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Philosophy of alchemy
The word “alchemy” came into European languages from Arabic. خيمياء (’al-kīmiyā’), which in turn was borrowed from the Middle Greek χυμεία “fluid”. Alchemy is an occult science with its roots in the 10th-11th centuries. According to one of the etymological decipherments, “alchemy” comes from Chymeia - pouring, infusion, pointing to the ancient practice of eastern pharmacist healers. According to another opinion, the root Khem or Khame implies black soil and the Black Country, i.e. Ancient Egypt (“TaKemet”).
The alchemical period was the time of searching for the philosopher's stone, which was considered necessary for the transmutation of metals. Alchemical theory, based on ancient ideas about the four elements (fire, water, earth and air), was closely intertwined with astrology and mysticism. Along with chemical and technical “goldmaking,” this era is also notable for the creation of a unique system of mystical philosophy.
The goal of alchemists in all cultures is to carry out qualitative changes within an animate or inanimate object, its “rebirth” and transition “to a new level.”
Alchemy, which deals with obtaining gold, preparing drugs and potions, “immortality pills,” and studying the deep (occult) essence of substances and chemical reactions is called external alchemy.
Achieving absolute health or even immortality with the help of certain exercises was done inner alchemy. Within the framework of internal alchemy, a person or his individual material and immaterial components (consciousness, body, spirit, soul, individual energies, etc.) are considered as substances with certain chemical and physical properties, with which operations can be performed, described in the language of chemical transformations. In parallel with the main - chemical - metaphor, other symbolic series often develop; European alchemy is especially rich in this regard. For example, the philosopher's stone was called the “red lion”, “great elixir”, “philosopher’s egg”, “red tincture”, “panacea”, “vital elixir”.
Without exception, all alchemical teachings are characterized by mystery and secrecy, which often gave rise to their misunderstanding. However, magical rites, ritual actions, and spells were considered as a way of influencing natural and divine forces that could help in the implementation of mystical creation, that is, the transformation of one substance into another (transmutation, tetrasomata, etc.).
Transformations are justified by the presence of primordial matter, the original elements: four in the Western tradition (fire, water, earth and air) and five in the Eastern tradition (fire, water, earth, metal and wood).
In European alchemy, between primary matter and the individual material bodies generated by it, there are two intermediate “links”. The first link is the universal qualitative principles of the male (sulfur) and female (mercury) principles. In the 15th century, a third principle was added to them - “salt” (movement).
The second link is the states, qualities, properties of the primary elements: earth (solid state of the body), fire (radiant state), water (liquid state), air (gaseous state), quintessence (ethereal state).
As a result of the interaction of qualitative principles (principles) and states of primary elements, any transmutation of substances can be carried out. In addition, sulfur, 6 traditional metals (lead, iron, copper, tin, silver, gold), arsenic compounds (primarily orpiment and realgar), antimony, nitrate, alkalis and some other inorganic compounds and organic compounds are used. Chinese, Indian and Tibetan alchemy also include precious stones and herbs.
In all alchemical systems, the following ideas are important: purification and concentration of the substances or substances involved in the work by calcination, melting, amalgamation, distillation; sacred marriage, the intercourse of male and female principles, the union of opposites.
Periods of alchemy
The alchemical period is divided into three subperiods: Alexandrian (Greco-Egyptian), Arabic and European alchemy.
Alexandrian alchemy
Among the significant representatives of Greco-Egyptian alchemy, whose names have survived to this day, we can note Bolos Demokritos, Zosimos Panopolite, Olympiodorus. The book Physics and Mysticism written by Bolos (c. 200 BC) consists of four parts devoted to gold, silver, precious stones and purple.
Library of Alexandria
Bolos first expressed the idea of transmutation of metals - the transformation of one metal into another (primarily base metals into gold), which became the main task of the entire alchemical period. Zosimus in his encyclopedia (3rd century) defined khemaia as the art of making gold and silver, described “tetrasomata” - the stages of the process of preparing artificial gold; He especially pointed out the prohibition of disclosing the secrets of this art.
In Alexandria there was a combination of theory (the natural philosophy of Plato and Aristotle) and practical knowledge about substances, their properties and transformations; From this connection a new science was born - chemistry. The word "chemistry" itself (and the Arabic al-kīmiyaˀ) is usually considered to come from the ancient name of Egypt - Kem or Khem; originally the word was apparently meant to mean something like "Egyptian art." Sometimes the term is derived from the Greek χυμος - juice or χυμενσιζ - casting. The main objects of study of Alexandrian chemistry were metals. During the Alexandrian period, the traditional metal-planetary symbolism of alchemy was formed, in which each of the seven then known metals was associated with a corresponding planet: silver - the Moon, mercury - Mercury, copper - Venus, gold - the Sun, iron - Mars, tin - Jupiter, lead - Saturn.
Heavenly patron of chemistry Egyptian god became in Alexandria That or its Greek equivalent Hermes .
Egyptian god Thoth
Among the significant representatives of Greco-Egyptian alchemy, whose names have survived to this day, we can note Bolos Demokritos, Zosimos Panopolite, Olympiodorus. The book Physics and Mysticism written by Bolos (c. 200 BC) consists of four parts devoted to gold, silver, precious stones and purple. Bolos first expressed the idea of transmutation of metals - the transformation of one metal into another (primarily base metals into gold), which became the main task of the entire alchemical period. Zosimus in his encyclopedia (3rd century) defined khemaia as the art of making gold and silver, described “tetrasomata” - the stages of the process of preparing artificial gold; He especially pointed out the prohibition of disclosing the secrets of this art.
From the Alexandrian period, many Hermetic texts also remained, representing an attempt at a philosophical and mystical explanation of the transformations of substances, including the famous “Emerald Tablet” of Hermes Trismegistus.
Among the undoubted practical achievements of the Greco-Egyptian alchemists is the discovery metal amalgamation phenomena . Gold amalgam began to be used for gilding. Alexandrian scientists improved the method of extracting gold and silver from ores, for which mercury obtained from cinnabar or calomel was widely used. In addition to its practical significance, the unique ability of mercury to form an amalgam contributed to the emergence of the idea of mercury as a special, “primary” metal. Alchemists also developed a method for purifying gold by cupellation - heating ore with lead and nitrate.
3.2 Arabic alchemy
The theoretical basis of Arab alchemy was still the teachings of Aristotle.
Aristotle
However, the development of alchemical practice required the creation of a new theory based on the chemical properties of substances. Jabir ibn Hayyan (Geber) at the end of the 8th century developed the mercury-sulfur theory of the origin of metals, according to which metals are formed by two principles: Mercury (the principle of metallicity) and Sulfur (the principle of flammability). For the formation of gold - a perfect metal, in addition to Mercury and Sulfur, the presence of a certain substance is necessary, which Jabir called the elixir (al-iksir, from the Greek ξεριον, that is, “dry”). The problem of transmutation, thus, within the framework of the mercury-sulfur theory, was reduced to the problem of isolating the elixir, otherwise called the philosopher's stone (Lapis Philosophorum). The elixir was believed to have many more magical properties - to heal all diseases, and perhaps give immortality.
Arabic alchemy, unlike Alexandrian, was completely rational; the mystical elements in it were more of a tribute to tradition. In addition to the formation of the basic theory of alchemy, during the Arab stage, a conceptual apparatus, laboratory techniques and experimental techniques were developed. Arab alchemists achieved undoubted practical success - they isolated antimony, arsenic and, apparently, phosphorus, and obtained acetic acid and dilute solutions of mineral acids. An important achievement of Arab alchemists was the creation of rational pharmacy, which developed the traditions of ancient medicine.
Another Arab scientist, Al-Razi, at the end of the 9th century, improved the theory of the original elements, adding another property of metals, the “principle of hardness,” which he associated with salt.Arab alchemists made significant contributions to the development of natural science research, for example, by creating a distillation apparatus. Baghdad became the center of Arab alchemy.
3.3 European alchemy.
The scientific views of the Arabs penetrated into medieval Europe in the 13th century. The works of Arab alchemists were translated into Latin and then into other European languages.
The first European alchemist was the Franciscan Roger Bacon (treatises “The Mirror of Alchemy”, “On the Mysteries of Nature and Art and the Insignificance of Magic”), who also laid the foundation for experimental chemistry in Europe. He studied the properties of saltpeter (nitric acid) and many other substances, and found a method for making black gunpowder. Bacon defined alchemy as follows: “Alchemy is the science of preparing a certain composition, or elixir, which, if added to base metals, will transform them into perfect metals.”
Among other European alchemists, mention should be made of Arnold of Villanova, Raymond Lull Basil Valentinus (German monk of the 15th-16th centuries). Already in the first half of the 14th century. Pope John XXII banned alchemy in Italy, thereby starting a “witch hunt” directed against alchemists.
In Europe, elements of Christian mythology were introduced into the mythology and symbolism of alchemy (Petrus Bonus, Nicholas Flamel); generally for European alchemy, mystical elements turned out to be much more characteristic than for Arabic . The mysticism and closed nature of European alchemy gave rise to a significant number of alchemy scammers. Characteristic feature European alchemy became her ambiguous position in society . Both ecclesiastical and secular authorities repeatedly prohibited the practice of alchemy; at the same time, alchemy flourished both in monasteries and in royal courts.
By the beginning of the 14th century, European alchemy achieved its first significant successes, managing to surpass the Arabs in understanding the properties of matter. In 1270, the Italian alchemist Bonaventura, in one of his attempts to obtain a universal solvent, obtained a solution of ammonia in nitric acid (aquafortis), which turned out to be capable of dissolving gold, the king of metals (hence the name - aquaRegis, that is, aqua regia). Pseudo-Geber, one of the most significant medieval European alchemists, who worked in Spain in the 14th century and signed his works with the name Geber, described in detail concentrated mineral acids (sulfuric and nitric). The use of these acids in alchemical practice led to a significant increase in the knowledge of alchemists about the substance.
In the middle of the 13th century, the production of gunpowder began in Europe; it was apparently first described (no later than 1249) by R. Bacon (the often mentioned monk B. Schwartz can be considered the founder of the gunpowder business in Germany).
Berthold Schwartz
The appearance of firearms became a powerful stimulus for the development of alchemy and its close intertwining with artisanal chemistry.
Alchemical symbolism
Philosopher's stone (lat. lapisphilosophorum), also known as magisterium, rebis, elixir of philosophers, vital elixir, red tincture, great elixir, “fifth element” - in the descriptions of medieval alchemists, a certain reagent necessary for the successful transformation (transmutation) of metals into gold , and also to create the elixir of life.
In alchemical treatises symbol of the philosopher's stone often performs Ouroboros snake eating its own tail .
Another symbol of the elixir is the rebis - a hermaphrodite that appears as a result of the union of the “king” (philosophical sulfur) and the “queen” (philosophical mercury) in an alchemical marriage.
Also, the symbol of the philosopher's stone is a lion swallowing the sun.
One of the main tasks of alchemists was the preparation of two mysterious substances, with the help of which the much-desired refinement (improvement) of metals could be achieved. The most important of these two preparations, which was supposed to have the property of turning into gold not only silver, but also base (imperfect) metals, such as lead, tin and others, was called the philosopher's stone, the great elixir or magisterium, and was also called the red tincture , the panacea of life and the elixir of life.
Powerful powers were attributed to this remedy: it was supposed to not only refine metals, but also serve as a universal medicine; its solution, diluted to a certain extent, the so-called golden drink (aurumpotabile) (also drinking gold), taken orally in small doses, was supposed to heal all diseases, rejuvenate the old body and make life longer.
Those who found the philosopher's stone were called adepts . Among these, it was believed, there were four women - Maria Prophetissa, Cleopatra the Alchemist, Medera and Taphnutia. In an esoteric sense the stone symbolized the transmutation of the lower animal nature of man into the higher, divine nature.
Another mysterious remedy, already secondary in its properties, bore the name white lion , white tincture or minor magisterium , was limited by the ability to transform all base metals into silver.
True alchemists did not strive to obtain gold, it was only a tool, not a goal (however, Dante in his Divine Comedy determined the place of alchemists, like counterfeiters, in hell, or more precisely, in the eighth circle, tenth ditch). The goal for them was the philosopher's stone itself. And spiritual liberation, exaltation, granted to those who possess it - absolute freedom (it should be noted that a stone, by and large, is not a stone at all; it is more often represented as a powder, or a solution of a powder - the very elixir of life).
Although most people consider the philosopher's stone to be a fiction, transmutation was carried out in the 20th century - gold is often obtained from other elements during the operation of a nuclear reactor. It is obtained in negligible concentrations, is expensive to extract and negatively affects the operation of the reactor itself. Moreover, such a “magisterium” does not serve as a universal medicine.
5. Was Newton an alchemist?
Sir Isaac Newton is an English physicist, mathematician, mechanic and astronomer, one of the founders of classical physics. The author of the fundamental work “Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy,” in which he outlined the law of universal gravitation and the three laws of mechanics, which became the basis of classical mechanics. He developed differential and integral calculus, color theory and many other mathematical and physical theories.
In parallel with the research that laid the foundation of the current scientific (physical and mathematical) tradition, Newton devoted a lot of time to alchemy. Books on alchemy made up a tenth of his library. He did not publish any works on chemistry or alchemy, and the only known result of this long-term hobby was the serious poisoning of Newton in 1691. When Newton's body was exhumed, dangerous levels of mercury were found in his body.Was Newton an alchemist? He believed in the possibility of transforming one metal into another and for three decades he was engaged in alchemical research and studied the alchemical works of the Middle Ages and antiquity. The very fact of the predominance of theoretical interest and a complete lack of interest in obtaining gold takes Newton beyond alchemy as an element of the medieval cultural tradition... The basis of his atomism is the idea of a hierarchy of corpuscles formed by increasingly less intense forces of mutual attraction of parts. This idea of an infinite hierarchy of discrete particles of matter is related to the idea of the unity of matter. Newton did not believe in the existence of elements that were not capable of transforming into each other. On the contrary, he assumed that idea of indecomposability of particles and, accordingly, about the qualitative differences between the elements due to the historically limited capabilities of experimental technology.
This assumption is confirmed by Newton’s own statement: “Alchemy does not deal with metals, as the ignorant believe. This philosophy is not one of those that serves vanity and deception; it rather serves benefit and edification, and the main thing here is the knowledge of God.”
"Mossy Stones"
River pebbles are placed at the bottom of a wide glass vessel with fairly thick walls. Then a concentrated solution of copper (II) sulfate CuSO 4 is poured into half the volume of the vessel. After this, a mixture of zinc dust and granulated zinc is added to the solution until the blue color of the solution disappears.
Zinc particles become covered with a shaggy brick-red coating, similar to moss, and settle on the stones. This indicates the release of copper crystals as a result of a redox reaction:
CuSO 4 + Zn → ZnSO 4 + Cu
Zinc can be replaced with aluminum Al, but in this case, to prevent the hydrolysis of aluminum sulfate Al 2 (SO 4) 3 formed in the reaction:
3CuSO 4 + 2Al → Al 2 (SO 4) 3 + 3Cu,
5-10 ml of dilute sulfuric acid, which does not interact with copper, is added to the solution of copper (II) sulfate CuSO 4 in advance.
What the Arab alchemist Jabir al-Hayyan at the turn of the 1st and 2nd millennia called “the transformation of iron into copper” was in fact a process very similar to the experiments discussed. In a solution of copper sulfate, iron blades were covered with a layer of copper, released by the reaction:
CuSO 4 + Fe → FeSO 4 + Cu
A complete illusion of the transformation of one metal into another! The only pity is that aluminum was not yet known at the time of the alchemists.
"Transmutation" of metal
The centuries-old experience of alchemists has testified that when heated, all metals melt and become like liquid, moving, shiny mercury. This means they are all made of mercury. An iron nail turns red when dipped in an aqueous solution of copper sulfate. This phenomenon was explained in an alchemical spirit: iron is transmuted into copper. The relationship between the two principles in metals changes. Their color also changes. (We now know well that copper, displaced by iron from a solution of copper sulfate, settles on the surface of the nail.)
CuSO 4 + Fe → FeSO 4 + Cu
"Black and Red"
The Byzantine Emperor Constantine VII (905 – 959 AD) loved to gather philosophers and alchemists at his court, listen to them and ask them questions. One day, a certain Arab alchemist brought three black metal plates and three vessels with colorless liquids. He then showed the emperor four experiments with them. First, he heated one plate strongly on a brazier, and after cooling it turned pink-red. He lowered the second plate into a vessel with liquid, and this liquid turned blue. The alchemist immersed the third black plate in a vessel with a second liquid; the liquid acquired an intense blue color, and the plate became pink-red. The same plate in a vessel with a third liquid became covered with gas bubbles. The alchemist asked to bring a stray dog and, taking out the third plate with bubbles from the vessel, gave it to the dog to lick it, which immediately fell dead. “Does the emperor know what metal these three plates are made of?” - asked the alchemist, but Konstantin only shook his head in response. What kind of metal is this?
"Spirit of Salt"
In the writings of the monk-alchemist Basil Valentinus (15th century), whom many historians of chemistry consider a mythical figure, it was recommended to obtain a “spirit from salts” - “spiritus salis” - by calcining a mixture of rock salt and iron sulfate. At the same time, a liquid was distilled off, which amazed the imagination of alchemists: it smoked in the air, caused coughing, corroded fabric, paper, metal... Judging by this description, we can conclude that rock salt is sodium chloride NaCl, and iron sulfate is crystalline hydrate of iron sulfate FeSO 4 7H 2 O. By calcining a mixture of these substances, alchemists obtained hydrochloric acid HCl:
2NaCl + 2(FeSO 4 7H 2 O) = 2HCl + Fe 2 O 3 + Na 2 SO 4 + SO 2 + 13H 2 O
Appendix 1. Results of a survey of 8th grade students
(102 people participated).
The emergence of chemical knowledge. The main objects of study of Alexandrian alchemy, the achievements of Greco-Egyptian alchemists. The beginning of Chinese alchemy in the 4th century. BC. Byzantium as a source of alchemical ideas in Europe. Works on technical chemistry and iatrochemistry.
abstract, added 12/12/2010
Alchemy as an integral part of medieval culture. The history of its development. Preparation of sulfuric, nitric and hydrochloric acids. The search for the Philosopher's Stone and other problems of alchemy. The attitude of scientists towards it. The role of magic in alchemy. The invention of gunpowder and aqua regia.
abstract, added 11/23/2009
Alchemy is a unique cultural phenomenon, widespread in Western Europe during the Middle Ages. Research aimed at obtaining gold and silver from base metals. Ideas of medieval alchemy; Arabic and Latin alchemy.
abstract, added 05/05/2009
Transformation (transmutation) of base metals into noble (valuable). Origin of the word alchemy. Greek and Egyptian alchemy. The most important alchemical signs. A practical prerequisite for the emergence of the idea of transmutation. Arabic and oriental alchemy.
abstract, added 01/29/2011
The concept and history of the development of alchemy, its prevalence in society, fundamental ideas. Achievements and directions of the formation of science during the Middle Ages. Technical chemistry and iatrochemistry as a transitional stage from classical alchemy to scientific chemistry.
abstract, added 11/06/2014
The essence of the concepts of "chemistry" and "alchemy". The main periods of the highest development of alchemy: Alexandrian (Greco-Egyptian), Arabic, European. Features of metal transmutation. Discovery of strong mineral acids. Contribution of I.R. Glauber in the development of chemistry.
abstract, added 01/06/2015
The origin of alchemy and its connection with chemistry. The search for the philosopher's stone. Alchemical schools and their achievements. The theory of four elements. General concepts of signs and symbols. The art of the alchemist Sailer and Paykul. Elixir of longevity and universal solvent.
PROJECT OBJECTIVES 1) To study the history of the emergence of alchemy in various countries of the world. 2) Study the practical application of the discoveries that were made by alchemists. 3) Using the knowledge of alchemy in works of modern and ancient literature and in the creation of computer games.
HISTORY/concept of Alchemy (From the Greek alchimia, alchymia, from the Arabic خيمياء al-kîmîa, presumably from the Egyptian “kēme” black, from which also the Greek name for Egypt, black soil and lead “black earth”; other possible options: other Greek χυμος “ juice", "essence", "moisture", "taste", other Greek χυμα "alloy (of metals)", "casting", "flow", other Greek χυμευσις "mixing", other Greek Χιμαιρα " Chimera") is the general name for systems of transformation existing in various cultures, both physical objects (primarily metals) or the human body, and the spiritual.
HISTORY/OBJECTIVES Alchemy developed in the era of late antiquity (IIVI century AD) in the Alexandrian cultural tradition and is a form of ritual Hermetic art. To a large extent, alchemy is based on the doctrine of the 4 primary elements of Aristotle. Alchemical symbols of the elements. 1 tin; 2 lead; 3 gold; 4 sulfur; 5 mercury; 6 silver; 7 iron The main objects of study of Alexandrian chemistry (the term “alchemy” appeared later than the Huarabs) were metals. During the Alexandrian period, the traditional metal-planetary symbolism of alchemy was formed, in which each of the seven then known metals was associated with a corresponding celestial body: 1. silver Moon, 2. mercury Mercury, 3. copper Venus, 4. gold Sun, 5. iron Mars, 6. tin Jupiter, 7.lead Saturn. The heavenly patron of chemistry in Alexandria was the Egyptian god Thoth or his Greek analogue Hermes.
CENTER OF ALCHEMY The center of alchemy of that period was considered the temple of Serapis, at which ca. 235 a branch of the Library of Alexandria was opened. Among the significant representatives of Greco-Egyptian alchemy, whose names have survived to this day, we can note Bolos Demokritos, Zosimos Panopolite, Olympiodorus. The book Physics and Mysticism written by Bolos (c. 200 BC) consists of four parts devoted to gold, silver, precious stones and purple. Bolos first expressed the idea of transmutation of metals - the transformation of one metal into another (primarily base metals into gold), which became the main task of the entire alchemical period. Zosimus in his encyclopedia (3rd century) defined khemaia as the art of making gold and silver, described the “tetrasomata” stage of the process of preparing artificial gold; He especially pointed out the prohibition of disclosing the secrets of this art. At the end of the 3rd century. in 296, the Egyptians, led by Domitius Domitian, rebelled against the Roman emperor Diocletian. The ruler of the Roman Empire who arrived in Egypt suppressed the uprising and issued an edict, which commanded that all the ancient books that taught how to make gold and silver be collected and burned. This was explained by Diocletian’s desire to destroy the source of wealth, and at the same time the arrogance of the Egyptians. However, from the Alexandrian period there also remained many Hermetic texts that represented an attempt at a philosophical and mystical explanation of the transformations of substances, including the famous “Emerald Tablet” of Hermes Trismegistus.
ALCHEMY IN THE EAST After the fall of the Roman Empire, the center of alchemical research moved to the Arab East, and Arab scientists became the main researchers and custodians of ancient works. At the end of the 8th century, the Persian alchemist Jabir ibn Hayyan developed Aristotle's theory of the initial properties of substances (heat, cold, dryness, moisture), adding two more: the properties of flammability and “metallicity”. He suggested that the inner essence of each metal is always revealed by two of the six properties. For example, lead is cold and dry, gold is warm and wet. He associated flammability with sulfur, and “metallicity” with mercury, the “ideal metal.” According to the teachings of Jabir, dry vapors, condensing in the earth, give sulfur, wet vapors mercury. Sulfur and mercury then combine in various ways to form the seven metals: iron, tin, lead, copper, mercury, silver and gold. Gold as a perfect metal is formed only if completely pure sulfur and mercury are taken in the most favorable proportions. Thus, he laid the foundations of the mercury-sulfur theory. These principles explained all the characteristic physical properties of metals (malleability, flammability, etc.) and substantiated the possibility of transmutation. Jabir ibn Hayyan also introduced the concept of the philosopher's stone as a certain substance that can change the ratio of mercury and sulfur in any metal and turn it into gold and at the same time heal all diseases and give immortality, as well as the homunculus, developed the doctrine of numerology, connecting Arabic letters with names of substances. Another Arab scientist, Al-Razi, at the end of the 9th century, improved the theory of the original elements, adding another property of metals, the “principle of hardness,” which he associated with salt. Arab alchemists made significant contributions to the development of natural science research, for example, by creating a distillation apparatus. The center of Arab alchemy became Baghdad, and then the Academy in Cordoba.
ALCHEMY IN EUROPE. After the Umayyads captured the Iberian Peninsula in the 8th century. European science had the opportunity to enrich itself with the scientific achievements of the Arab East. In addition, a circumstance that contributed to the penetration of ancient Greek alchemical ideas into Europe was the study of ancient works, for example by the Dominicans Albert the Great (treatises “Five Books on Metals and Minerals”, “Small Alchemical Code”) and his student Thomas Aquinas. Convinced of the compatibility of Greek and Arabic science with Christian doctrine, Albertus Magnus promoted the introduction of Aristotle's philosophy into scholastic courses at the Sorbonne (in 1250). The first European alchemist was the Franciscan Roger Bacon () (treatises “The Mirror of Alchemy”, “On the Secrets of Nature and Art and the Insignificance of Magic”), who also laid the foundation for experimental chemistry in Europe. He studied the properties of saltpeter and many other substances, and found a method for making black gunpowder. Among other European alchemists, mention should be made of Arnold of Villanova (), Raymond Lull (), Basil Valentinus (a German monk of centuries). Already in the first half of the 14th century. Pope John XXII banned alchemy in Italy, thereby starting a “witch hunt” directed against alchemists.
Alchemy in the Renaissance In the XIV-XVI centuries. alchemy more and more closely connected its goals with the tasks of practical metallurgy, mining, and medicine. The most significant contribution to this period was made by Paracelsus. He abandoned some of the occult features of alchemy and concentrated on conducting physical and chemical experiments, as well as studying the properties of the human body. Paracelsus pioneered the use of chemicals and minerals in medicine. At the same time, the opportunity to obtain gold contributed to the growth of the number of charlatans and scammers who sought to take possession of priceless treasures. In addition, many alchemists (real or imaginary) began to enjoy the support of the authorities. Thus, many kings (Henry VI, Charles VII) kept court alchemists, expecting from them a recipe for obtaining gold. Emperor Rudolf II was the patron of traveling alchemists, and his residence represented the center of alchemical science of that time. The emperor was called the German Hermes Trismegistus. Elector Augustus of Saxony and his wife Anna of Denmark personally conducted the experiments: the first in his Dresden “Golden Palace”, and his wife in a luxuriously equipped laboratory at their dacha “Pheasant Garden”. Dresden long remained the capital of sovereigns who patronized alchemy, especially at a time when competition for the Polish crown required significant financial expenditures. At the Saxon court, the alchemist Johann Böttger, who failed to make gold, was the first in Europe to produce porcelain. The decline of alchemy begins in the 16th century, despite the fact that in both the 17th and 18th centuries. some scientists remained adherents of alchemical ideas.
PHILOSOPHY OF ALCHEMY The goal of alchemists in all cultures is to implement qualitative changes within an animate or inanimate object, its “rebirth” and transition “to a new level.” Alchemy that deals with obtaining gold, preparing drugs and potions, “immortality pills,” and studying the deep (occult) essence of substances and chemical reactions is called external alchemy. Transmutation of the spirit, achieving absolute health or even immortality through certain exercises of internal alchemy. Within the framework of internal alchemy, a person or his individual material and immaterial components (consciousness, body, spirit, soul, individual energies, etc.) are considered as substances with certain chemical and physical properties, with which operations can be performed, described in the language of chemical transformations . In parallel with the main chemical metaphor, other symbolic series often develop; European alchemy is especially rich in this regard. For example, the philosopher's stone was called the “red lion”, “great elixir”, “philosophical egg”, “red tincture”, “panacea”, “vital elixir”, etc. All alchemical teachings, without exception, are distinguished by mystery and secrecy, which is often gave rise to their misunderstanding. However, magical rites, ritual actions, and spells were considered as a way of influencing natural and divine forces that could help in the implementation of mystical creation, that is, the transformation of one substance into another (transmutation, tetrasomata, etc.). Transformations are justified by the presence of primordial matter, the original elements: four in the Western tradition (fire, water, earth and air) and five in the Eastern tradition (fire, water, earth, air and wood). In European alchemy, between primary matter and the individual material bodies generated by it, there are two intermediate “links”. The first link is the universal qualitative principles of the male (sulfur) and female (mercury) principles. In the 15th century, a third principle, “sol” (movement), was added to them. The second link is the states, qualities, properties of the primary elements: earth (solid state of the body), fire (radiant state), water (liquid state), air (gaseous state), quintessence (ethereal state). As a result of the interaction of qualitative principles (principles) and states of primary elements, any transmutation of substances can be carried out.
The idea of alchemy as “primitive chemistry,” which had developed in science by the end of the 19th century, was completely revised in the 20th century. However, it is believed that it was alchemy that gave impetus to the development of modern chemistry. In studies of various alchemical traditions, alchemical systems for the transformation of human beings are often referred to as “internal alchemy”, and the practices of obtaining various substances as “external alchemy”. Alchemical tools: (alphabetically) vessel, beaker, curved outlet, capsule, alloy filter with outlet, dropper or pipette, curved drain, closed washer, gas filter, filter, collector, burner with large exhaust, sieve or filter, formator with small drain; and signs: (from the sign Δ clockwise) fire, water, air, earth, salt, sulfur, eight obscure signs, gold, silver, tin, copper, ?, iron, mercury, lead, alkali, obscure signs Real alchemical traditions , apparently, combine internal work with the production and intake of certain substances. Like all esoteric knowledge, alchemy is based on the postulate of the similarity of the microcosm and the macrocosm. It is unclear to what extent the alchemical systems of different cultures are isomorphic to each other and, in particular, to what extent their end results are similar. Questions also remain open about the genesis of alchemical traditions, the existence of a single source, mutual connections and borrowings. Some researchers suggest a connection within the following groups: Platonism, late antique Gnosticism, Christianity, Neoplatonism, Zoroastrianism, Manichaeism, Sufism, Hellenistic, Egyptian-Hellenistic, Byzantine, Arab and European alchemy.
Origin of the word “alchemy” 1.Chymeia pouring, infusion. A distant echo of the practice of oriental pharmacists who extracted the juices of medicinal plants. 2. According to another opinion, the root is in the word alchemy khem or kháme, chémi or сhúma, which means both black soil and the Black Country. This was the name of Ancient Egypt, and the art of ore mining priests, metallurgists, and goldsmiths was associated with Egypt. 3. Ancient Greek language layer: humos (χυμός) juice; hüma (χύμα) casting, stream, river; chymeusis (χύμευσις) mixing. 4.Ancient Chinese qim means gold. Then alchemy is gold-making. It remains only to say about the untranslatable particle al, the Arabic origin of which is undoubted and which steadily existed as a prefix from approximately the 12th to the 16th centuries, and also to recall the opinion of the Alexandrian Zosimus (IV century), who refers the interested philologist to the name of the biblical Ham.
The task of alchemy: the main task of alchemy was the production of a substance - the “philosopher's stone” - with the help of which one can transform ("transmutate") base metals into noble ones and achieve immortality
Alchemical laboratory Alchemical instruments: flasks, baths, furnaces, burners; specially prepared substances for chemical interactions; processing of substances: dissolution, filtration, distillation. But these are not just substances but also ethereal principles; when gas is not only something air-like, but also a kind of spirit, mysterious, otherworldly.
Alchemical texts: Alchemical reagents evaporated; the devices rusted and turned to dust; laboratory glass broke; the masonry of the stoves has weathered. Only medals, an impressive memory of a few alchemical miracles, lie in European museums, with their antique integrity exciting the gullible visitor or causing a respectfully condescending smile. But there remains a text that includes not only recipes for preparing the “philosopher’s stone”, but also an aesthetic and mystical description of alchemical actions
Alchemical texts: To prepare the elixir of the sages, or the philosopher's stone, take, my son, philosophical mercury and heat it until it turns into a green lion. After that, heat it harder and it will turn into a red lion. Digest this red lion in a sand bath with sour grape spirit, evaporate the liquid, and the mercury will turn into a gummy substance that can be cut with a knife. Place it in a retort coated with clay and slowly distill it. Collect separately the liquids of different nature that appear. You will get tasteless phlegm, alcohol and red drops. The Cimmerian shadows will cover the retort with their dark veil, and you will find a true dragon inside it, for it is devouring its own tail. Take this black dragon, grind it on a stone and touch it with a hot coal. It will light up and, soon taking on a magnificent lemon color, will again reproduce the green lion. Make it eat its tail and distill the product again. Finally, my son, rectify carefully and you will see the appearance of flammable water and human blood
Or maybe everything is simpler: The text given earlier can be presented in modern scientific language: a) When heated, lead turns into yellow lead oxide PbO, which at temperatures above 500° is oxidized into red lead according to the reaction: 3PbO + ½ O 2 Pb 3 O 4 b) Minium, at a temperature of about 570°, loses oxygen, turning into lead oxide, which melts at 880° and, upon cooling, solidifies into a reddish-yellow litharge. c) Red leva is litharge, which, unlike red lead, is easily dissolved in acetic acid. The product of this reaction, saturn salt, lead sugar, or Pb(C 2 H 3 O 2) 2 3H 2 O, even when heated to 100°, completely loses its water of crystallization, or reflux. It must contain an admixture of acetic acid formed as a result of the hydrolysis of lead acetate, a weak base and a weak acid. Further heating leads to the formation of acetone and lead carbonate.
Symbols of alchemy, drawn symbols of alchemists, are not so much designations of concepts as allegories, images (for example, a reversible chemical reaction was sometimes designated in the form of a dragon swallowing its own tail, seven metals were correlated with seven planets, mercury and sulfur - with the maternal and paternal principles, etc. . P.).
And yet - what is alchemy? Alchemy is a scientific experiment complicated by magic. Alchemy is itself an art that uses a symbolic worldview. The activity of an alchemist is also a philosophical and theological creativity, and one in which both its pagan and Christian origins were manifested. That is why it turned out that where alchemy is Christianized (white magic), this type of activity is legalized by Christian ideology. Where alchemy appears in its pre-Christian quality (black magic), it is recognized as an unofficial, and therefore forbidden, activity.
Alchemy is a stage in the development of natural science. Alchemy is the art of improving matter through the transformation of metals into gold and improving man by creating the elixir of life. Striving to achieve the most attractive goal for them - the creation of incalculable wealth - alchemists solved many practical problems, discovered many new processes, observed various reactions, contributing to the formation of a new science - chemistry.
The origin of the word "alchemy" Chymeia is pouring, infusion. A distant echo of the practice of oriental pharmacists who extracted the juices of medicinal plants. According to another opinion, the root of the word alchemy is khem or kháme, chémi or сhúma, which means both black soil and the Black Country. This was the name of Ancient Egypt, and the art of ore mining priests, metallurgists, and goldsmiths was associated with Egypt. Ancient Greek language layer: humos (χυμός) - juice; khyuma (χύμα) - casting, stream, river; chymeusis (χύμευσις) - mixing. The ancient Chinese word kim means gold. Then alchemy is gold-making. It remains only to say about the untranslatable particle al, the Arabic origin of which is undoubted and which steadily existed as a prefix from approximately the 12th to the 16th centuries, and also to recall the opinion of the Alexandrian Zosimus (IV century), who refers the interested philologist to the name of the biblical Ham.
Alchemical laboratory Alchemical instruments - flasks, baths, furnaces, burners; specially prepared substances for chemical interactions; processing of substances - dissolution, filtration, distillation. But these are not just substances but also ethereal principles; when gas is not only something air-like, but also a kind of spirit, mysterious, otherworldly.
Alchemical texts: Alchemical reagents evaporated; the devices rusted and turned to dust; laboratory glass broke; the masonry of the stoves has weathered. Only medals, an impressive memory of a few alchemical miracles, lie in European museums, with their antique integrity exciting the gullible visitor or causing a respectfully condescending smile. But there remains a text that includes not only recipes for preparing the “philosopher’s stone”, but also an aesthetic and mystical description of alchemical actions
Alchemical texts: To prepare the elixir of the sages, or the philosopher's stone, take, my son, philosophical mercury and heat it until it turns into a green lion. After that, heat it harder and it will turn into a red lion. Digest this red lion in a sand bath with sour grape spirit, evaporate the liquid, and the mercury will turn into a gummy substance that can be cut with a knife. Place it in a retort coated with clay and slowly distill it. Collect separately the liquids of different nature that appear. You will get tasteless phlegm, alcohol and red drops. The Cimmerian shadows will cover the retort with their dark veil, and you will find a true dragon inside it, for it is devouring its own tail. Take this black dragon, grind it on a stone and touch it with a hot coal. It will light up and, soon taking on a magnificent lemon color, will again reproduce the green lion. Make it eat its tail and distill the product again. Finally, my son, rectify carefully and you will see the appearance of flammable water and human blood
Or maybe everything is simpler: The text given earlier can be presented in modern scientific language: Lead, when heated, turns into yellow lead oxide PbO, which at temperatures above 500° is oxidized into red lead according to the reaction: 3PbO + ½ O2 → Pb3O4. Minium, at a temperature of about 570°, loses oxygen, turning into lead oxide, which melts at 880° and, when cooled, solidifies into reddish-yellow litharge. Red lion is a litharge that, unlike red lead, is easily soluble in acetic acid. The product of this reaction—saturn salt, lead sugar, or Pb(C2H3O2)2 3H2O—already when heated to 100° completely loses its water of crystallization, or reflux. It must contain an admixture of acetic acid, formed due to the hydrolysis of lead acetate-salt of a weak base and a weak acid. Further heating leads to the formation of acetone and lead carbonate.
Symbols of alchemy, drawn symbols of alchemists, are not so much designations of concepts as allegories, images (for example, a reversible chemical reaction was sometimes designated in the form of a dragon swallowing its own tail, seven metals were correlated with seven planets, mercury and sulfur - with the maternal and paternal principles, etc. . P.).
And yet - what is alchemy? Alchemy is a scientific experiment complicated by magic. Alchemy is itself an art that uses a symbolic worldview. The activity of an alchemist is also a philosophical and theological creativity, and one in which both its pagan and Christian origins were manifested. That is why it turned out that where alchemy is Christianized (white magic), this type of activity is legalized by Christian ideology. Where alchemy appears in its pre-Christian quality (black magic), it is recognized as an unofficial, and therefore forbidden, activity.
Alchemy is a stage in the development of natural science. Alchemy is the art of improving matter through the transformation of metals into gold and improving man by creating the elixir of life. Striving to achieve the most attractive goal for them - the creation of incalculable wealth - alchemists solved many practical problems, discovered many new processes, observed various reactions, contributing to the formation of a new science - chemistry.
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Main Department of Education of the City Hall of Novosibirsk Palace of Creativity for Children and Students "Junior"
City competition of research projects for students in grades 5-8
Direction: natural science project
Ushatov Sergey
MBOU gymnasium No. 13, 8th grade,
Central district
city of Novosibirsk
Project consultant:
Petrova Tatyana Sergeevna,
higher chemistry teacher
Manager's contact phone number: 8-913-000-24-12
Novosibirsk city
Project portfolio
Project “Alchemy – myth or reality?”
Project: "Alchemy - myth or reality?"
Project participants:
Levchenko Alexandra Andreevna
Ushatov Sergey Maksimovich
Project consultant : chemistry teacher of the highest qualification category Petrova Tatyana Sergeevna
Class: 8 A, B
Name, number of the educational institution where the project was carried out: MBOU gymnasium No. 13 of the Central District of Novosibirsk.
Subject area : chemistry, history.
Project problem : whether alchemy was an independently developing branch of science that gave rise to modern chemistry.
Objective of the project : searching for an answer to the question “Alchemy – myth or reality?”
Tasks: - become familiar with the concept and philosophy of alchemy;
Study the historical periods of alchemy;
Consider the basic symbols of alchemy and their meanings;
Identify the role of Isaac Newton in the development of alchemy;
Decipher examples of alchemical experiments to complete the practical part of the project;
Project type (by activity): search, research.
Technologies used: multimedia.
Project Product Form : “Alchemy – myth or reality?” (multimedia presentation with a transcript of the first alchemical experiments), a booklet on the topic of the project.
Study:
Questioning of 8th grade students;
Selection of theoretical material on the project topic using various sources of information;
Conducting chemical experiments.
Scope of the project result:
Educational (lessons of chemistry, the environment, natural history, class hours within the framework of “Science Days”);
Extracurricular work (developing a script as part of the work of the scientific society of the gymnasium for participation in the week of natural science).
Performance: the answer to the question “Alchemy – myth or reality?” was received, the first alchemical experiments were deciphered and carried out, the booklet “Alchemy – myth or reality?” was created.
Introduction page 1
Philosophy of alchemy p.3
Periods of alchemy p.6
3.1 Alexandrian alchemy p.6
3.2 Arabic alchemy p.9
3.3 European alchemy p.10
4. Alchemical symbolism p.12
5. Was Newton an alchemist? p.15
6. Conclusion p.17
7. Practical part p. 18
8. Appendix 1 page 25
Conduct a survey among 8th grade students;
Familiarize yourself with the concept and philosophy of alchemy;
Study the historical periods of alchemy;
Consider the basic symbols of alchemy and their meanings;
Identify the role of Isaac Newton in the development of alchemy;
Find examples of alchemical experiments to complete the practical part of the project;
Create a booklet on the topic of the project;
The main objects of study of Alexandrian chemistry (the term “alchemy” would appear later among the Arabs) were metals. During the Alexandrian period, the traditional metal-planetary symbolism of alchemy was formed, in which each of the seven then known metals was compared with the corresponding celestial body:
silver - Moon, mercury - Mercury, copper - Venus, gold - Sun,
iron - Mars, tin - Jupiter, lead - Saturn.
The center of alchemy of that period was considered the temple of Serapis, at which ca. 235 a branch of the Library of Alexandria was opened.
Temple of Serapis
Conclusion
Having studied the theoretical aspects of the project and solved all the problems, we came to the conclusion that alchemy is an independently developing branch of science that gave rise to modern chemistry.
Many scientists of that time were engaged in alchemy. The very fact of the predominance of theoretical interest and the complete lack of interest in obtaining gold takes scientists beyond the limits of alchemy as an element of the medieval cultural tradition and gives impetus to the development experimental chemistry.
Different authors had their own dominant accents in its definition. Some (Avicenna) see it as a pseudoscience, unable to fulfill the claims that it assumes. Others (M. Berthelot, Edmud von Lippmann, Julius Russki, J. R. Partington, V. Gundel, A. J. Hopkins, F. Sherwood Taylor, J. Reed, N. Morozov, Figurovsky) define alchemy primarily as pre-chemistry . For still others (R. Bacon, A. Poisson), its ability to transform imperfect metals into gold is very important. Still others (F. Schwartz) consider alchemy to be both the science and the art of soul transmutation. For us, studying different periods of alchemy allowed us to plunge into the magical world of chemical transformations and conduct unusually beautiful experiments, the results of which were enthusiastically followed by our classmates. From ancient times to the present day, people have been trying to find the keys to the locks behind which nature keeps its secrets. We also tried to penetrate this world, armed with modern knowledge. There are a lot of interesting things around us: it seems that substances live their own, special mysterious life. In order to see this interesting thing and be able to explain it, you need not only a keen eye, but also a chemical outlook and erudition. These qualities require constant development, otherwise all our knowledge acquired through hard work will become outdated before we have time to put it into practice.
Practical part
"Bolognese phosphorus"
In 1602, the Bolognese shoemaker and alchemist V. Casciarolo found a very heavy, dense gray stone in the mountains near Bologna (Italy). The alchemist suspected the presence of gold in it. To highlight it, he calcined the stone along with coal and drying oil. To Casciarolo's surprise, the cooled reaction product began to glow red in the dark. The alchemist gave the found stone the name “lapis solaris” - sun stone. The news of the luminous stone created a sensation among alchemists. The stone began to be called “Bolognese gem”, “Bolognese phosphorus”.
It subsequently turned out that Casciarolo had found the mineral barite, or barium sulfate, BaSO 4. When BaSO 4 reacts with coal, barium sulfide BaS is formed:
BaSO 4 + 2C = BaS + 2CO 2,
which has the ability to glow after being held in the sun. Phosphorescence is not inherent in barium sulfide itself, but in its mixture with sulfides of other metals.
In 1774, the Swedish chemist Scheele and his friend Johan Gottlieb Hahn (1745-1818), a Swedish chemist and mineralogist, established that the stone found by the alchemist contained a new chemical element, which they called barite, which translated from Greek means “heavy.” " However, Swedish chemists discovered not a new element, but its oxide BaO. In the 19th century The name barite remained with the mineral, and the new element was named barium. For the first time, barium in the form of a metal was obtained only in 1808 by the English chemist Davy by electrolysis of moistened barium hydroxide Ba(OH) 2.
Barium is chemically very active. It ignites easily in air, turning the flame green, and interacts vigorously with water. Therefore, it has to be stored under a layer of anhydrous kerosene.
Amon oasis product
Arab alchemists obtained from the oasis of Amun, located in the Sahara desert, a colorless crystalline substance, which they called “nushadir”. When rubbing “nushadir” with slaked lime and heating the mixture, a gas with a pungent odor was released, highly soluble in water. Alchemists noticed that an aqueous solution of this gas, being next to hydrochloric acid, began to “smoke” and over time, all the glass vessels next to them became covered with a white coating. Alchemists also noted something else: when a solution of an unknown gas was added to an aqueous solution of copper sulfate, the blue color of the latter became intensely blue. How to explain these phenomena?
“Nushadir” is ammonia (ammonium chloride NH 4 Cl), a product of natural decomposition of the urine and feces of camels, whose caravans passed through the oasis for centuries. When NH 4 Cl interacts with slaked lime - calcium hydroxide Ca(OH) 2, ammonia NH 3 is released:
2NH 4 Cl + Ca(OH) 2 = 2NH 3 + CaCl 2 + 2H 2 O
Ammonia reacts with hydrogen chloride gas, forming “smoke” in the air, consisting of tiny crystals of NH 4 Cl. When ammonia is added to an aqueous solution of copper sulfate (containing copper sulfate CuSO 4), a complex salt is formed - tetraammine copper sulfate II SO 4:
CuSO 4 + 4NH 3 = SO 4
Are the concepts “chemistry” and “alchemy” similar in meaning?
Do you know the country where the concept of “alchemy” originated?
Was Newton an alchemist?