and brevity of presentation.
The official business style is characterized by:
In the field of stylistics - stylistic homogeneity of the text, a tendency to use neutral elements and cliches;
In the field of vocabulary - refusal to use outdated and expressive units, replacing them with neutral ones, as well as the use of specific lexemes characteristic of a given style ( must, must) and phraseological units;
In the field of morphology - the replacement of verbs with verbal action nouns, the high frequency of genitive case forms of nouns, the tendency to not use personal and demonstrative pronouns, since they are not unambiguous;
In the area of syntax - characteristic of writing complexity of constructions, complex sentences with the meaning of cause, effect, conditions, concessions, use of complex prepositions: contrary to the fact that..., on the basis of the fact that... .
The high level of standardization of speech makes the official business style in the minds of speakers an example of standard speech, therefore this style is the main source of the spread of unjustified use of speech cliches in spoken and written speech.
Scientific style– functional style of speech, which aims to describe an object, phenomenon, system of knowledge; A scientific text, therefore, can be the basis for the creation of another scientific text, stimulate the cognitive activity of someone. subject. A scientific text is a description of a result scientific research with its inherent characteristics. The rational program of the scientific style of speech, of course, prevails over the evaluative one, this is one of the main reasons for the desire of the author of a scientific text to self-eliminate.
When trying to characterize the scientific style of speech, scientists often rely on various parameters, such as speech quality, syntactic and morphological characteristics, pragmatic features, technical and stylistic techniques. Thus, speaking about the quality of speech, various authors pay attention to the following properties of the scientific style: clarity, logic, conciseness of presentation, accuracy and objectivity, standardization and ugliness. So, M.P. Senkevich characterizes the main, in her opinion, properties of the scientific style as follows: “Completeness, accuracy, objectivity of the statement and strict logical sequence of presentation, the use of intellectual elements of language” (Senkevich M.P. Stylistics scientific speech and literary editing of scientific works. - M., 1976. - P. 144). From the standpoint of analyzing typical communication situations of scientific speech, these qualities are closely related to its main goal setting - a clear, unambiguous and consistent delivery of semantic content to the reader. The author of a scientific text strives for its adequate perception by the reader, that is, semantic (primary) and connotative (secondary) types of information after encoding it by the author, transmitting it in the form of some kind. text, transcripts by the addressee must remain unchanged. To achieve this goal in a scientific style, a number of special means and techniques that are expressed in the following: division of the text - its clear compositional organization; communicative clarity realized through increased accentuation; explicitness, unambiguous expression of logical connections; generalization as a way of focusing attention on the action, and not on the doer, on the object, and not on the subject or his relationship to the object; activation of the reader’s attention, limitedly realized with the help of the author’s subjective assessments expressed by specific means; unambiguity of expression, eliminating all possible variant interpretations of semantic content; emphasized unemotional expression.
In lexical terms, this is the use of terms, abstract vocabulary, the use of polysemantic lexical units in an environment that is semantically sufficient for correct perception, the absence of emotionally charged and expressive vocabulary;
At the syntactic level, preference is given to complete constructions, and elliptical ones perform special functions; introductory constructions are widely used both to implement interphrase connections and to express the author’s point of view; the proportion of complex sentences is increasing, vaguely personal, generalized personal and impersonal sentences, passive constructions are very common;
At the morphological-syntactic level, one can highlight the absence of a specific time plan, the special nature of predicates that do not express a specific action, a large number of words in the singular form with a plural meaning, indicating the generality of an object or phenomenon; It is possible to form plural forms from lexemes singularia tantum and the like.
Journalistic style is a historically established functional variety of a literary language, serving a wide range of public relations: political, economic, cultural, sports and others. The journalistic style is used in socio-political literature, periodicals (newspapers, magazines), radio and television programs, documentary films, and some types of oratory (for example, in political eloquence).
The use of linguistic means is determined largely by their social-evaluative qualities and capabilities in terms of effective and purposeful influence on a mass audience; this is what determines the evaluativeness and polemical nature characteristic of a given style. The social evaluation of linguistic means distinguishes the journalistic style from all other styles of literary language; appeal determines the motivating nature of journalism.
Functional purpose The words and expressions used in the journalistic style are different: among them one can distinguish neutral and stylistically colored vocabulary and phraseology. One of the properties of a journalistic text is dialogization; the author of a journalistic text addresses the reader or listener with his thoughts, feelings, assessments, therefore the author’s “I” always appears in his presentation.
In journalism they are used as standard, clichéd means of language ( be of significance, cause harm, Negative consequences ), as well as expressive, expressive, emotionally affecting the audience by means of language; emotionality and expressiveness are created through tropes and stylistic figures. For expressive purposes, not only linguistic, but also compositional logical and stylistic forms and techniques are used: catchy headings, the nature of the alternation of narration, descriptions and reasoning, introductory episodes, citation, introduction different types someone else's speech. The constant desire for novelty of expression, aimed at attracting an audience, is manifested in attracting words and expressions from various layers of language, creating newspaper metaphors. Thus, modern newspaper journalism is characterized by a combination of high book vocabulary ( accomplishment, aspiration, self-sacrifice, implement, create, homeland) with colloquial, reduced ( hype, show off, buzz, showdown, wet).
In the journalistic style, socio-political vocabulary is widely used ( society, society, democratization), borrowed vocabulary ( corruption, conversion, monitoring), semantically rethought words ( perestroika, model, periphery), including scientific terms and professionalisms ( clamp, agony, finish). Since journalism reflects the social diversity of modern Russian speech, it is permissible to use elements of other styles. The syntax of the journalistic style is characterized by elliptical constructions (with missing members), nominative sentences, segmented constructions, since the syntax of journalism reflects a tendency towards colloquialism.
In real communication, mixing and superimposition of one style on another is often carried out, especially in oral speech, which is characterized by loose norms, which, however, is also functionally determined: an oral statement is instantaneous, it cannot be returned to, it cannot be analyzed again, therefore the speaker is forced to formulate your thought more clearly, use all means of influencing the listener, not only verbal, but also intonation, paralinguistic, in some cases - figurative and expressive. Many scientists do not deny the undoubted presence of a two-way connection between functional styles and individual authorial styles. In the scientific sphere of communication, as in any other, all functional and stylistic varieties of speech can appear: bookish - official business and strictly scientific, colloquial - journalism and actual conversational. It is quite obvious that the official business style in the scientific field can only appear in normative situations; formalized scientific reports and patent texts can be cited as examples; journalistic texts are usually found in non-standardized speech situations (scientific controversy, advertising article, some types of reviews, popular science article).
Along with the concept of functional style, the concept of a functional-style language system, which can combine a number of styles, stands out. Thus, one of the functional-style systems is book speech, which includes journalistic style, scientific style, official business style, the language of fiction, oral public speech, the language of radio, cinema and television.
Sometimes the language of fiction is considered a special functional variety, along with official business, scientific, and journalistic styles, but this is not true. The language of science or business documentation and the language of artistic prose and poetry cannot be considered as phenomena of the same order. A literary text does not have a specific lexical set and grammatical tools that usually distinguish one type from another. The peculiarity of the language of fiction is not that it uses some specific linguistic means that are unique to it. Language of fiction- a functional type of speech, which is open system and is not limited in the use of any language capabilities. The author of a literary text boldly uses all the resources of the language, and the only measure of the legitimacy of such use is only artistic expediency. Not only those lexical and grammatical features that are typical for business, journalistic and scientific speech, but also the features of non-literary speech - dialect, colloquial, slang - can be accepted by a literary text and organically assimilated by it.
On the other hand, the language of fiction is more sensitive to literary norms, it takes into account a large number of prohibitions (the meaning of the gender of inanimate nouns, subtle semantic and stylistic nuances, and much more). So, for example, in ordinary speech the words horse and horse-synonyms, but in a poetic context they are irreplaceable: Where are you galloping, proud horse, and where will you land your hooves?; in the poem by M.Yu. Lermontov " A golden cloud spent the night on the chest of a giant rock..." gender of nouns cloud and cliff contextually significant, serves as the basis not only for personification, but also for creating an artistic image of the poem, and, if we replace them with synonyms, for example, cloud and mountain, we will get a completely different poetic work. The linguistic fabric in a literary text is created according to more strict laws, which require taking into account the smallest stylistic and expressive properties of the word, its associative connections, the ability to be divided into constituent morphemes, and internal shape.
A work of art may include words and grammatical forms that are outside the boundaries of literary language and are rejected in non-fiction speech. Thus, a number of writers (N. Leskov, M. Sholokhov, A. Platonov and others) widely use dialectisms in their works, as well as rather rude figures of speech characteristic of vernacular speech. However, replacing these words with literary equivalents would deprive their texts of the power and expressiveness that these texts breathe.
Artistic speech allows any deviations from the norms of literary language, if these deviations are aesthetically justified. Artistic motives There are an infinite number of methods that allow the introduction of non-literary linguistic material into a literary text: these include recreating the atmosphere, creating the desired color, “lowering” the object of the story, irony, a means of indicating the image of the author, and many others. Any deviations from the norm in a literary text occur against the background of the norm and require the reader to have a certain “sense of the norm”, thanks to which he can assess how artistically significant and expressive the deviation from the norm is in a specific context. The “openness” of a literary text does not foster disdain for the norm, but the ability to appreciate it; Without a keen sense of general literary norms, there is no full perception of expressive, intense, figurative texts.
The “mixing” of styles in fiction is determined by the author’s intention and the content of the work, that is, stylistically marked. Elements of other styles in a work of art are used for aesthetic function.
M.N. Kozhina notes: “The removal of artistic speech beyond functional styles impoverishes our understanding of the functions of language. If you withdraw artistic speech from among the functional styles, but to consider that the literary language acts in many functions - and this cannot be denied - then it turns out that the aesthetic function is not one of the functions of language. The use of language in the aesthetic sphere is one of the highest achievements of the literary language, and because of this, neither the literary language ceases to be such when it gets into a work of art, nor the language of fiction ceases to be a manifestation of the literary language" (Kozhina M.N. Stylistics of the Russian language. M., 1993. – P. 79-80).
The language of fiction, despite its stylistic heterogeneity, despite the fact that the author’s individuality is clearly manifested in it, is still distinguished by a number of specific features that make it possible to distinguish artistic speech from any other style.
The features of the language of fiction as a whole are determined by several factors. It is characterized by broad metaphoricality, imagery of linguistic units of almost all levels, the use of synonyms of all types, polysemy, and different stylistic layers of vocabulary is observed. Artistic speech has its own laws for the perception of a word, the meaning of which is largely determined by the author’s goal setting, the genre and compositional features of the work of art of which this word is an element: firstly, in the context of a given work it can acquire artistic ambiguity that is not recorded in dictionaries; secondly, it retains its connection with the ideological and aesthetic system of this work and is assessed by us as beautiful or ugly, sublime or base, tragic or comic.
Research by M.M. Bakhtin (Bakhtin M.M. Aesthetics of verbal creativity. - M., 1986) showed that a work of art is inherently dialogical: it contains the voices of the author and characters, which relate to each other in an unusually complex way. Therefore, it becomes fundamentally important to consider the ways in which the characters’ speech is depicted and how interaction with the narrator’s speech occurs. The stylistic use of elements of colloquial, official business and scientific styles in the text is directly dependent on the contrast between the characters’ speech and the author’s. Thus, a special language structure, sometimes including entire fragments of various functional styles. In the structure of a work of art, the author’s speech is usually distinguished, direct, improperly authorial, and improperly direct.
In direct speech, the conversational style is most actively manifested. The author's speech, reflecting reality external to the author, is constructed with a predominance of book and written elements. In non-author-direct and non-direct speech, the actual author's speech and the speech of the characters are combined in various proportions.
In other functional styles, the aesthetic function does not have such a large share and does not develop the qualitative originality that is typical for it in the system of a work of art. The communicative function of the style of fiction is manifested in the fact that information about the artistic world of the work merges with information about the world of reality. The aesthetic function closely interacts with the communicative one, and this interaction leads to the fact that in the language of a work of art the word not only conveys some content, meaning, but also has an emotional impact on the reader, causing him to have certain thoughts, ideas, it makes the reader an empathizer and to some extent an accomplice in the events described.
The inherent dynamics of artistic speech, in contrast to the statics of scientific and official business speech, is manifested in the high frequency of use of verbs. It is known that their frequency is almost twice as high as in scientific texts and three times higher than in official business texts.
The breadth of coverage of the means of the national language by artistic speech is so great that it allows us to assert: the potential inclusion of all existing linguistic means is possible in artistic speech.
Conversational variety, or conversational style, serves the sphere of relaxed communication between people in everyday life, in the family, as well as the sphere of informal relations in production, in institutions, etc.
The main form of implementation of the conversational style is oral speech, although it can also appear in written form (informal letters, notes, diaries, remarks of characters in plays). One should not equate oral and colloquial speech, since part of oral speech can be attributed to various book styles: scientific discussion, public lecture, business negotiations, etc.
The main extralinguistic features that determine the formation of a conversational style are: ease , which is possible only with informal relations between speakers and in the absence of an attitude towards a message that is of an official nature, immediacy And lack of preparation communication. Both the sender of the speech and its recipient directly participate in the conversation, often changing roles; the relationships between them are established in the very act of speech. Such speech cannot be pre-thought out; the direct participation of the speaker and the listener determines its predominantly dialogical nature, although a monologue is also possible.
A monologue in a conversational style is a form of casual story about some events, something seen, read or heard and is addressed to a specific listener with whom the speaker must establish contact.
A characteristic feature of colloquial speech is emotionality, expressiveness, and evaluative reaction. A major role in spoken language is played by the environment of verbal communication, the situation, as well as non-verbal means of communication (gestures, facial expressions).
The extralinguistic features of the conversational style are associated with its most general linguistic features, such as standardity, stereotypical use of linguistic means, their incomplete structure at the syntactic, phonetic and morphological levels, intermittency and inconsistency of speech from a logical point of view, weakened syntactic connections between parts of the utterance or their lack of formality , sentence breaks with various kinds of insertions, repetitions of words and sentences, widespread use of linguistic means with a pronounced emotional-expressive coloring, activity of linguistic units with a specific meaning and passivity of units with an abstract-generalized meaning.
Colloquial speech has its own norms, which in many cases do not coincide with the norms of book speech recorded in dictionaries, reference books, and grammars (codified). The norms of colloquial speech, unlike books, are established by usage (custom) and are not consciously supported by anyone. However, native speakers sense them and perceive any unmotivated deviation from them as a mistake. This allowed researchers to assert that modern colloquial speech is normalized, although the norms in it are quite peculiar. In colloquial speech, to express similar content in typical situations, ready-made constructions, stable phrases, and various kinds of speech cliches are created (formulas of greeting, farewell, appeal, apology, gratitude, etc.). These ready-made standardized speech means are automatically reproduced and help strengthen the normative nature of colloquial speech, which is distinctive feature its norms. However, the spontaneity of verbal communication, the lack of preliminary thinking, the use of non-verbal means of communication and the specificity of the speech situation lead to a weakening of norms.
Thus, in a conversational style, stable speech standards coexist, reproduced in typical and repeated situations, and general literary speech phenomena that can be subject to various mixtures. These two circumstances determine the specificity of the norms of conversational style: due to the use of standard speech means and techniques, the norms of conversational style, on the one hand, are characterized by a higher degree of binding compared to the norms of other styles, where synonymy and free maneuvering with a set of acceptable speech means are not excluded . On the other hand, general literary speech phenomena characteristic of the conversational style may, to a greater extent than in other styles, be subject to various shifts.
In the conversational style, compared to the scientific and official business style, the proportion of neutral vocabulary is significantly higher. A number of stylistically neutral words are used in figurative meanings specific to a given style, for example, cut off- “to answer sharply” fly– “move quickly”, “break down, deteriorate” ( the engine flew, flies at full speed); Everyday vocabulary is widely used. The use of words with specific meanings is common in colloquial speech; the use of terms and foreign words, which have not yet become commonly used. A characteristic feature of the colloquial variety is the wealth of emotionally expressive vocabulary and phraseology; A special type of colloquial phraseology consists of standard expressions, familiar formulas of speech etiquette: How are you?, I'm sorry! and under.
The use of non-literary vocabulary (jargon, vulgism, rude and abusive words and expressions) is not a normative phenomenon of conversational style, but rather the same violation of its norms as the abuse of book vocabulary, which gives speech an artificial, strained character.
Expressiveness and evaluativeness are also manifested in the field of word formation. Thus, in colloquial speech certain word-formation models with suffixes of subjective assessment and prefixes are very productive: little hand, house, feisty, braggart, imagined, running around, kind, whisper, fashionable, push, throw away and under.
In the field of morphology, one can note grammatical forms that function primarily in a conversational style, for example, forms with -a in the nominative plural ( bunker, spotlight, inspector), forms ending in –y in the genitive and prepositional singular ( a glass of tea, a bunch of grapes, in the workshop, on vacation), zero-ending forms in the genitive plural ( five grams, a kilogram of tomato).
One of the characteristic features of the conversational style is the widespread use of pronouns, which not only replace nouns and adjectives, but are also used without relying on context. In a conversational style, verbs predominate over nouns, personal forms of the verb are especially active in the text, participles are used extremely rarely, the only exception being the short form of passive past participles.
Spontaneity and unpreparedness of the statement, the situation of verbal communication and others character traits conversational style especially affect its syntactic structure. At the syntactic level, more actively than at other levels of the language system, the incomplete structure of expressing meaning by linguistic means is manifested. Incompleteness of constructions, ellipticity is one of the means of speech economy and one of the most striking differences between colloquial speech and other varieties of literary language. Since the conversational style is usually realized in conditions of direct communication, everything that is given by the situation or follows from what was known to the interlocutors even earlier is omitted in speech. A.M. Peshkovsky, characterizing colloquial speech, wrote: “We always do not finish our thoughts, omitting from speech everything that is given by the situation or the previous experience of the speakers. So, at the table we ask: “Are you coffee or tea?”; when we meet a friend, we ask: “Where are you going?”; when we hear boring music, we say: “Again!”; when offering water, we say: “Boiled, don’t worry!” seeing that the interlocutor’s pen does not write, we say: “And you use a pencil!” and so on." (Peshkovsky A.M. Objective and normative point of view on language // Peshkovsky A.M. Selected works. - M., 1959. - P. 58).
In conversational syntax, simple sentences predominate, and they often lack a predicate verb, which makes the statement dynamic. In some cases, statements are understandable outside the situation and context, which indicates their linguistic consistency ( I'm going to the shop; I would like something hot; At home in the evening.); in others, the missing verb is suggested by the situation.
Of the complex sentences in this style, the most active are complex and non-union proposals; they often have a pronounced colloquial coloring and are not used in book speech ( Thanks to my friend - I didn’t let you down; there are so many people - you can’t see anything). The emotionality and expressiveness of colloquial speech determines the widespread use of interrogative and exclamatory sentences. Intonation, closely related to the tempo of speech, melody, voice timbre, pauses, logical stresses, in a conversational style carries a huge semantic load, giving speech naturalness, emotionality, liveliness and expressiveness. It fills in what is left unsaid and enhances expressiveness. The order of words in colloquial speech, not being the main means of expressing semantic nuances, has high variability: often the most important semantically important element comes first.
As already noted, the literary language can be used in any communication situation: in official and informal settings, in the field of science, office work, in the media, in fiction, in Everyday life. Naturally, such a variety of functions performed cannot but lead to the fact that several variants are gradually formed in the literary language, each of which is intended for communication in a certain field of human activity.
In modern Russian literary language there are usually five styles:
official business (business),
newspaper-journalistic (journalistic),
art,
colloquial.
Each style has whole line specific speech characteristics that are formed depending on the area in which communication occurs and what functions the language performs.
| Main function | Sphere of communication | Basic form of speech | Typical view speeches | Main way of communication |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Scientific style | ||||
| Informative (message) | The science | Written | Monologue | Mass, non-contact |
| Business style | ||||
| Informative (message) | Right | Written | Monologue | Mass, non-contact and contact |
| Journalistic style | ||||
| Informative and impact function | Ideology, politics | Written and oral | Monologue | |
| Art style | ||||
| Aesthetic* and impact function | Word arts | Written | Monologue, dialogue, polylogue ** | Mass, non-contact and indirect-contact |
| Conversational style | ||||
| Exchange of thoughts and feelings (actual communication) | Household | Oral | Dialogue, polylogue | Personal, contact |
Scientific, official business and journalistic styles are similar in that they are intended to convey rather complex content and function in the sphere of official communication, mainly in written form. That's why they are called book styles.
In particular, this is manifested in the stylistic stratification of Russian vocabulary. So, along with commonly used words, that is, words that are used by everyone and in all cases (for example: mother, earth, water, run), used in book styles book vocabulary, that is, one that looks alien in casual conversation.
For example, in a friendly letter it is hardly appropriate to use terms, clerical words, etc.: On green spaces the first leaves appeared; We were walking in the forest and sunbathed by the pond.
All book styles are contrasted with the conversational style, which is used in informal, everyday, everyday communication, usually in oral speech that has not been prepared in advance. And here, along with commonly used words, there is frequent use of colloquial vocabulary, that is, one that is inappropriate in book styles, but is inherent in informal everyday speech.
For example, in everyday life we use the word potatoes, liver, and in a textbook on botany and biology they are inappropriate precisely because they are colloquial. Therefore, the terms will be used there potatoes, liver.
Stratification of vocabulary according to use in certain styles (common vocabulary - book And colloquial vocabulary) should not be confused with the stratification of vocabulary according to the presence or absence of evaluation and emotional-expressive coloring of a word (although in some cases these characteristics overlap each other). Emotional means based on feeling, caused by emotions, feelings. Expressive - expressive, containing the expression of feelings, experiences (from the Latin expressio - “expression”). From this point of view, neutral vocabulary is contrasted with evaluative, emotional-expressive vocabulary.
Neutral vocabulary is words devoid of stylistic coloring. They can indicate emotions, express an assessment of phenomena ( joy, love, good, bad), but in this case the expression of emotions or assessment constitutes the very meaning of the word, and is not layered on top of it.
A feature of emotional-evaluative and emotionally-expressive vocabulary is that evaluation and emotional-expressive coloring are “overlaid” on the lexical meaning of the word, but are not reduced to it. Such a word not only names this or that phenomenon, but also expresses an assessment, the speaker’s attitude towards this object, phenomenon, feature, etc. This is easy to demonstrate by comparing neutral and emotionally expressive synonyms, that is, words that are close or identical in meaning:
eyes - eyes, balls; face - muzzle, face; son - son; a fool is a fool.
Emotionally expressive vocabulary is usually divided into high and low. High vocabulary is used in pathetic texts and in solemn acts of communication. Reduced- combines words of low social significance and, as a rule, containing elements of harsh assessment. In addition to this general characteristic, expressively colored words can acquire various stylistic shades, as indicated by marks in dictionaries.
For example: ironically - democrat(“rubber baton” in colloquial speech); disapprovingly - rally; contemptuously - sycophant; playfully - newly minted; familiarly - not bad; vulgar - grabber.
Emotionally expressive vocabulary requires careful attention. Its inappropriate use can give a comic sound to the speech. This often manifests itself in student essays.
A special place in the style system is occupied by language of fiction. Since literature reflects all spheres of life, it can use for aesthetic purposes, to create artistic images, the means of any styles of literary language, and, if necessary, not only them, but also dialects, jargons, and vernacular. The main function of artistic style is aesthetic. And here everything is determined by specific tasks, a sense of proportion and the artistic taste of the writer.
Of course, the specifics of each style are manifested not only in vocabulary, but also in grammar, in the peculiarities of text construction, etc. But all these linguistic features are determined precisely by the functions that each style performs, and by the areas of communication in which this style is used. This leads to the fact that each style has a certain dominant, that is, an organizing feature of this style.