The strength of Russian weapons and the dignity of the soldier made a significant impression even in lost wars - there have been others like this in our history. Eastern, or Crimean, War 1853-1856. belongs to their number. But at the same time, admiration went not to the winners, but to the vanquished - the participants in the defense of Sevastopol.
Causes of the Crimean War
Russia took part in the war on one side and a coalition consisting of France, Turkey, England and the Kingdom of Sardinia on the other. In the domestic tradition, it is called Crimean - its most significant events took place on the territory of the Crimean peninsula. In foreign historiography, the term “Eastern War” has been adopted. Its reasons are purely practical, and all participants did not object to it.
The real impetus for the clash was the weakening of the Turks. Their country at that time was nicknamed “the sick man of Europe,” but strong states laid claim to the “division of inheritance,” that is, the possibility of using Turkish possessions and territories to their advantage.
Russian Empire free passage of the navy through the Black Sea straits was necessary. She also claimed to be the patron of the Christian Slavic peoples who wanted to free themselves from the Turkish yoke, primarily the Bulgarians. The British were especially interested in Egypt (the idea of the Suez Canal had already matured) and the possibilities of convenient communication with Iran. The French did not want to allow the military strengthening of the Russians - Louis Napoleon Bonaparte III, the nephew of Napoleon I, who was defeated by ours, had just appeared on their throne (officially from December 2, 1852) (accordingly, revanchism intensified).
Leading European states did not want to allow Russia to become their economic competitor. France could lose its position as a great power because of this. England feared Russian expansion in Central Asia, which would lead the Russians straight to the borders of the “most valuable jewel of the British crown” - India. Turkey, having repeatedly lost to Suvorov and Potemkin, simply had no choice but to rely on the help of the European “tigers” - otherwise it could simply fall apart.
Only Sardinia had no special claims against our state. She was simply promised support in the confrontation with Austria for her alliance, which was the reason for her entry into the Crimean War of 1853-1856.
Claims of Napoleon the Less
Everyone was not against fighting - everyone had purely pragmatic reasons for this. But at the same time, the British and French were clearly superior to ours in technical terms - they had rifled weapons, long-range artillery and a steam flotilla. The Russians were ironed and polished, 
they looked great in parades, but fought with smoothbore junk on wooden sailboats.
Under these conditions, Napoleon III, nicknamed by V. Hugo “Little” for his obvious inability to compete with his uncle’s talents, decided to speed up events - it’s not for nothing that in Europe the Crimean War is considered “French”. The reason he chose was a dispute over the ownership of churches in Palestine, which were claimed by both Catholics and Orthodox. Both were not separated from the state at that time, and Russia was directly obliged to support the claims of Orthodoxy. The religious component well masked the ugly reality of the conflict over markets and bases.
But Palestine was under Turkish control. Accordingly, Nicholas I reacted by occupying the Danube principalities, vassals of the Ottomans, and Turkey thereafter with with good reason 4 (16 according to European chronology) October 1853 declared war on Russia. France and England just have to be “good allies” and do the same on March 15 (March 27) next year.
Battles during the Crimean War
Crimea and the Black Sea acted as the main theater of military operations (it is noteworthy that in other regions - in the Caucasus, Baltic, Far East– our troops acted mostly successfully). In November 1853, the Battle of Sinop took place (the last great sailing battle in history), in April 1854, Anglo-French ships fired at Odessa, and in June the first skirmish took place near Sevastopol (shelling of fortifications from the sea surface).
Source of maps and symbols - https://ru.wikipedia.org
It was the main Black Sea port of the empire that was the target of the Allies. The essence of the fighting in Crimea was to capture it - then the Russian ships would be “homeless.” At the same time, the allies remained aware that it was fortified only from the sea, and had no defensive structures from land.
The landing of Allied ground forces in Yevpatoria in September 1854 was precisely aimed at capturing Sevastopol from land by a roundabout maneuver. The Russian commander-in-chief, Prince Menshikov, organized the defense poorly. A week after the landing, the landing force was already in the vicinity of the current hero city. The Battle of Alma (September 8 (20), 1854) delayed his advance, but overall it was a defeat for the domestic troops due to unsuccessful command.
But the Sevastopol defense showed that our soldier had not lost the ability to do the impossible. The city remained under siege for 349 days, withstood 6 massive artillery bombardments, although the number of its garrison was approximately 8 times less than the number of those who stormed (the ratio is 1:3 is considered normal). There was no fleet support - outdated wooden ships were simply sunk on the fairways, trying to block the enemy's passages.
The notorious defense was accompanied by other famous, iconic battles. It is not easy to describe them briefly - each is special in its own way. So, what happened near (October 13 (25), 1854) is considered the decline of the glory of the British cavalry - this branch of the army suffered heavy, ineffective losses. Inkerman (October 24 (November 5) of the same year) showed the advantages of French artillery over Russian and our command’s poor understanding of the enemy’s capabilities.
On August 27 (September 8), 1855, the French took possession of the fortified height dominating the policy, and 3 days later they occupied it. The fall of Sevastopol marked the defeat of our country in the war - more active fighting didn't behave.
Heroes of the First Defense
Nowadays, the defense of Sevastopol during the Crimean War is called - in contrast to the Second, the period of the Great Patriotic War. However, there are no fewer bright characters in it, and maybe even more. 
Its leaders were three admirals - Kornilov, Nakhimov, Istomin. All of them died defending the main city of Crimea and were buried in it. Brilliant fortifier, engineer-colonel E.I. Totleben survived this defense, but his contribution to it was not immediately appreciated.
Artillery Lieutenant Count L.N. Tolstoy fought here. Then he published the documentary “Sevastopol Stories” and immediately became the “whale” of Russian literature.
The graves of three admirals in Sevastopol, in the Vladimir Cathedral-burial vault, are considered city amulets - the city is invincible as long as they are with it. The symbol that now adorns the new 200-ruble banknote is also considered a symbol.
Every autumn the surroundings of the hero city are shaken by cannonade - this happens historical reconstructions at the battle sites (Balaklavsky, and others). Participants in historical clubs not only demonstrate equipment and uniforms of those times, but also act out the most striking episodes of clashes.
At the sites of the most significant battles identified (in different time) monuments to the dead and archaeological research is underway. Their goal is to become more familiar with the life of a soldier.
The British and French willingly take part in reconstructions and excavations. There are monuments to them - after all, they are also heroes in their own way, and that confrontation was not entirely fair for anyone. And in general, the war is over.
CRIMEAN WAR
1853-1856
Plan
1. Prerequisites for the war
2. Progress of military operations
3. Actions in Crimea and defense of Sevastopol
4.Military actions on other fronts
5.Diplomatic efforts
6. Results of the war
Crimean (Eastern) War 1853-56 was fought between the Russian Empire and the coalition of the Ottoman Empire (Turkey), France, Great Britain and Sardinia for dominance in the Middle East, the Black Sea basin, and the Caucasus. The Allied powers no longer wanted to see Russia on the world political stage. New war served great opportunity achieve this goal. Initially, England and France planned to wear out Russia in the fight against Turkey, and then, under the pretext of protecting the latter, they hoped to attack Russia. In accordance with this plan, it was planned to launch military operations on several fronts, separated from one another (on the Black and Baltic Seas, in the Caucasus, where they placed special hope on the mountain population and on the spiritual leader of the Muslims of Chechnya and Dagestan-Shamil).
BACKGROUND OF THE WAR
The reason for the conflict was a dispute between the Catholic and Orthodox clergy over the ownership of Christian shrines in Palestine (in particular, regarding the issue of control over the Church of the Nativity in Bethlehem). The prelude was the conflict between Nicholas I and the French Emperor Napoleon III. The Russian emperor considered his French “colleague” illegal, because The Bonaparte dynasty was excluded from the French throne by the Congress of Vienna (a pan-European conference that determined the borders of European states after the Napoleonic wars). Napoleon III, aware of the fragility of his power, wanted to divert the attention of the people with a war against Russia that was popular at that time (revenge for the War of 1812) and at the same time satisfy his irritation against Nicholas I. Having come to power with the support of the Catholic Church, Napoleon also sought to repay ally, defending the interests of the Vatican in the international arena, which led to a conflict with the Orthodox Church and directly with Russia. (The French referred to an agreement with the Ottoman Empire on the right of control over Christian holy places in Palestine (in the 19th century, the territory of the Ottoman Empire), and Russia referred to the decree of the Sultan, which restored the rights Orthodox Church in Palestine and gave Russia the right to defend the interests of Christians in the Ottoman Empire). France demanded that the keys to the Church of the Nativity in Bethlehem be given to the Catholic clergy, and Russia demanded that they remain with the Orthodox community. Turkey, which was in a state of decline in the mid-19th century, did not have the opportunity to refuse either side, and promised to fulfill the demands of both Russia and France. When the typical Turkish diplomatic ploy was exposed, France brought a 90-gun steam battleship under the walls of Istanbul. As a result of this, the keys to the Church of the Nativity were transferred to France (i.e. the Catholic Church). In response, Russia began mobilizing the army on the border with Moldavia and Wallachia.
In February 1853, Nicholas I sent Prince A.S. Menshikov as ambassador to the Turkish Sultan. with an ultimatum to recognize the rights of the Orthodox Church to holy places in Palestine and to provide Russia with protection over Christians in the Ottoman Empire (who made up approximately a third of the total population). The Russian government counted on the support of Austria and Prussia and considered an alliance between Great Britain and France impossible. However, Great Britain, fearing the strengthening of Russia, agreed to an agreement with France. The British Ambassador, Lord Stradford-Radcliffe, convinced the Turkish Sultan to partially satisfy Russia's demands, promising support in the event of war. As a result, the Sultan issued a decree on the inviolability of the rights of the Orthodox Church to holy places, but refused to enter into an agreement on protection. Prince Menshikov behaved defiantly at meetings with the Sultan, demanding full satisfaction of the ultimatum. Feeling the support of its Western allies, Türkiye was in no hurry to respond to Russia’s demands. Without waiting for a positive response, Menshikov and the embassy staff left Constantinople. Trying to put pressure on the Turkish government, Nicholas I ordered troops to occupy the principalities of Moldavia and Wallachia subordinate to the Sultan. (Initially, the plans of the Russian command were distinguished by courage and determination. It was planned to conduct a “Bosphorus Expedition”, which would include equipment landing ships to reach the Bosphorus and connect with the rest of the troops. When the Turkish fleet went to sea, it was planned to defeat it and then proceed to the Bosphorus. The breakthrough of the Russian stage into the Bosphorus threatened the capital of Turkey, Constantinople. To prevent France from supporting the Ottoman Sultan, the plan called for the occupation of the Dardanelles. Nicholas I accepted the plan, but after listening to Prince Menshikov’s next anti-arguments, he rejected it. Subsequently, other active offensive plans were rejected and the emperor’s choice settled on yet another faceless plan, refusing any active action. The troops, under the command of Adjutant General Gorchakov, were ordered to reach the Danube, but avoid military action. The Black Sea Fleet was to remain off its shores and avoid battle, dedicating only cruisers to observe enemy fleets. With such a demonstration of force, the Russian emperor hoped to put pressure on Turkey and accept its terms.)
This caused a protest from the Porte, which led to the convening of a conference of commissioners from England, France, Prussia and Austria. Its result was the Vienna Note, a compromise on all sides, which demanded the withdrawal of Russian troops from the Danube principalities, but gave Russia the nominal right to protect Orthodox Christians in the Ottoman Empire and nominal control over the holy places in Palestine.
The Vienna note was accepted by Nicholas I, but rejected by the Turkish Sultan, who succumbed to the promised military support of the British ambassador. Porta proposed various changes to the note, which caused a refusal from the Russian side. As a result, France and Britain entered into an alliance with each other with obligations to defend Turkish territory.
Trying to use the favorable opportunity to “teach a lesson” to Russia with someone else’s hands, the Ottoman Sultan demanded to clear the territory of the Danube principalities within two weeks, and after these conditions were not met, on October 4 (16), 1853, he declared war on Russia. On October 20 (November 1), 1853, Russia responded with a similar statement.
PROGRESS OF MILITARY ACTIONS
The Crimean War can be divided into two stages. The first was the Russian-Turkish company itself (November 1853 - April 1854) and the second (April 1854 - February 1856), when the Allies entered the war.
STATE OF THE ARMED FORCES OF RUSSIA
As subsequent events showed, Russia was not organizationally and technically ready for war. The combat strength of the army was far from what was listed; the reserve system was unsatisfactory; due to the intervention of Austria, Prussia and Sweden, Russia was forced to keep a significant part of the army on the western border. Technical lag Russian army and the fleet has acquired alarming proportions.
ARMY
In the 1840-50s, the process of replacing outdated smooth-bore guns with rifled ones was actively underway in European armies. At the beginning of the war, the share of rifled guns in the Russian army was approximately 4-5% of the total; in French - 1/3; in English - more than half.
FLEET
WITH early XIX centuries in European fleets, obsolete ones were replaced sailing ships to modern steam engines. On the eve of the Crimean War, the Russian fleet ranked 3rd in the world in terms of the number of warships (after England and France), but was significantly inferior to the Allied fleets in terms of the number of steam ships.
BEGINNING OF MILITARY ACTIONS
In November 1853 on the Danube against 82 thousand. army of General Gorchakov M.D. Türkiye nominated almost 150 thousand. Omar Pasha's army. But the Turkish attacks were repulsed, and Russian artillery destroyed the Danube flotilla of Turkey. The main forces of Omar Pasha (about 40 thousand people) moved to Alexandropol, and their Ardahan detachment (18 thousand people) tried to break through the Borjomi Gorge to Tiflis, but was stopped, and on November 14 (26) defeated near Akhaltsikhe 7 -thousand detachment of General Andronnikov I.M. November 19 (December 1) the troops of Prince Bebutov V.O. (10 thousand people) near Bashkadyklar defeated the main 36 thousand. Turkish army.
At sea, Russia also initially enjoyed success. In mid-November, the Turkish squadron was heading to the area of Sukhumi (Sukhum-Kale) and Poti for landing, but due to a strong storm it was forced to take refuge in Sinop Bay. The commander of the Black Sea Fleet, Vice Admiral P.S. Nakhimov, became aware of this, and he led his ships to Sinop. On November 18 (30), the Battle of Sinop took place, during which the Russian squadron defeated the Turkish fleet. The Battle of Sinop went down in history as the last major battle of the era of the sailing fleet.
The defeat of Turkey accelerated the entry of France and England into the war. After Nakhimov's victory at Sinop, the British and French squadrons entered the Black Sea under the pretext of protecting Turkish ships and ports from attacks from the Russian side. On January 17 (29), 1854, the French emperor presented an ultimatum to Russia: withdraw troops from the Danube principalities and begin negotiations with Turkey. On February 9 (21), Russia rejected the ultimatum and announced the severance of diplomatic relations with France and England.
On March 15 (27), 1854, Great Britain and France declared war on Russia. On March 30 (April 11), Russia responded with a similar statement.
To forestall the enemy in the Balkans, Nicholas I ordered an offensive in this area. In March 1854, the Russian army under the command of Field Marshal I.F. Paskevich. invaded Bulgaria. At first, the company developed successfully - the Russian army crossed the Danube at Galati, Izmail and Brailaa and occupied the fortresses of Machin, Tulcea and Isaccea. But later the Russian command showed indecisiveness, and the siege of Silistria began only on May 5 (18). However, the fear of entering the war was on the side of the Austrian coalition, which, in alliance with Prussia, concentrated 50 thousand. army in Galicia and Transylvania, and then, with the permission of Turkey, entered the latter’s possessions on the banks of the Danube, forcing the Russian command to lift the siege, and then at the end of August completely withdraw troops from this area.
CRIMINAL WAR 1853-1856
Causes of the war and the balance of forces. Russia, the Ottoman Empire, England, France and Sardinia took part in the Crimean War. Each of them had its own calculations in this military conflict in the Middle East.
For Russia, the regime of the Black Sea straits was of paramount importance. In the 30-40s of the 19th century. Russian diplomacy waged a tense struggle for the most favorable conditions in resolving this issue. In 1833, the Unkiar-Isklessi Treaty was concluded with Turkey. According to it, Russia received the right to free passage of its warships through the straits. In the 40s of the XIX century. the situation has changed. Based on a series of agreements with European states, the straits were closed to all navies. This had a hard impact on the Russian fleet. He found himself locked in the Black Sea. Russia, relying on its military power, sought to re-solve the problem of the straits and strengthen its positions in the Middle East and the Balkans.
The Ottoman Empire wanted to return the territories lost as a result of the Russian-Turkish wars of the late XVIII - first half of the nineteenth V.
England and France hoped to crush Russia as a great power and deprive it of influence in the Middle East and the Balkan Peninsula.
The pan-European conflict in the Middle East began in 1850, when disputes broke out between the Orthodox and Catholic clergy in Palestine over who would own the Holy Places in Jerusalem and Bethlehem. The Orthodox Church was supported by Russia, and the Catholic Church by France. The dispute between the clergy escalated into a confrontation between these two European states. The Ottoman Empire, which included Palestine, sided with France. This caused sharp discontent in Russia and personally with Emperor Nicholas I. A special representative of the Tsar, Prince A.S., was sent to Constantinople. Menshikov. He was instructed to achieve privileges for the Russian Orthodox Church in Palestine and the right of patronage for Orthodox subjects of Turkey. Failure of A.S. mission Menshikova was a foregone conclusion. The Sultan was not going to give in to Russian pressure, and the defiant, disrespectful behavior of her envoy only aggravated conflict situation. Thus, a seemingly private, but for that time important, given the religious feelings of people, dispute about the Holy Places became the reason for the outbreak of the Russian-Turkish, and subsequently the pan-European war.
Nicholas I took an irreconcilable position, relying on the power of the army and the support of some European states (England, Austria, etc.). But he miscalculated. The Russian army numbered more than 1 million people. However, as it turned out during the war, it was imperfect, first of all, in technical terms. Its weapons (smoothbore guns) were inferior to the rifled weapons of Western European armies. The artillery is also outdated. The Russian fleet was predominantly sailing, while the European navies were dominated by ships with steam engines. There was no established communication. This did not make it possible to provide the site of military operations with a sufficient amount of ammunition and food, or human replenishment. The Russian army could successfully fight the Turkish one, but it was not able to resist the united forces of Europe.
Progress of military operations. To put pressure on Turkey in 1853, Russian troops were sent to Moldova and Wallachia. In response, the Turkish Sultan declared war on Russia in October 1853. He was supported by England and France. Austria took a position of “armed neutrality.” Russia found itself in complete political isolation.
The history of the Crimean War is divided into two stages. The first - the Russian-Turkish campaign itself - was carried out with varying success from November 1853 to April 1854. In the second (April 1854 - February 1856) - Russia was forced to fight against a coalition of European states.
The main event of the first stage was the Battle of Sinop (November 1853). Admiral P.S. Nakhimov defeated the Turkish fleet in Sinop Bay and suppressed coastal batteries. This activated England and France. They declared war on Russia. The Anglo-French squadron appeared in the Baltic Sea and attacked Kronstadt and Sveaborg. English ships entered the White Sea and bombarded the Solovetsky Monastery. A military demonstration was also held in Kamchatka.
The main goal of the joint Anglo-French command was to capture Crimea and Sevastopol, the Russian naval base. On September 2, 1854, the Allies began landing an expeditionary force in the Evpatoria area. Battle on the river Alma in September 1854, Russian troops lost. By order of the commander, A.S. Menshikov, they passed through Sevastopol and moved to Bakhchisarai. At the same time, the garrison of Sevastopol, reinforced by sailors of the Black Sea Fleet, was actively preparing for defense. It was headed by V.A. Kornilov and P.S. Nakhimov.
In October 1854, the defense of Sevastopol began. The fortress garrison showed unprecedented heroism. Admirals V.A. became famous in Sevastopol. Kornilov, P.S. Nakhimov, V.I. Istomin, military engineer E.I. Totleben, Lieutenant General of Artillery S.A. Khrulev, many sailors and soldiers: I. Shevchenko, F. Samolatov, P. Koshka and others.
The main part of the Russian army undertook diversionary operations: the battle of Inkerman (November 1854), the attack on Yevpatoria (February 1855), the battle on the Black River (August 1855). These military actions did not help the residents of Sevastopol. In August 1855, the final assault on Sevastopol began. After the fall of Malakhov Kurgan, continuation of the defense was difficult. Most of Sevastopol was occupied by the allied troops, however, having found only ruins there, they returned to their positions.
In the Caucasian theater, military operations developed more successfully for Russia. Turkey invaded Transcaucasia, but suffered a major defeat, after which Russian troops began to operate on its territory. In November 1855 it fell Turkish fortress Kare.
The extreme exhaustion of Allied forces in the Crimea and Russian successes in the Caucasus led to a cessation of hostilities. Negotiations between the parties began.
Parisian world. At the end of March 1856, the Paris Peace Treaty was signed. Russia did not suffer significant territorial losses. She was only torn away South part Bessarabia. However, she lost the right of patronage to the Danube principalities and Serbia. The most difficult and humiliating condition was the so-called “neutralization” of the Black Sea. Russia was prohibited from having naval forces, military arsenals and fortresses in the Black Sea. This dealt a significant blow to the security of the southern borders. Russia's role in the Balkans and the Middle East was reduced to nothing.
The defeat in the Crimean War had a significant impact on the alignment of international forces and on the internal situation of Russia. The war, on the one hand, exposed its weakness, but on the other, demonstrated the heroism and unshakable spirit of the Russian people. The defeat brought a sad conclusion to Nicholas' rule, shook up the entire Russian public and forced the government to come to grips with reforming the state.
What you need to know about this topic:
Socio-economic development of Russia in the first half of the 19th century. Social structure of the population.
Development of agriculture.
Development of Russian industry in the first half of the 19th century. The formation of capitalist relations. Industrial Revolution: essence, premises, chronology.
Development of water and highway communications. Start of railway construction.
Exacerbation of socio-political contradictions in the country. Palace coup 1801 and the accession to the throne of Alexander I. “The days of Alexander are a wonderful beginning.”
Peasant question. Decree "On Free Plowmen". Government measures in the field of education. Government activities M.M. Speransky and his plan for state reforms. Creation of the State Council.
Russia's participation in anti-French coalitions. Treaty of Tilsit.
Patriotic War of 1812. International relations on the eve of the war. Causes and beginning of the war. Balance of forces and military plans of the parties. M.B. Barclay de Tolly. P.I. Bagration. M.I.Kutuzov. Stages of war. Results and significance of the war.
Foreign campaigns of 1813-1814. Congress of Vienna and his decisions. Holy Alliance.
The internal situation of the country in 1815-1825. Strengthening conservative sentiments in Russian society. A.A. Arakcheev and Arakcheevism. Military settlements.
Foreign policy tsarism in the first quarter of the XIX V.
The first secret organizations of the Decembrists were the “Union of Salvation” and the “Union of Prosperity”. Northern and Southern society. The main program documents of the Decembrists are “Russian Truth” by P.I. Pestel and “Constitution” by N.M. Muravyov. Death of Alexander I. Interregnum. Uprising on December 14, 1825 in St. Petersburg. Uprising of the Chernigov regiment. Investigation and trial of the Decembrists. The significance of the Decembrist uprising.
The beginning of the reign of Nicholas I. Strengthening autocratic power. Further centralization and bureaucratization of the Russian state system. Intensifying repressive measures. Creation of the III department. Censorship regulations. The era of censorship terror.
Codification. M.M. Speransky. Reform of state peasants. P.D. Kiselev. Decree "On Obligated Peasants".
Polish uprising 1830-1831
The main directions of Russian foreign policy in the second quarter of the 19th century.
Eastern question. Russo-Turkish War 1828-1829 The problem of the straits in Russian foreign policy in the 30s and 40s of the 19th century.
Russia and the revolutions of 1830 and 1848. in Europe.
Crimean War. International relations on the eve of the war. Causes of the war. Progress of military operations. Russia's defeat in the war. Peace of Paris 1856. International and domestic consequences of the war.
Annexation of the Caucasus to Russia.
The formation of the state (imamate) in the North Caucasus. Muridism. Shamil. Caucasian War. The significance of the annexation of the Caucasus to Russia.
Social thought and social movement in Russia in the second quarter of the 19th century.
Formation of government ideology. The theory of official nationality. Mugs from the late 20s - early 30s of the 19th century.
N.V. Stankevich’s circle and German idealistic philosophy. A.I. Herzen’s circle and utopian socialism. "Philosophical Letter" by P.Ya.Chaadaev. Westerners. Moderate. Radicals. Slavophiles. M.V. Butashevich-Petrashevsky and his circle. The theory of "Russian socialism" by A.I. Herzen.
Socio-economic and political background bourgeois reforms of the 60-70s of the XIX century.
Peasant reform. Preparation of reform. "Regulation" February 19, 1861 Personal liberation of the peasants. Allotments. Ransom. Duties of peasants. Temporary condition.
Zemstvo, judicial, urban reforms. Financial reforms. Reforms in the field of education. Censorship rules. Military reforms. The meaning of bourgeois reforms.
Socio-economic development of Russia in the second half of the 19th century. Social structure of the population.
Industrial development. Industrial revolution: essence, prerequisites, chronology. The main stages of the development of capitalism in industry.
Development of capitalism in agriculture. Rural community in post-reform Russia. Agrarian crisis of the 80-90s of the XIX century.
Social movement in Russia in the 50-60s of the 19th century.
Social movement in Russia in the 70-90s of the 19th century.
Revolutionary populist movement of the 70s - early 80s of the 19th century.
"Land and Freedom" of the 70s of the XIX century. "People's Will" and "Black Redistribution". Assassination of Alexander II on March 1, 1881. The collapse of Narodnaya Volya.
Labor movement in the second half of the 19th century. Strike struggle. The first workers' organizations. A work issue arises. Factory legislation.
Liberal populism of the 80-90s of the 19th century. Spread of the ideas of Marxism in Russia. Group "Emancipation of Labor" (1883-1903). The emergence of Russian social democracy. Marxist circles of the 80s of the XIX century.
St. Petersburg "Union of Struggle for the Liberation of the Working Class." V.I. Ulyanov. "Legal Marxism".
Political reaction of the 80-90s of the 19th century. The era of counter-reforms.
Alexander III. Manifesto on the “inviolability” of autocracy (1881). The policy of counter-reforms. Results and significance of counter-reforms.
International position of Russia after the Crimean War. Changing the country's foreign policy program. The main directions and stages of Russian foreign policy in the second half of the 19th century.
Russia in the system of international relations after the Franco-Prussian war. Union of Three Emperors.
Russia and the Eastern crisis of the 70s of the XIX century. The goals of Russia's policy in the eastern question. Russian-Turkish War of 1877-1878: causes, plans and forces of the parties, course of military operations. Treaty of San Stefano. Berlin Congress and its decisions. The role of Russia in the liberation of the Balkan peoples from the Ottoman yoke.
Foreign policy of Russia in the 80-90s of the XIX century. Formation of the Triple Alliance (1882). Deterioration of Russia's relations with Germany and Austria-Hungary. Conclusion of the Russian-French alliance (1891-1894).
- Buganov V.I., Zyryanov P.N. History of Russia: the end of the 17th - 19th centuries. . - M.: Education, 1996.
By the middle of the 19th century, the international situation in Europe remained extremely tense: Austria and Prussia continued to concentrate their troops on the border with Russia, England and France asserted their colonial power with blood and sword. In this situation, a war broke out between Russia and Turkey, which went down in history as the Crimean War of 1853-1856.
Causes of military conflict
By the 50s of the 19th century, the Ottoman Empire had finally lost its power. The Russian state, on the contrary, after the suppression of revolutions in European countries, rose in power. Emperor Nicholas I decided to further strengthen the power of Russia. First of all, he wanted the Black Sea straits of the Bosporus and Dardanelles to become free for the Russian fleet. This led to hostilities between the Russian and Turkish empires. Besides, the main reasons were :
- Turkey had the right to allow the fleet of the allied powers to pass through the Bosporus and Dardanelles in the event of hostilities.
- Russia openly supported the Orthodox peoples under the yoke of the Ottoman Empire. The Turkish government has repeatedly expressed its indignation at Russia’s interference in the internal politics of the Turkish state.
- The Turkish government, led by Abdulmecid, longed for revenge for defeat in two wars with Russia in 1806-1812 and 1828-1829.
Nicholas I, preparing for war with Turkey, counted on the non-interference of the Western powers in the military conflict. However, the Russian emperor was cruelly mistaken - Western countries instigated by Great Britain, they openly sided with Turkey. British policy has traditionally been to eradicate by all means the slightest strengthening of any country.
Start of hostilities
The reason for the war was a dispute between the Orthodox and Catholic Churches on the right of possession of the holy lands in Palestine. In addition, Russia demanded that the Black Sea straits be recognized as free for the Russian navy. The Turkish Sultan Abdulmecid, encouraged by the support of England, declared war on the Russian Empire.
If we talk briefly about the Crimean War, it can be divided into two main stages:
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- First stage lasted from October 16, 1853 to March 27, 1854. For the first six months of military operations on three fronts - the Black Sea, Danube and Caucasus, Russian troops invariably prevailed over the Ottoman Turks.
- Second phase lasted from March 27, 1854 to February 1856. Number of participants in the Crimean War 1853-1856. grew due to the entry into the war of England and France. A radical turning point is coming in the war.
Progress of the military campaign
By the autumn of 1853, events on the Danube front were sluggish and indecisive for both sides.
- The Russian group of forces was commanded only by Gorchakov, who thought only about the defense of the Danube bridgehead. The Turkish troops of Omer Pasha, after futile attempts to go on the offensive on the Wallachian border, also switched to passive defense.
- Events in the Caucasus developed much more rapidly: on October 16, 1854, a detachment consisting of 5 thousand Turks attacked the Russian border outpost between Batum and Poti. The Turkish commander Abdi Pasha hoped to crush Russian troops in Transcaucasia and unite with the Chechen Imam Shamil. But the Russian general Bebutov upset the plans of the Turks, defeating them near the village of Bashkadyklar in November 1853.
- But the loudest victory was achieved at sea by Admiral Nakhimov on November 30, 1853. The Russian squadron completely destroyed the Turkish fleet located in Sinop Bay. The commander was captured by Russian sailors Turkish fleet Osman Pasha. This was the last battle in the history of the sailing fleet.
- The crushing victories of the Russian army and navy were not to the liking of England and France. The governments of Queen Victoria of England and French Emperor Napoleon III demanded the withdrawal of Russian troops from the mouth of the Danube. Nicholas I refused. In response to this, on March 27, 1854, England declared war on Russia. Due to the concentration of Austrian armed forces and an ultimatum from the Austrian government, Nicholas I was forced to agree to the withdrawal of Russian troops from the Danube principalities.
The following table presents the main events of the second period of the Crimean War, indicating dates and summary each of the events:
| date | Event | Content |
| March 27, 1854 | England declared war on Russia |
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| April 22, 1854 | An attempt by the Anglo-French fleet to besiege Odessa |
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| Spring 1854 | Attempts to penetrate the British and French on the coast of the Baltic and White Seas |
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| Summer 1854 | The Allies are preparing to land troops in Crimea |
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| September 20, 1854 | Battle on the Alma River |
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| October 5, 1854 | The Allies began shelling Sevastopol |
|
| October 17, 1854 - September 5, 1855 | Defense of Sevastopol |
|
| October 25, 1854 | Battle of Balaklava |
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| November 5, 1854 | Battle of Inkerman |
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| August 16, 1855 | Battle of the Black River |
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| October 2, 1855 | Fall of the Turkish fortress Kars |
|
Many peasants sought to avoid conscription in order not to end up in the army. This did not mean they were cowardly, it was just that many peasants sought to avoid conscription because of their families that needed to be fed. During the Crimean War of 1853-1856, on the contrary, there was a surge of patriotic sentiment among the Russian population. Moreover, people of various classes signed up for the militia.
The end of the war and its consequences
The new Russian sovereign Alexander II, who replaced the suddenly deceased Nicholas I on the throne, directly visited the theater of military operations. After this, he decided to do everything in his power to end the Crimean War. The end of the war occurred at the beginning of 1856.
At the beginning of 1856, a congress of European diplomats was convened in Paris to conclude peace. The most difficult condition put forward by the Western powers of Russia was the ban on keeping Russian fleet at the Black Sea.
Basic terms of the Treaty of Paris:
- Russia pledged to return the Kars fortress to Turkey in exchange for Sevastopol;
- Russia was prohibited from having a fleet in the Black Sea;
- Russia was losing part of its territories in the Danube Delta. Navigation on the Danube was declared free;
- Russia was prohibited from having military fortifications on the Åland Islands.
Rice. 3. Paris Congress 1856.
The Russian Empire suffered a serious defeat. A powerful blow was dealt to the country's international prestige. The Crimean War exposed the rottenness of the existing system and the backwardness of industry from the leading world powers. The Russian army lacks rifled weapons, a modern fleet and a shortage railways, could not but affect military operations.
However, such key points The Crimean War, like the Battle of Sinop, the defense of Sevastopol, the capture of Kars or the defense of the Bomarsund fortress, remained in history as a sacrificial and majestic feat of Russian soldiers and the Russian people.
The government of Nicholas I introduced severe censorship during the Crimean War. It was forbidden to touch on military topics, both in books and periodicals. Publications that wrote in an enthusiastic manner about the progress of hostilities were also not allowed into print.
What have we learned?
Crimean War 1853-1856 discovered serious shortcomings in the external and domestic policy Russian Empire. The article “Crimean War” talks about what kind of war it was, why Russia was defeated, as well as the significance of the Crimean War and its consequences.
Test on the topic
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Question 31.
"Crimean War 1853-1856"
Course of events
In June 1853, Russia broke off diplomatic relations with Turkey and occupied the Danube principalities. In response, Türkiye declared war on October 4, 1853. The Russian army, having crossed the Danube, pushed the Turkish troops away from the right bank and besieged the fortress of Silistria. In the Caucasus, on December 1, 1853, the Russians won a victory near Bashkadyklyar, which stopped the Turkish advance in Transcaucasia. At sea, a flotilla under the command of Admiral P.S. Nakhimova destroyed the Turkish squadron in Sinop Bay. But after that England and France entered the war. In December 1853, the English and French squadrons entered the Black Sea, and in March 1854, on the night of January 4, 1854, the English and French squadrons passed through the Bosporus into the Black Sea. Then these powers demanded that Russia withdraw its troops from the Danube principalities. On March 27, England and the next day France declared war on Russia. On April 22, the Anglo-French squadron subjected Odessa to fire from 350 guns. But the attempt to land near the city failed.
England and France managed to land in Crimea and on September 8, 1854, defeated Russian troops near the Alma River. On September 14, the landing of allied troops in Yevpatoria began. On October 17, the siege of Sevastopol began. They led the defense of the city V.A. Kornilov, P.S. Nakhimov and V.I. Istomin. The city's garrison numbered 30 thousand people, the city was subjected to five massive bombings. On August 27, 1855, French troops captured the southern part of the city and the height dominating the city - Malakhov Kurgan. After this, Russian troops had to leave the city. The siege lasted 349 days, attempts to divert troops from Sevastopol (such as the Battle of Inkerman) did not give the desired result, after which Sevastopol was nevertheless taken by the allied forces.
The war ended with the signing of a peace treaty in Paris on March 18, 1856, according to which the Black Sea was declared neutral, the Russian fleet was reduced to a minimum, and fortresses were destroyed. Similar demands were made to Turkey. In addition, Russia was deprived of the mouth of the Danube, the southern part of Bessarabia, the fortress of Kars captured in this war and the right of patronage of Serbia, Moldova and Wallachia. Balaklava, a city in the Crimea (since 1957 as part of Sevastopol), in the area of which during the struggle in the XVIII-XIX centuries The Ottoman Empire, Russia, as well as the leading European powers for dominance in the Black Sea and the Black Sea states took place on October 13 (25), 1854, between Russian and Anglo-Turkish troops during the Crimean War of 1853-1856. The Russian command intended with a surprise attack to capture the well-fortified base of British troops in Balaklava, whose garrison numbered 3,350 British and 1,000 Turks. The Russian detachment of Lieutenant General P.P. Liprandi (16 thousand people, 64 guns), concentrated in the village of Chorgun (about 8 km northeast of Balaklava), was supposed to attack the allied Anglo-Turkish troops in three columns. To cover the Chorgun detachment from the French troops, a 5,000-strong detachment of Major General O.P. Zhabokritsky was stationed on the Fedyukhin Heights. The British, having discovered the movement of Russian troops, advanced their cavalry to the redoubts of the second line of defense.
Early in the morning, Russian troops, under the cover of artillery fire, launched an offensive and captured the redoubts, but the cavalry was unable to take the village. During the retreat, the cavalry found itself between the detachments of Liprandi and Zhabokritsky. English troops, pursuing the Russian cavalry, also moved into the interval between these detachments. During the attack, the British order was upset and Liprandi ordered the Russian lancers to hit them in the flank, and the artillery and infantry to open fire on them. The Russian cavalry pursued the defeated enemy to the redoubts, but due to the indecisiveness and miscalculations of the Russian command, they were unable to build on their success. The enemy took advantage of this and significantly strengthened the defense of his base, so in the future Russian troops abandoned attempts to capture Balaklava until the end of the war. The British and Turks lost up to 600 people killed and wounded, the Russians - 500 people.
Causes of defeat and consequences.
The political reason for Russia's defeat during the Crimean War was the unification of the main Western powers (England and France) against it, with the benevolent (for the aggressor) neutrality of the rest. This war demonstrated the consolidation of the West against a civilization alien to them. If after the defeat of Napoleon in 1814 an anti-Russian ideological campaign began in France, then in the 50s the West moved to practical action.
The technical reason for the defeat was the relative backwardness of the Russian army's weapons. The Anglo-French troops had rifled fittings, which allowed the scattered formation of rangers to open fire on the Russian troops before they approached at a distance sufficient for a volley from smooth-bore guns. The close formation of the Russian army, designed primarily for one group salvo and a bayonet attack, with such a difference in weapons, became a convenient target.
The socio-economic reason for the defeat was the preservation of serfdom, which is inextricably linked with the lack of freedom of both potential hired workers and potential entrepreneurs that limited industrial development. Europe west of the Elbe was able to break away from Russia in industry and in the development of technology thanks to the social changes that occurred there, facilitating the creation of a capital and labor market.
The consequence of the war was legal and socio-economic transformations in the country in the 60s of the 19th century. The extremely slow overcoming of serfdom before the Crimean War prompted, after the military defeat, to speed up reforms, which led to distortions in social structure Russia, which were subject to destructive ideological influences coming from the West.
Bashkadyklar (modern Basgedikler - Bashgedikler), a village in Turkey, 35 km east. Kars, in the region of Nov. 19. (Dec. 1) 1853 During the Crimean War of 1853-56, a battle took place between the Russians. and tour. troops. Tour retreating to Kars. the army under the command of serasker (commander-in-chief) Akhmet Pasha (36 thousand people, 46 guns) tried to stop the advancing Russians at Byelorussia. troops under the command of Gen. V. O. Bebutov (approx. 10 thousand people, 32 guns). With an energetic attack, the Russian The troops, despite the stubborn resistance of the Turks, crushed their right flank and turned around. army to flee. The losses of the Turks were over 6 thousand people, the Russians - about 1.5 thousand people. The defeat of the Turkish army near Byzantine was of great importance for Russia. It meant the disruption of the plans of the Anglo-French-Turkish coalition to seize the Caucasus in one blow.
Sevastopol defense 1854 - 1855 The heroic 349-day defense of the main base of the Russian Black Sea Fleet against the armed forces of France, England, Turkey and Sardinia in the Crimean War of 1853 - 1856. It began on September 13, 1854 after the defeat of the Russian army under the command of A.S. Menshikov on the river. Alma. The Black Sea Fleet (14 sailing battleships, 11 sailing and 11 steam frigates and corvettes, 24.5 thousand crew) and the city garrison (9 battalions, about 7 thousand people) found themselves facing an enemy army of 67 thousand and a huge modern fleet (34 battleships, 55 frigates). At the same time, Sevastopol was prepared for defense only from the sea (8 coastal batteries with 610 guns). The defense of the city was headed by the Chief of Staff of the Black Sea Fleet, Vice Admiral V. A. Kornilov, and Vice Admiral P. S. Nakhimov became his closest assistant. To prevent the enemy from breaking through to the Sevastopol roadstead, on September 11, 1854, 5 battleships and 2 frigates were sunk. On October 5, the first bombardment of Sevastopol began both from land and sea. However, Russian artillerymen suppressed all French and almost all British batteries, heavily damaging several Allied ships. On October 5, Kornilov was mortally wounded. The leadership of the city's defense passed to Nakhimov. By April 1855, the Allied forces increased to 170 thousand people. On June 28, 1855, Nakhimov was mortally wounded. On August 27, 1855, Sevastopol fell. In total, during the defense of Sevastopol, the Allies lost 71 thousand people, and Russian troops - about 102 thousand people.
In the White Sea, on Solovetsky Island, they were preparing for war: they took the monastery valuables to Arkhangelsk, built a battery on the shore, installed two large-caliber cannons, and eight small-caliber cannons on the walls and towers of the monastery. A small detachment of a disabled team guarded the border of the Russian Empire here. On the morning of July 6, two enemy steam ships appeared on the horizon: the Brisk and the Miranda. Each has 60 guns.
First of all, the British fired a salvo - they demolished the monastery gates, then they began to shoot at the monastery, confident in impunity and invincibility. Fireworks? Drushlevsky, the commander of the coastal battery, also fired. Two Russian guns against 120 English ones. After the first salvos from Drushlevsky, the Miranda received a hole. The British were offended and stopped firing.
On the morning of July 7, they sent envoys to the island with a letter: “On the 6th there was firing at the English flag. For such an insult, the garrison commandant is obliged to give up his sword within three hours.” The commandant refused to give up the sword, and the monks, pilgrims, residents of the island and the disabled team went to the fortress walls for the procession. July 7th is a fun day in Rus'. Ivan Kupala, Midsummer's Day. He is also called Ivan Tsvetnoy. The British were surprised at the strange behavior of the Solovetsky people: they did not give them the sword, they did not bow to their feet, they did not ask for forgiveness, and they even held a religious procession.
And they opened fire with all their guns. The guns boomed for nine hours. Nine and a half hours.
The overseas enemies caused a lot of damage to the monastery, but they were afraid to land on the shore: two Drushlevsky cannons, an invalid crew, Archimandrite Alexander and the icon that the Solovetsky people followed along the fortress wall an hour before the cannonade.