Deviant and delinquent behavior. Basic forms of deviation

Deviance is an unusual, but stable deviation from statistical norms. Deviant is a persistent pattern of action, behavior or thinking that is not typical of the general population.

Deviant behavior (from the English deviation - deviation) - actions that do not correspond to the officially established or actually established moral and legal norms in a given society (social group) and lead the offender (deviant) to isolation, treatment, correction or punishment.

Typically, we evaluate behavior as deviant depending on whether it receives a negative evaluation and causes a hostile reaction. Thus, it is an evaluative definition imposed on specific behaviors by various social groups.

Comparison different cultures shows that the same actions are approved in some societies and unacceptable in others. The definition of behavior as deviant depends on the time, place and group of people. For example, if ordinary people break into crypts, they are branded as desecrators of ashes, but if archaeologists do it, then they are spoken of with approval as scientists pushing the boundaries of knowledge. However, in both cases, strangers invade the burial places and take away some objects from there. One more example. The sociability, modern clothing and open face of a European woman are unacceptable in many traditional Muslim countries.

These examples suggest that deviance cannot be an objective characteristic of human behavior. Society itself decides whether or not to consider some behavior deviant. This does not mean that such phenomena as murder, theft, sexual perversion, mental deviations, alcoholism, gambling and child abuse, etc., could not have occurred if social definitions had not been given to them. It's just how people define behavior and how they specifically respond to it that matters.

The same behavior may be considered by one group as a deviation, and by another as the norm. Moreover, much depends on the social context in which the behavior occurs. For example, appearing drunk at work causes discontent among others, but at a New Year's party, such behavior of its participants is quite natural. Premarital sex and divorce, which were highly frowned upon in society just a generation ago, are now generally accepted as the norm. Most people view deviant behavior as bad, as behavior that is a source of social problems. The reason for such assessments is the result of the negative or destructive consequences that most deviations from the norm entail.

Deviant behavior is behavior that is not a violation of criminal law, that is, it is not illegal, but simply does not coincide with accepted standards in society. For example, homosexuality is purely deviant behavior in the narrow sense of the word. In the recent past, homosexuality was considered a criminal behavior and was punished accordingly, but nowadays society has become more tolerant of such deviations.

Features of deviant behavior:1) its relativity (what is a deviation for one group is a norm for another (for example, intimate relationships in a family are a norm, in a work collective it is a deviation);

) historical nature (what was considered a deviation before is now the norm, and vice versa; for example, private entrepreneurship in Soviet times and today);

) ambivalence b(deviation can be positive (heroism) and negative (laziness)).

The negative consequences of deviation are obvious. If individuals are unable to fulfill certain social norms or consider their fulfillment unnecessary for themselves, then their actions cause damage to society (harm other people, distort and even interrupt significant social ties and relationships, bring discord into the life of a group or society in in general).

The classification of types and forms of deviant behavior can be based on various grounds. Depending on the subject (i.e. who violates the norm), deviant behavior can be individual or group. From the point of view of the object (i.e., which norm is violated), deviant behavior is divided into the following categories:

This is abnormal behavior that deviates from mental health norms and implies the presence of overt or latent psychopathology;

This is asocial or antisocial behavior that violates some social and cultural norms, especially legal ones. When such actions are relatively minor, they are called misdemeanors, and when they are serious and punishable by criminal law, they are called crimes.

The main forms of deviant behavior in modern conditions include crime, alcoholism, prostitution, and drug addiction. Each form of deviation has its own specifics.

Crime.Crime is a reflection of the vices of humanity. And so far no society has been able to eradicate it. Factors influencing crime include: social status, occupation, education, poverty as an independent factor. The transition to market relations had a great influence on the state of crime: the emergence of such phenomena as competition, unemployment, and inflation.

Alcoholism.In fact, alcohol has entered our lives, becoming an element of social rituals, a prerequisite for official ceremonies, holidays, some ways of spending time, and solving personal problems. However, this situation comes at a cost to society. Statistics show that 90% of cases of hooliganism, 90% of aggravated rape, and almost 40% of other crimes are related to intoxication. Murders, robberies, assaults, and infliction of grievous bodily harm in 70% of cases are committed by persons under the influence of alcohol; about 50% of all divorces are also related to drunkenness.

The consequences of drunkenness and alcoholism are economic and material damage from crimes and accidents, costs of treating patients with alcoholism, and maintaining law enforcement agencies. The damage to spiritual and moral relationships in society and family cannot be taken into account materially.

Addiction. The term comes from the Greek words narke - “numbness” and mania - “rabies, madness”. This is a disease that is expressed in physical and (or) mental dependence on drugs, gradually leading to profound depletion of the physical and mental functions of the body. Drug addiction (narcotism) as a social phenomenon is characterized by the degree of prevalence of the use of drugs or equivalent substances without medical indications, which includes both drug abuse and painful (habitual) use. Long years drug addiction was considered a phenomenon belonging exclusively to the Western way of life.

results sociological research show that the main motives for drug use are the thirst for pleasure, the desire to experience thrills, and euphoria. And since in most cases we are talking about young people, these motives are strengthened by social immaturity, carelessness, and frivolity. Drug use among young people is very often of a group nature. Many drug addicts take drugs in public places (on the streets, in courtyards, in cinemas, in cafes, on the beaches), some can do this in “any place”.

Most drug addicts are to some extent aware of the danger threatening them and are critical of their addiction. Mostly new young hashish smokers do not see anything wrong with drug use, often even flaunting it. Due to inexperience and ignorance, many people mistake the excitement and high spirits that comes after taking a drug for the beneficial effect of this substance on health. But at a certain stage of physical and mental degradation, most drug addicts are clearly aware of what awaits them next, although they are no longer able to give up this habit.

Suicide.Suicide - the intention to take one's own life, an increased risk of committing suicide. This form of deviant behavior of the passive type is a way of avoiding insoluble problems, from life itself.

World experience in suicide research reveals the main patterns of suicidal behavior. Suicides are more common in highly developed countries, and today there is a tendency for their number to increase.

Finally, there is no doubt about the connection between suicidal behavior and other forms of social deviations, such as drunkenness. A forensic examination found that 68% of men and 31% of women committed suicide while intoxicated. 12% of men who committed suicide and 20.2% of all men who attempted suicide were registered as chronic alcoholics.

The most socially dangerous form of deviation is criminal behavior, which in sociology is called delinquent. The most important feature delinquent behavior is that, unlike deviantit is absolute (that is, unacceptable in all social groups of society)

The term “delinquent behavior” refers to a set of illegal acts that are not subject to criminal punishment, but are already a minor offense.

If behavior that is not approved by public opinion is called deviant, then behavior that is not approved by the law is delinquent. The line between delinquent and criminal behavior is where the scope of administrative responsibility ends and the scope of criminal acts begins. For example, if a teenager is registered in the children's room of the police, does not attend school, appears in a drunken company in public places, his behavior is delinquent, but not criminal. It will become criminal when he commits an act regarded by law as a criminal offense and is convicted by law as a criminal.

The population group most susceptible to delinquency is young people, primarily those who grow up and undergo socialization in a criminal or deviant environment. Such an environment or family in ordinary terminology is called dysfunctional. Most often, a tendency towards delinquent behavior arises under the influence of drinking parents, who have often been in prison.

Delinquent offenses include administrative offenses, expressed in violation of traffic rules, petty hooliganism (foul language, obscene language in public places, offensive harassment of citizens and other similar actions that violate public order and peace of citizens). Drinking alcoholic beverages on the streets, stadiums, squares, parks, in all types of public transport and in other public places is also considered an administrative offense; appearing in public places while drunk, which offends human dignity and public morality; bringing a minor to a state of intoxication by parents or other persons. Such torts as prostitution, distribution of pornographic materials or objects, etc., the list of which in the legislation on administrative offenses is quite extensive, also entail administrative liability.

A disciplinary offense as a type of delinquent behavior is an unlawful, culpable failure or improper performance by an employee of his or her job duties. Disciplinary offenses (absenteeism without good reason, absenteeism without good reason by students, showing up at work in a state of alcohol, drug or toxic intoxication, drinking alcohol, using narcotic or toxic drugs at the workplace and during working hours, violating labor protection rules, etc. .) entail disciplinary liability provided for by labor legislation.

This type of delinquent behavior, such as crime, poses a particular danger to society. Crimes are only those socially dangerous acts that are provided for by criminal law and are prohibited by it under threat of punishment. These include thefts and murders, car thefts and vandalism (desecration of structures and damage to property), terrorism and rape, fraud and illicit trafficking in narcotic drugs and psychotropic substances. These and many other crimes entail the most stringent measures of state coercion - punishment and other measures of criminal liability (community service, fine, arrest, imprisonment, etc.).

So, in this work we examined the most important theoretical problems that arise when studying the psychology of deviant behavior.

We tried to find out what deviant behavior is and what its causes are. We looked at what is meant by deviant behavior today.

As mentioned above, deviant (deviant) behavior can be understood as:

) an act or actions of a person that do not correspond to officially established or actually established norms (standards, patterns) in a given society;

) a social phenomenon expressed in mass forms of human activity that do not correspond to officially established or actually established norms (standards, templates) in a given society.

Deviations can occur in the sphere of individual behavior; they represent the actions of specific people prohibited by social norms. At the same time, in every society there are many deviant subcultures, the norms of which are condemned by the generally accepted, dominant morality of society. Such deviations are defined as group deviations.

The significance of studying these problems is obvious: deviant behavior is a social and psychological phenomenon that has some deviations from recognized norms and laws, and is sometimes associated with certain antisocial behavior of people. Deviations themselves can take a variety of forms: criminals, hermits, ascetics, saints, geniuses, etc.

Explain this behavior, reveal its reasons, find effective ways and means of prevention are possible only with a deep study of the psychology of deviant behavior.

Analyze the measures of social institutions on deviant behavior of the individual

social deviant political science republican

Awareness of the inevitability of deviations in the behavior of some people does not exclude the need for society to constantly struggle with various forms of social pathology. Social control in a broad sociological sense is understood as the entire set of means and methods of influencing society on undesirable (deviant) forms of behavior with the aim of eliminating or minimizing them.

The main mechanisms of social control: 1) control itself, exercised from the outside, including through punishments and other sanctions; 2) internal control provided by internalization social norms and values; 3) indirect control caused by identification with a law-abiding reference group; 4) “control”, based on the wide availability of a variety of ways to achieve goals and satisfy needs, alternative to illegal or immoral ones.

Only in the most general terms can a strategy of social control be defined:

• replacement, displacement of the most dangerous forms of social pathology by socially useful and/or neutral ones
• direction of social activity in a socially approved or neutral direction
• legalization (as a waiver of criminal or administrative prosecution) of “victimless crimes” (homosexuality, prostitution, vagrancy, consumption of alcohol, drugs)
• creation of social assistance organizations (services): suicidological, drug addiction, gerontological
• readaptation and resocialization of persons who find themselves outside of public structures
• liberalization and democratization of the regime of detention in prisons and colonies while abandoning forced labor and reducing the share of this type of punishment in the law enforcement system
• unconditional abolition of the death penalty.

In the public consciousness there is still a very strong belief in prohibitive and repressive measures as the best way to get rid of these phenomena, although all world experience testifies to the ineffectiveness of harsh sanctions from society. Work in the following areas has a positive effect: 1. Refusal of criminal or administrative prosecution of “criminals without victims” (prostitution, vagrancy, drug addiction, homosexuality, etc.), bearing in mind that only social measures can remove or neutralize these forms of social pathology , 2. creation of a system of social assistance services: suicidological, drug treatment, age-specific (gerontological, adolescent), social readaptation.

Political science as a science

Political science, as follows from the literal translation of the word itself, is the science of politics. This general interpretation of it usually does not raise any particular objections, although the question of the extent to which political science studies politics is debatable. Researchers interpret this problem in different ways.

Political science is a science traditionally engaged in the study of the state, parties and other institutions that exercise power in society or influence it, as well as a number of other political phenomena.

Political science occupies a prominent place in modern social science. This is explained by the primary role of politics in the life of society. Since ancient times, politics has stood out as one of the important spheres of human activity and has a huge impact on the destinies of countries and peoples, and in many ways on the daily life of each individual person. Therefore, it is natural that a special branch was born and formed in human knowledge scientific research, who studies politics.

The term "political science" is formed on the basis of two Greek words: rolitike - public, state affairs and logos - teaching, word. The author of the first concept is considered to be Aristotle, the second - Heraclitus. From this phrase it follows that political science is a doctrine, the science of politics.

Attempts to comprehend political life were made already in ancient times with the emergence of the first state formations. Historically, the first form of knowledge of politics was its religious and mythological interpretation. Judging by the surviving sources, all ancient peoples were dominated by ideas about the divine origin of power and socio-political order.

From about the middle of the 1st millennium, the process of rationalization of political views intensified, and the first political concepts appeared, bearing a philosophical and ethical form. The beginning of the actual theoretical studies of politics is associated with the names of Confucius, Plato, Aristotle and others. They saw the goal of politics and political research in achieving the highest good of man and the state.

The outstanding Italian scientist N. Machiavelli (XV-XVI centuries) made a significant contribution to the development of political thought. He likened political processes to natural facts, freed political research from the religious and ethical form, subordinating them to the solution of real, practical problems. In modern times, political ideas and concepts were developed by T. Hobbes, D. Locke, C. Montesquieu, J.-J. Rousseau, I. Kant, K. Marx and others.

However, neither in antiquity nor in later times did political science emerge as an independent science. Political studies developed within the framework of philosophy, jurisprudence, and history.

Political science as an independent discipline

Political science itself as an independent scientific discipline in its modern understanding developed at the end of the 19th and beginning of the 20th centuries. This became possible as a result of the development public policy as a relatively autonomous sphere of social life; establishment in industrialized countries of the most important state and political institutions that together constituted the modern political system (establishment of parliamentarism, separation of powers, electoral systems, emergence of parties); development of scientific-rationalistic research methodology, in particular, the emergence and widespread dissemination of behaviorist, empirical methods.

In 1857, the Department of History and Political Science was created at Columbia College in the USA, and in 1880 the first school of political science was created. In 1903, the American Political Science Association was formed, which indicated the recognition of this science at the national level. A wide network of political research and training centers is also emerging in Western European countries. Thus, in 1871, a free school of political science was created in France, now the Institute of Political Studies of the University of Paris. In 1895, the London School of Economics and Political Science was founded. Significant contributions to the development of modern political science were made by M. Weber, R. Michels, V. Pareto, G. Mosca and others.

In the 20th century the process of separating political science into an independent scientific and educational discipline was completed, its most important national schools and directions were identified. The intensification of political research was facilitated by the creation in 1949 under the auspices of UNESCO of the International Association of Political Science, which is still fruitfully operating today. The political science course was recommended for study in educational institutions of UNESCO member countries. Currently, in the West, political science is one of the most prestigious social sciences, ranking first in the number of studies conducted and the number of publications.

As for the former USSR and a number of other socialist countries, here political science as an independent science was not recognized and was interpreted as an anti-Marxist, bourgeois pseudoscience. Some political studies were carried out within the framework of scientific communism, historical materialism, the history of the CPSU, the theory of state and law, but their cognitive capabilities were extremely limited. The development of genuine political science was hampered by the dogmas of official Marxism, the ideologization of politics, and the isolation of Soviet social science from world socio-political thought.

The situation began to change only in the second half of the 80s, as society democratized and the political system transformed. Currently, the status of political science as a scientific branch of knowledge and academic discipline is officially recognized. Institutes and centers for political research have been created, and professional political scientists are being trained. Since 1989, the course of political science has been taught in higher and some other educational institutions of Belarus.

Thus, society realized the need and objective need for the development of a scientific theory of politics and its practical application. Despite certain, understandable difficulties in growth, political science is gradually taking its rightful place in the system of social sciences and is having an increasingly noticeable influence on real political processes.

Subject and object of political science

Understanding the essence and specifics of political science is impossible without defining the object and subject of this science. The object of knowledge is everything that the researcher’s activity is aimed at, that opposes him as an objective reality. The subject of study of a specific science is that part, side of objective reality, which is determined by the specifics of this science. The subject of science is the reproduction of empirical reality at an abstract level by identifying the most significant, from the point of view of this science, logical connections and relationships of this reality.

Object of political science is political reality or the political sphere of society. Politics is one of the most complex and fundamental social formations.

In the most general terms policythere is an area of ​​​​relations between various communities of people - classes, nations, social groups and strata. In the historical aspect, the emergence of politics is associated with social, ethnic, and religious differentiation of society. Policy reflects the fundamental, long-term interests of various social groups related to meeting their needs. Politics acts as a tool for regulation, subordination or reconciliation of these interests in order to ensure the integrity of the social organism.

The understanding of politics as a sphere of interaction between various social groups and communities of people is called communicationAristotle stood at its origins. He viewed politics as a form of communication, a way of collective human existence. According to Aristotle, man is a social being by nature and he can realize himself only in society - in a family, a village (community), or a state. The state acts as the highest and comprehensive form of social connection or “communication” of people.

Later, anthropological interpretations of politics are enriched and supplemented by its conflict-consensus definitions. They focus on the contradictions of interests that underlie politics and determine its dynamics. Forms of interaction between political subjects can be struggle, clash, rivalry, competition, compromise, cooperation, consensus, etc.

The purpose and role of political science are manifested primarily in its functions. In a generalized form, these functions can be divided, first of all, into three main ones, which are in fairly close interaction and at the same time retain their specificity: theoretical-cognitive, practical-managerial and ideological-educational. The basis for the implementation of all functions of political science is the correct and deep reflection by political science of political life, its patterns, ways of forms and mechanisms of development. Therefore, the successful implementation of the second and third of these functions of political science is directly and decisively dependent on its performance of the first function.

The theoretical-cognitive function of political science is aimed at ensuring and improving a scientifically based methodological approach to the study of political reality, at expanding and concretizing knowledge about politics and the political. But political science, like other sciences, is enriched not only on its own basis and for the sake of self-improvement, but also in close connection with political life and for the sake of its improvement. This means that political science is intended not to be limited to knowledge of political reality, but, based on scientific knowledge, to develop informed proposals and recommendations, plans and forecasts for politics and political practice, aimed at rationalizing and optimizing the management of political phenomena and processes. This practically expresses management function political science. And finally, since changes in the political life of society depend directly on political behavior people, and this latter is determined by their political views, formed by political science, since political science plays an important role in the ideological education of members of society, especially in improving their political culture.

long-term forecast about the range of possibilities for the political development of a particular country at a given historical stage;

present alternative scenarios for future processes associated with each of the selected options for large-scale political action;

But most often, political scientists give short-term forecasts about the development of the political situation in a country or region, prospects and opportunities.

Political science has direct practical relevance for the development of public policy. Based on political science research, critical identification of politically significant social problems is developed, necessary information, social, national and defense policy government. Social conflicts are prevented and resolved.

Politics is studied in its own way not only by political science, but also by other sciences.

First, let's look at the relationship between political science and sciences that are more general in nature, the preliminary study of which creates a general theoretical and methodological basis for studying the problems of political science. Therefore, the relationship between these sciences is determined, first of all, by the fact that the subject, laws and categories of philosophy and sociology are much broader than the subject, laws and categories of political science, and also by the fact that knowledge of laws and categories of a more general order is the most important condition the correct approach to the study of phenomena and processes of a more specific order.

Political science, philosophy and sociology

Philosophy and sociology cannot help but explore political life, since it represents an integral and important component of the entire universe and society as a whole. But the approach of these sciences, as well as political science, to the study political world are far from the same. And this is determined by the uniqueness of the subject of each of these independent sciences. Let us consider the relationship of political science with political philosophy and political sociology as components of philosophy and sociology, respectively, most closely related to political science.

Political philosophy directly studies politics, political reality, not as such, taken by itself, as political science does, but as components, elements, forms of manifestation of the world as a whole and their relationship with economic, social and spiritual realities. The immediate subject of political philosophy is not the laws of politics, not the laws of organization, functioning and development of the political life of society, but the features of the manifestation and action of much more general, philosophical laws in the political sphere. In political philosophy, the general worldview approach and level of study of politics and the political are expressed, including elucidation of the relationship between objective and subjective being and consciousness; cause-and-effect relationships, source of movement and development, etc. But since the essence and content of the laws of one of the areas of social life is far from being reduced only to the specific manifestation in it of laws that are philosophical in nature, since political philosophy does not replace or absorb other political sciences, in particular, political sociology and political science.

Less general than political philosophy, but at the same time a broader science than political science, is sociology and its component - political sociology. She studies political life from the point of view of the manifestation in it of the social laws of development of society as a whole. The focus of political sociology is on the problems of the relationship between the political and the social, especially social conditioning political power, reflection in it of the interests of various social groups, political relations in connection with their social status, the role and consciousness of the individual and social groups, social content in politics and power, the influence of social conflicts on political life and ways to achieve socio-political harmony and order, etc. All this and much more constitutes the essence and content of the sociological approach, the level of study of politics, which is especially close to the political science proper, because the correct study of political phenomena and processes is simply impossible without studying the corresponding social phenomena and processes organically related to them. Moreover, the political often acts as a specific manifestation of the social in a broad sense.

Such a close connection between political science and political sociology is due to a number of points. Firstly, individuals, social groups, communities, institutions and organizations are the most important subjects and objects of politics. Secondly, political activity represents one of the main forms of life activity of people and their associations, directly influencing social changes in society. Thirdly, politics as a specific social phenomenon not only determines the functioning and development of one (political) sphere of public life, but also has the special property of deep penetration and serious influence on other spheres of social life - economic, social and spiritual - and thereby in largely determine the life of society as a whole.

But the contiguous nature and particularly close connection between sociology, including political sociology, and political science does not mean their identification. The closest interaction and even interpenetration of these sciences, reliance on general categories and their joint widespread use is one thing, and another thing is the blurring of the boundaries between the subjects of these sciences. Thus, the concept of “civil society” is a common, connecting category of both sciences, but this does not mean that they study and use it in the same way. Sociology studies the problem of civil society in connection with the study of social reality, and political science - in the aspect of studying political activity. We can say that sociology goes from society to the state, political power, and political science - from the state, political power to society. For sociology, it is important to find out the social structure of civil society, the social status of the individual, social groups and communities, their interaction in it, etc. In contrast, political science in the study of civil society is interested, first of all, in the political system of such a society, the political status of the individual, the rights, freedoms and responsibilities of citizens, their political orientation and activity, the relationship and level of development of management and self-government, place, role and functions political institutions, organizations and their relationships, etc.

So, philosophy, which studies the world as a whole, and sociology, which studies society as an integral social organism, act as sciences of a higher degree of generality than political science (as one of many private or special sciences that study this or that part, sphere, area, side environment and society). They play the role of general theoretical and methodological basis in relation to political science. At the same time, the development of political science expands and deepens the connection of philosophy and sociology with life, helps verify the correctness of their broad and general provisions and conclusions, and contributes to the accumulation of theoretical and empirical material necessary for philosophical and sociological communities.

Political Science and History

The relationship between political science and historical science is the relationship between theory and history, the theory of socio-political development and its history. On the one hand, political science is based on the historical experience of political life and the implementation of politics, and includes a corresponding section devoted to the history of political thought. On the other hand, representing a theoretical generalization of political history, political science contributes to a deeper political analysis of historical facts and the historical process, in which political subjects play an important role. This expresses the interrelation and interaction of political science and history.

At the same time, there are many differences between these sciences. The main thing is the approach to studying even the same phenomena. History, by its very nature, cannot reflect historical events and processes outside the specific chronological course and the unique individual originality of their development. Political science, as a general theory of politics and political life, on the contrary, abstracts from the specific chronology of events, and from their personalities, and from unique historical features. The task of political science is a scientific and theoretical generalization of the historical past, highlighting what is repeating, essential, typical, and natural in a series of political events.

Political science differs from history in a number of other respects. History covers the study of the development of the entire society, and political science covers only its political side. And in this sense, the object of political science is narrower than history. Another difference is due to the fact that history studies only what has already happened and gone down in history, while political science shifts its focus to the study of modern, current political life and, in addition, includes as its required element political planning and forecasting.

Political science and special political sciences

Now let us briefly consider the basics of the relationship and interaction of political science and a large number of more private or special political sciences, among which we can highlight government and jurisprudence, political anthropology, political psychology, and political geography. In principle, the same relationship takes place here as between general economic theory and other, private sectoral economic sciences, between general sociology and special sociologies, between the theory of state and law and other, relatively private legal sciences (for example, state, administrative, criminal, civil and other law).

The main thing here is that political science, as a science of a more general order, serves as a general theoretical and methodological basis for particular political sciences that study the world of politics not as a whole, but one or another part or side of it. Thus, even such a fairly broad political science as the theory of state and law acts in relation to political science as a comparatively more specific political science, for it is called upon to study not the general, universal forms of manifestation of the political, but only its state and legal forms. Political psychology also does not study all politics, but only its psychological foundations (the place and role of beliefs, attitudes, feelings, orientations and motivations in political activity and political behavior, etc.). It is clear that a necessary condition for the successful study of these and other particular problems in these sciences is mastery of the achievements of political science. On the other hand, the development of special political sciences serves as a reliable basis for the creative development of the general theory of politics and political science.

Working on this topic, I tried to identify the features and essence of the science of political science, get an idea of ​​its subject and functions, interaction with related social disciplines, answer a number of questions raised in the first part of the work, understand for myself what social functions political science performs and what is its role in public life, how important it is to study this science, especially at the present stage of development of Belarusian reality.

In the early 90s of the XX century. there were 127 republics in the world, and today their number has exceeded 140. Does this mean that there is no alternative to the republican form of government?

The republican form of government arose in ancient times, but it became most widespread during the periods of New and Contemporary history. In 1991, there were 127 republics in the world, but after the collapse of the USSR and Yugoslavia, their total number exceeded 140.

Under a republican system, legislative power usually belongs to parliament, and executive power to the government. In this case, there is a distinction between the so-called. a presidential republic, where the president heads the government and is vested with very large powers (USA, a number of Latin American countries), and a parliamentary republic, where the role of the president is smaller, and the government is headed by the prime minister (Germany, Italy, India, etc.). A special form of government is a socialist republic (which arose in the 20th century in a number of countries as a result of the victory of socialist revolutions). China, Vietnam, North Korea, and Cuba remain socialist republics to this day.

The monarchical form of government arose in ancient times under conditions of a slave-owning society. Under feudalism, this form of government became the main one. In later times, only the traditional, mostly formal features of monarchical rule were preserved. Currently, there are 30 monarchies on the political map of the world. However, there is not one in America, 14 are in Asia, 12 in Europe, 3 in Africa and one in Oceania. Among them are the empire, kingdoms, principalities, duchies, sultanates, emirates and the papal state of the Vatican.

The vast majority of monarchies currently existing in the world are constitutional. The real legislative power in them belongs to the parliament, and the executive power belongs to the government (Great Britain, Norway, Sweden, etc.).

Along with the constitutional ones, several other absolute monarchies have survived. In these states, the government or other authorities are responsible only to the monarch as the head of state, and in some cases the parliament is absent altogether or is only an advisory body (United United Arab Emirates, Oman, Kuwait, etc.). Absolute monarchies also include the so-called theocratic monarchies. Besides the Vatican, this is also Saudi Arabia and Brunei (the head of secular and spiritual power in them is one person). Typically, the power of the monarch is for life and is inherited, but, for example, in Malaysia and the UAE, monarchs are elected for a five-year term.

The form of government reflects the administrative-territorial structure of states and the national-ethnic (in some cases also religious) composition of the population. There are two main forms of administrative-territorial structure - unitary and federal.

A unitary state is an integral state formation consisting of administrative-territorial units that are subordinate to the central authorities and do not possess signs of state sovereignty. In a unitary state there is usually a single legislative and executive power, a single system government agencies, a single constitution. There are an overwhelming majority of such states in the world.

Federation is a form of organization in which several state entities, legally possessing a certain political independence, form one union state. The characteristic features of a federation that distinguish it from a unitary state are the following: the territory of the federation consists of the territories of its individual subjects (for example, states - in Australia, Brazil, Mexico, Venezuela, India, USA; cantons - in Switzerland; lands - in Germany and Austria ; republics, as well as other administrative entities - in Russia); Subjects of the federation are usually given the right to adopt their own constitutions; the competence between the federation and its subjects is delimited by the union constitution; Each subject of the federation has its own legal and judicial systems.

In most federations there is a single union citizenship, as well as citizenship of the union units. A federation usually has unified armed forces and a federal budget. In a number of federations, the union parliament has a chamber representing the interests of its members.

Federations are built on territorial (USA, Canada, Australia, etc.) and national characteristics (Russia, India, Nigeria, etc.).

A confederation is a temporary legal union of sovereign states created to ensure their common interests (members of the confederation retain their sovereign rights in both internal and external affairs). Confederate states are short-lived: they either disintegrate or turn into federations (examples: the Swiss Union, Austria-Hungary, and the USA, where a federation of states was formed from a confederation established in 1781).

I believe that there is an alternative to the republican form of government, but what form of government will be in a given state is decided by the population of the state through a referendum.

List of used literature

1.Introduction to political science: a book for high school students. Gadzhiev K.S. // "Enlightenment". M. 1993.

Political science: a course of lectures edited by Radugin A A // "Center". M. 1997.

Political science: textbook edited by Professor Klementyev D S // "Knowledge". M.1997.

Political science: a textbook for university students / N.P. Denisyuk, T.G. Solovey, L.V. Starovoitova and others / Mn, 1996-384p.

Political science: textbook, 3rd ed., corrected-Mn.: Higher. school, 1999.-495 p.

Current problems of suicidology, ed. Portnova A.A. M., 1978.

Radugin A.A., Radugin K.A. Sociology. Lecture course. - M.: Center, 1997

Voroshilov S., Gilinsky Ya. Military deviantology // Russian Journal, 1995, No. 3.

Ivanov V.N. Deviant behavior: causes and scale // Socio-political journal. - 1995. - No. 2.

Lantsova L.A., Shurupova M.F. Sociological theory of deviant behavior // Socio-political journal. - 1993. - No. 4.

Osipova O.S. Deviant behavior: good or evil? // Socis. - 1998. - No. 9.

Cohen A. Study of problems of social disorganization and deviant behavior // Sociology today. - M., 1965

New directions in sociological theory. - M., 1978

FEDERAL AGENCY FOR EDUCATION OF THE RUSSIAN FEDERATION

FGOU SPO FAR EASTERN ENERGY TECHNIQUE

A short course of lectures on the discipline

"Fundamentals of Sociology and Political Science"

Teacher: Tikhonova I. A.

introduction 4

Chapter 1. Sociology in the system of social sciences 4

Chapter 2. Theoretical and empirical in sociology 5

Chapter 3. Methodology and methods of sociological research 7

Chapter 4. History of sociology 10

Chapter 5. social structure 26

Chapter 6. Social interaction 27

Chapter 7. Social communities and social institutions 29

Chapter 8. Social groups 32

Chapter 9. Personality, group, community 38

Chapter 10. Social status of the individual 41

Introduction 51

Chapter 1. History of political thought. Western tradition 52

Chapter 2. Politics as a social phenomenon 61

Chapter 3. The state as a political institution 68

Chapter 4. Political parties and party systems 73

Chapter 5. POLITICAL SYSTEM 85

Chapter 6. Political regime. Main development trends 90

Chapter 7. POLITICAL PROCESS, ITS ESSENCE AND STRUCTURE 104

REFERENCES 113

introduction

Sociology As an independent branch of scientific knowledge, it began to take shape relatively recently. Its foundations were laid in the second third of the 19th century by Auguste Comte and Herbert Spencer. The term “sociology” (French sociologie) was first used by the French philosopher and sociologist Comte and literally meant the science of society and social life. Subsequently, the development and design of the subject of sociology proceeded through the emergence of more and more new sociological concepts, each of which developed its own aspect of social relations and, thereby, gave its own interpretation of the social in the broad sense of the word. Often these theories, in their theoretical and methodological settings, contradicted and mutually negated each other, but to speak of historical formation sociology as a science can only be understood by sociology as the entire set of these competing theories. Therefore, studying the history of sociological teachings is necessary to understand the structure and subject of modern sociology.

In the most general terms sociology can be defined as the science of the laws of development and functioning of society as a whole, social communities, relationships, structures, systems and organizations. However, there is no single, strictly established definition of sociology, which allows different authors to offer their own approaches to this issue. With all the diversity of views on the specifics of the sociological approach, it can still be argued that sociology studies society as a whole, human behavior, activities in it and social conditions. A sociologist always looks at the problems of politics, education, demography, psychology, etc. that he studies. through the prism of the interests of people as social beings, their motives and expectations, and seeks to discover the meaning and context generated by the social nature of human existence.

Chapter 1. Sociology in the system of social sciences

Modern social science is a complex, widely branched system of knowledge. All social sciences are characterized by a fairly specific (non-philosophical) understanding of the problems of social life being studied. How does sociology differ from related social sciences?

First of all, unlike, for example, political economy, legal science etc., studying economics, the field of law, respectively, sociology studies society generally as a single integral system, as a special and unified organism.

There is no specially designated area for sociology; it does not study any specific phenomena inherent only in a particular sphere of social life. Sociological knowledge is characterized by the desire to comprehend the nature of social connections between people regarding whatever they arise, the laws of mutual adaptation of people to each other, relationships manifested in any areas of social life, arising both spontaneously and deliberately, a kind of “first bricks” from of which individual public buildings are then built, each with its own specific configuration and function.

If we compare the relationship between individual sections and areas of sociology (sociology of the family, sociology of education, sociology of politics, etc. - today there are several dozen such sociologies) with the corresponding private sociological sciences, we can highlight the following properties, advantages and features of sociology as a science.

1. Sociology is characterized by the understanding of society as integrity. This shows up:

Directly when society is studied as system;

The fact that in sociology all particular social phenomena and processes are analyzed from the point of view of their place and role in integration social whole;

What a sociologist studies universal social properties, connections, institutions and communities (“first bricks”), regardless of the sphere of social life, thereby revealing their human content. In other words, emerging from the depths social philosophy, sociology at the same time retains in its approaches a certain universality, what distinguishes it from other social sciences.

At the same time, this universality is not speculative, which is associated with the following properties that distinguish sociology from social philosophy.

2. Analysis of society, social phenomena as a reality, rich in specific content, internally diverse and differentiated. Sociology strives to comprehend real specific connections, interactions, institutions, interests of people involved in social processes.

3. Achieving specific knowledge about real people, their interests, and the social processes in which they are involved is possible thanks to the widespread use, along with theoretical, empirical methods, concrete sociological research aimed at obtaining a system of facts selected and processed in accordance with scientific procedures.

All this allows sociology to combine the breadth of approach and specificity of the analysis of reality, evidence, argumentation and the desire to understand real social phenomena deeply, reaching to the fundamental principle.

Chapter 2. Theoretical and empirical in sociology

Modern sociology is a multi-level complex of theories, types of knowledge that are interconnected with each other and form a single integrity - modern sociological science. As its components, it includes social philosophy, theoretical macrosociology, middle-level sociological theories and microsociology (empirical sociology)

Sociological research, depending on the level of knowledge, is divided into theoretical And empirical. In addition, there is a division of sociology into “fundamental” and “applied” depending on whether it solves scientific or practical problems. Thus, empirical research can be carried out within the framework of both fundamental and applied sociology. If its goal is to build a theory, then it belongs to fundamental (in orientation) sociology. If its goal is to develop practical orientations, then it belongs to applied sociology.

The division of sociology into theoretical and empirical levels of knowledge was reflected in its division into macrosociological and microsociological theories. Both groups of theories try to provide a holistic description and explanation of social life, but they do this from fundamentally different positions.

Macrosociologicaltheories They proceed from the premise that only by understanding society as a whole can one understand the individual. The macro level of social life appears in these theories as decisive and determining. They study large-scale social phenomena (nations, states, social institutions and organizations, social groups, etc.). In modern Western sociology, macrosociology includes mainly theoretical concepts, such as structural functionalism, neo-evolutionism, neo-Marxism, structuralism, conflict theory, functionalism, etc.

Microsociologicaltheories(symbolic interactionism, ethnomethodology, exchange theories, social network analysis, etc.) are focused on the sphere of direct social interaction (interpersonal relationships and processes of social communication in groups, the sphere of everyday reality, social behavior and its motivation, socialization of the individual, etc.)

Since the formation of bourgeois sociology throughout
The 19th century and until the 20s of the 20th century were dominated by a macrosociological orientation. The formation of microsociology as an independent field began around the 30s. This process was largely stimulated by the widespread development of empirical research. A sharp division into micro- and macrosociology occurred in the late 60s. It was caused primarily by the inability of the previously dominant structural functionalism to integrate theories of different levels of generality. The reaction to the crisis of structural functionalism was the emergence of alternative concepts, many of which sought to shift the focus of research to directly observable phenomena of social life.

The connection between the theoretical and empirical levels of research is carried out by sociologists theories "averagelevel"or special sociological theories that are associated with the theoretical understanding of a particular social subsystem, understanding of its internal and external connections and dependencies. They can be defined as sociological theories about local spheres of social reality, their problems and processes. This type of theories includes, for example , sociology of work, leisure, youth, family, mass communications, medicine, etc. These theories are based on a broad empirical base and deal with the theoretical description of the social area or subsystem being studied based on a generalization of these empirical data. “Middle level” theories, the idea of ​​which proposed by the American sociologist R. Merton in 1947, play the role of intermediaries in the structure of sociological knowledge: on the one hand, they always exist within the framework of one or another more general theory of society, from which they draw their methodological guidelines for the interpretation of empirical facts and other approaches, and on the other hand, they themselves act as a theoretical basis for more specific sociological research.

IN last years this scheme is being modified. Its existence is especially questioned in Russian sociology, where historical materialism claimed the role of a general sociological theory, while denying sociology any status as an independent science and relegating it only to the area of ​​specific empirical research. Under these conditions, the adoption of the thesis about “middle level” theories was a compromise with the official ideology. However, since another generally accepted model of the structure of sociological knowledge does not yet exist, this previous model of levels of sociological knowledge continues to function quite fruitfully in domestic sociological science.

A special issue is the relationship between sociology and social philosophy. Historically, sociology was formed in the depths of social philosophy. Its theoretical level, theoretical models and schemes have predecessors in socio-philosophical theories. Having united with the methods and data of private sciences, sociology by the middle of the 19th century took shape as an independent science and has long existed autonomously, i.e. as an independent discipline. However, this genetic link with a general philosophical level, it is hiddenly manifested in the form of a contradiction between its theoretical and empirical levels. In addition, there are historical relapses of the “pressure” of social philosophy on sociology, for example, the relationship between historical materialism and sociology in the USSR.

At its highest level, the level of theoretical developments, sociology has access to socio-philosophical theories, but as an independent scientific discipline.

Chapter 3. Methodology and methods of sociological research

There is another criterion for dividing sociology: methodological knowledge (knowledge about knowledge) and non-methodological knowledge (knowledge about the subject). Methodological knowledge includes knowledge about the means of sociological research.

Methodologicalknowledge includes ideological and methodological principles; doctrine about the subject of sociology; knowledge of methods, their development and application; the doctrine of sociological knowledge, its forms, types and levels; knowledge about the process of sociological research, its structure and functions.

Among the methods of sociology, there are specific scientific methods (observation, survey) and general scientific ones (for example, statistical). Methods in sociology are means of obtaining and systematizing scientific knowledge about social reality. They include principles of organizing activities, regulatory rules, a set of techniques and methods, and an action plan.

The methodology is overall strategy research, and its tactics are methodology.

Methodologysociologicalresearch is a system of operations, procedures, methods for establishing social factors, their systematization and means of analysis. Methodological tools include methods (methods) for collecting primary data, rules for conducting sample research, methods for constructing social indicators and other specialized procedures, including techniques for individual specific situations.

One type of concrete sociological research is aerobaticsociologicalstudy, i.e. exploratory or pilot study, the purpose of which is to test an instrument for collecting primary sociological information, namely, procedures and methods of more massive research. Accordingly, it is usually carried out on small groups of people and is based on a simplified program and condensed tools. In the process of pilot research, a prototype of the methodology is developed, which then begins to be tested, refined and improved. At the same time, the necessary additional information is obtained in the course of new intelligence research, during which the extent of information distortion due to various circumstances that were not taken into account during the initial development of the research program is determined. To obtain the necessary operational data, a type of intelligence research is used, such as an express survey - an operational study, the purpose of which is to obtain individual data that is of particular interest to the researcher in this moment. It can also be about finding out people's opinions about any current events.

In accordance with the goals and purpose of pilot studies, they use fairly accessible and efficient methods of data collection.

Thus, a pilot study is a primary study conducted to adjust the methodology for determining general situation for further sociological research, clarifying their task and subject.

Descriptivesociologicalstudy- a more complex type of sociological research, which allows you to form a relatively holistic picture of the phenomenon being studied and its structural elements. Understanding and taking into account such comprehensive information helps to better understand the situation and more deeply justify the choice of means, forms and methods of managing social processes.

Descriptive research is carried out according to a complete, sufficiently developed program and on the basis of methodically tested tools. Its methodological and methodological equipment makes it possible to group and classify elements according to those characteristics that are identified as significant in connection with the problem being studied.

This research is usually used in cases where the object is a relatively large community of people differing in various characteristics (teams of large enterprises, the population of a city, region, etc.). In such situations, identifying relatively homogeneous groups in the structure of an object makes it possible to alternately evaluate, compare and compile any characteristics and identify connections between them.

The choice of methods for collecting information in this study is dictated by its objectives and focus.

Analyticalsociologicalstudy is the most in-depth study, allowing not only to describe the phenomenon, but also to give a causal explanation of its functioning, expressed in a system of quantitative and qualitative parameters.

During the analytical study, the essential, causal connections of the phenomenon are identified, the entire set of factors is studied, from which the main and non-basic factors are then identified. As a rule, the program and methods of analytical research are carefully prepared. It comprehensively, complementing each other, uses various forms of questioning, document analysis, and observation, which requires careful work on their connection and data analysis.

Types of analytical research include experiment, case study, replication study, and panel study.

Experiment involves creating an experimental situation by changing to varying degrees normal conditions functioning of the object.

Spot (orone-time) study provides information about the state and quantitative characteristics of a phenomenon or process at the time of its study. This information is static in nature and does not provide an idea of ​​the development trends of the research object. Such data can only be obtained as a result of several studies conducted sequentially at certain intervals using a single program and using the same methods. These studies will be called repeated. The time intervals at which research is conducted depend on its goals and conditions.

A special type of repeat research is panel, which involves repeated research of the same objects at certain intervals of time (for example, periodic complete or sample population censuses or repeated surveys of high school graduates in order to determine trends in the implementation of their life plans at certain intervals).

The sociological research program usually includes a detailed, clear and complete presentation of the following sections:

methodological part - formulation and justification of the problem, indication of the goal, definition of the object and subject of research, logical analysis of basic concepts, formulation of hypotheses and research objectives;

methodical part - definition of the population being surveyed, characteristics of the methods used for collecting primary sociological information, the logical structure of the tools for collecting this information, logical schemes for its processing.

There are several main methods of sociological research: document analysis, survey, observation, testing, experiment, sociometry.

Analysisdocuments. This method allows you to obtain information about past events, observation of which is no longer possible. Studying documents often reveals trends and dynamics of their changes and development. The source of social information is usually text messages contained in protocols, reports, resolutions and decisions, publications, letters, etc. Social statistics information plays a special role here.

One example of the scientifically fruitful use of this method is the sociological study of W. Thomas and
F. Znaniecki "The Polish peasant in Europe and America."

A special case of document analysis is content-analysis, which is actively applied to the study of the media (for example, newspaper materials) and consists of a quantitative calculation of the semantic units contained in the object of study.

Survey- the most common collection method primary information. In each case, the survey involves addressing a direct participant and is aimed at those aspects of the process that are little or not amenable to direct observation, for example, interpersonal relationships. The results of surveys are easy to further process, while surveys are the most widespread method of collecting information. One of the main problems here is to ensure sufficient representativeness (representativeness) of the sample, i.e. the composition of respondents must reproduce all the indicators and categories of the broader composition of people to which the selected group of respondents belongs. When interpreting survey results, mathematical and statistical methods of information processing can be used.

There are two main types of sociological survey: survey And interviewing.

When surveying, the respondent fills out the questionnaire himself, in the presence of the questionnaire or without him. Depending on the form, it can be individual or group. In the latter case, for a short time you can interview a significant number of people. It can also be in person or in absentia (survey through a newspaper, etc.)

Interviewing involves personal communication with the interviewee, in which the researcher (or his authorized representative) asks questions and records the answers. In terms of the form of conduct, it can be direct, as they say “face to face,” and indirect, for example, by telephone.

In addition, surveys can be mass (survey of representatives of various social groups) and specialized (survey of experts, i.e. persons competent in the subject of the survey).

The next method is observation(external or included). The disadvantage of this method lies in the possible subjectivity of the researcher, who involuntarily “gets used to” the subject of observation and begins to unconsciously filter events in a certain way. Participant observation, when a sociologist researcher directly either lives or works among those whose culture and customs he studies, has gained great popularity. Thus, observation cannot be called an unconditionally scientific sociological method.

Testing (ortest) - a method, technique for studying and measuring complex properties and qualities of a person that are not amenable to direct, immediate observation. The test is constructed as a “battery” of relatively simple indicators that reflect different elements, aspects of the property being studied, on the basis of which the final scale is constructed. Testing as a sociological method gives very reliable results in mass measurements. The testing method came to sociology from psychology and must always be adapted to sociological reality. With the help of testing, the attitudes, interests, and motivation of an individual are studied.

Experiment It is also not a specifically sociological method and requires taking into account the peculiarities of sociological reality. As a scientific method, experiment was developed by J. St. Millem. In an experimental situation under controlled and controlled conditions, experimenters gain new knowledge, primarily about cause-and-effect relationships between phenomena and processes. Typically in sociology it is used to study small groups of people and has much in common with social psychological experiments. In this case, the moral norm “do not harm” the object must always be observed.

Sociometry(from Latin socius - general and Greek metron - measure) - a method of studying small groups, teams and organizations by describing the system of interpersonal relationships between their members. The technique of such research (a survey regarding the presence, intensity and desirability of various types of contacts and joint activities) allows us to record how objective relationships are perceived and assessed by people occupying different positions in a given community. Based on the data obtained, it can be constructed sociograms

Compiled in accordance with state requirements for the minimum content and level of training of graduates in all specialties of secondary vocational education

Philosophy and sociology cannot help but explore political life, since it represents an integral and important component of the entire universe and society as a whole. But the approach of these sciences, as well as political science, to the study of the political world is far from the same. And this is determined by the uniqueness of the subject of each of these independent sciences. Let us consider the relationship of political science with political philosophy and political sociology as components of philosophy and sociology, respectively, most closely related to political science.

Political philosophy directly studies politics, political reality, not as such, taken by itself, as political science does, but as components, elements, forms of manifestation of the world as a whole and their relationship with economic, social and spiritual realities. The immediate subject of political philosophy is not the laws of politics, not the laws of organization, functioning and development of the political life of society, but the features of the manifestation and action of much more general, philosophical laws in the political sphere. In political philosophy, the general worldview approach and level of study of politics and the political are expressed, including elucidation of the relationship between objective and subjective being and consciousness; cause-and-effect relationships, source of movement and development, etc. But since the essence and content of the laws of one of the areas of social life is far from being reduced only to the specific manifestation in it of laws that are philosophical in nature, since political philosophy does not replace or absorb other political sciences, in particular, political sociology and political science.

Less general than political philosophy, but at the same time a broader science than political science, is sociology and its component - political sociology. She studies political life from the point of view of the manifestation in it of the social laws of development of society as a whole. The focus of political sociology is on the problems of the relationship between the political and the social, especially the social conditionality of political power, the reflection in it of the interests of various social groups, political relations in connection with their social status, the role and consciousness of the individual and social groups, social content in politics and power, the influence of social conflicts on political life and ways to achieve socio-political harmony and order, etc. All this and much more constitutes the essence and content of the sociological approach, the level of study of politics, which is especially close to political science itself, because a correct study of political phenomena and processes is simply impossible outside the study of organically related social phenomena and processes. Moreover, the political often acts as a specific manifestation of the social in a broad sense.

Such a close connection between political science and political sociology is due to a number of points. Firstly, individuals, social groups, communities, institutions and organizations are the most important subjects and objects of politics. Secondly, political activity is one of the main forms of life of people and their associations, directly influencing social changes in society. Thirdly, politics as a specific social phenomenon not only determines the functioning and development of one (political) sphere of public life, but also has the special property of deep penetration and serious influence on other spheres of social life - economic, social and spiritual - and thereby in largely determine the life of society as a whole.

But the contiguous nature and particularly close connection between sociology, including political sociology, and political science does not mean their identification. The closest interaction and even interpenetration of these sciences, reliance on general categories and their joint widespread use is one thing, and another thing is the blurring of the boundaries between the subjects of these sciences. Thus, the concept of “civil society” is a common, connecting category of both sciences, but this does not mean that they study and use it in the same way. Sociology studies the problem of civil society in connection with the study of social reality, and political science - in the aspect of studying political activity. We can say that sociology goes from society to the state, political power, and political science - from the state, political power to society. For sociology, it is important to find out the social structure of civil society, the social status of the individual, social groups and communities, their interaction in it, etc. In contrast, political science in the study of civil society is interested, first of all, in the political system of such a society, the political status of the individual, the rights, freedoms and responsibilities of citizens, their political orientation and activity, the relationship and level of development of management and self-government, place, role and functions political institutions, organizations and their relationships, etc.

So, philosophy, which studies the world as a whole, and sociology, which studies society as an integral social organism, act as sciences of a higher degree of generality than political science (as one of many private or special sciences that study this or that part, sphere, area, side environment and society). They play the role of a general theoretical and methodological basis in relation to political science. At the same time, the development of political science expands and deepens the connection of philosophy and sociology with life, helps verify the correctness of their broad and general provisions and conclusions, and contributes to the accumulation of theoretical and empirical material necessary for philosophical and sociological communities.

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1. Political science as the science of politics

Political science is a science that deals with the study of public administration and politics. Political science deals with the area of ​​development and implementation of public policy through decisions considered authoritative and binding for a given society.

Political science acts in two capacities: as a science and as an academic discipline. As a science, it explores the political sphere of society, the history of the emergence and development of political thought, political systems, political relations and processes, political consciousness and political culture, the world political process.

As an academic discipline, it communicates a system of specific knowledge on the above and other political problems, reveals the essence and prospects of specific political realities, gives an idea of ​​the main political institutions, organizations, movements and processes, legal status personality in the system of political relations and forms of its participation in political life.

Political science develops in close interaction with other social sciences: philosophy, economic theory, cultural studies, sociology, jurisprudence, demography, political geography, political history, etc. In turn, its conclusions and provisions form the theoretical basis for applied political disciplines, strategies and tactics of state , party and socio-political activities, rights, freedoms and responsibilities of citizens.

The main functions of political science: theoretical-cognitive, methodological, ideological, regulatory, analytical, political socialization, prognostic.

The practical significance of political science is great, since it:

Participates in the formation of political culture and helps to expediently guide the activities of political subjects;

Promotes the humanization of political relations, including relations between government agencies and citizens;

Expands the range of alternative approaches to making socio-political and economic decisions;

Increases the accuracy of forecasting the political consequences of decisions made.

Political science actively uses international experience and is firmly based on empirical research, it is a young science and has not had time to accumulate rich theoretical baggage. But, nevertheless, much has already been done, and much more remains to be done. Domestic political scientists have learned to explain complex processes in the field of electoral and inter-party struggle, and have created effective technologies for winning local and regional elections. They conduct constant monitoring of public opinion, identifying public opinion leaders and ratings of leading politicians every week and month, publishing their data in the mass media. Each of us, listening last news and watching TV shows, comes across political ratings. We are accustomed to them, we are waiting for their release, we are looking closely at the percentage coefficients of the political popularity of the country's leading figures. In short, data on fluctuations in public opinion has become our daily need. We want to know the whole truth about those who run our country or are planning to do so in the future. And politicians, which has never happened in the past, listen to the opinion of the people, adjust their decisions, push unpopular figures into the shadows and try to win over the people’s favorites. This is how it should be in a democratic society: domestic and foreign policy should be determined by the people, and politicians should only translate it into their theories and actions.

2. Subject and methods of political science

In terms of subject content, the development of political science in the last century proceeded from focusing primarily on formal institutions and legal relations to the study of processes, behavior of individuals and groups and informal relationships.

The priority of criteria for identifying the subject of political science shifted from institutional concepts of state and public administration to process or relational concepts such as power, decision making, and the political system. In methodological terms, the legal, historical and descriptive analysis that previously prevailed in political science was supplemented by the methods and approaches of modern behavioral science.

The subject content of the main sections of political science as a discipline - although intradisciplinary specialization is not expressed in a strictly fixed demarcation - usually consists of:

Management at supranational and local levels;

Comparative and cross-country analysis;

Politics and behavior (political);

Public Law and Judicial Conduct;

Political theory;

Public administrative activities and organizational behavior; - international relationships.

Methods of political science are the methods and techniques that this science uses in the study of its subject.

The methods of political science and their classification are varied. Depending on the focus and goals, political science methods can be divided into three groups.

The first of these is general methods. These include:

A sociological approach that involves clarifying the dependence of politics on society and the social conditionality of political phenomena (this method is presented, for example, in the Marxist interpretation of politics as a concentrated expression of the economy, or in the theory of interest groups by A. Bentley);

Normative (or normative-value) method, which requires determining the significance of political phenomena for society and the individual, their assessment from the point of view of the common good, justice, etc., the development of political values ​​and ideals;

Structural-functional analysis, which considers politics as a certain integrity, a system with a complex structure, each element of which has a specific purpose and performs specific functions (roles) aimed at meeting the corresponding needs of the system;

A systems approach that interprets politics as a holistic, complexly organized self-regulating mechanism, which is in continuous interaction with the social environment through the “input” and “output” of the system and strives for self-preservation and the fulfillment of the functions of a mandatory distribution of values ​​in society;

The behavioral method, which claims to be as scientific as possible in political research due to the application to politics of precise methods used in the natural sciences and concrete sociology,

the essence of the behavioral method is the study of politics through a specific study of the diverse forms of political behavior of individuals and groups;

The institutional method, which focuses on the study of institutions through which political activity is carried out, that is, the state, parties, other organizations, law and other regulators of political activity;

An anthropological approach that requires the study of the conditionality of politics not by social factors, but by the nature of man as a generic being with an invariant set of fundamental needs: food, clothing, housing, security, free existence, spiritual development and etc.;

A psychological approach (and in particular psychoanalysis), which focuses on the study of subjective mechanisms of political behavior, individual qualities, unconscious psychological processes, as well as typical mechanisms of political motivations, etc.;

An active method that gives a dynamic picture of politics and considers it as a specific type of living and embodied activity, as a cyclical process that has certain stages, phases;

A comparative method that involves comparing similar political phenomena, for example political systems, parties, electoral systems, in various ways implementation of the same political functions in order to identify them common features and specifics, finding the most effective forms of political organization or optimal ways to solve social problems;

A historical method that requires the study of political phenomena in their sequential temporal development, identifying the connection between the past, present and future.

The second group of political science methods are general logical methods that relate directly to the organization and procedure of the cognitive process. These are analysis and synthesis, induction and deduction, thought experiment, modeling, mathematical, cybernetic and other similar methods.

The third group of cognitive tools of political science consists of methods of empirical research, obtaining primary information about political facts: the use of statistics, document analysis, questionnaires, observation, laboratory experiments, etc.

There are other classifications of political science methods. Some authors distinguish between normative-ontological, empirical-analytical and dialectical-historical approaches and those existing within each of these common approaches more specific methods, respectively: hermeneutics, phenomenology, topics, historical analysis; historical-genetic, institutional, behavioristic, structural-functional, comparative, inductive, deductive; dialectical, historical materialism, etc.

3. Subject, methods and functions of sociology

The emergence of sociology dates back to the 20th century, when its place in the system of sciences was more clearly defined. Nowadays it is customary to distinguish between the humanities, natural sciences and technical sciences. The boundaries separating them from each other are relative in nature, because there are sciences that are difficult to attribute to one group or another. Among them are psychology, ecology, security, etc. We can say about sociology that it is a social and humanitarian science, its object is modern society. At the same time, it has much in common with the natural and technical sciences.

Firstly, all sciences generally, most adequately, objectively reflect the deep, essential processes in the object being studied.

Secondly, they have general methodology.

Thirdly, sociology, like a number of others, including natural and technical sciences, uses mathematical methods, modeling, and experiment.

Fourthly, like many sciences, especially technical ones, it has an applied nature, reaching out to practice.

Item - this is the content of science, its main provisions, this is a system of categories and laws that reflect the object. In accordance with this subject, sociologists come up with a conceptual (that is, conceptual) scheme of social reality, in which its main features and elements are brought into a system and logically derived from each other.

The subject of modern sociology is the result of a long historical development, the fruit of the efforts of many generations of scientists, each of whom added the principles of new knowledge. The root causes of the subject of sociology are two concepts - status and role. The first gives a static, and the second a dynamic picture of society.

Society and social phenomena are also studied by other humanities: social philosophy, economics, political science, cultural studies and etc. Unlike other humanities, sociology and social philosophy are united by the fact that they consider society as a whole. At the same time, unlike social philosophy, sociology is an empirical science.

Sociology, firstly, studies the lives of people, their needs and interests, their opinions; secondly, it considers society, social phenomena in the aspect of relations between social groups and the relationships of people as individuals; thirdly, it has an empirical level and includes empirical applied research.

Sociology, in addition to society as a whole and social relations, can study all social phenomena, economic, political, spiritual, labor, everyday and other relations, analyzing them in the social aspect, in the aspect of human life. Man is the main link of the social system, and the social aspect is present in all spheres and phenomena of society.

Based on this, we can define sociology as a science about the patterns of functioning and development of society, social phenomena, understood through the prism of social relations and interconnections.

Each level of sociological knowledge has its own research methodology.

At the empirical level, sociological research is carried out, representing a system of logically consistent methodological, methodological, organizational and technical procedures, subordinated to a single goal: to obtain accurate objective data about the social phenomenon being studied.

On theoretical level sociologists try to comprehend social reality as a single whole based either on an understanding of society as a system (functionalism) or on an understanding of a person as a subject of social action (symbolic interactionism).

In sociology there are theoretical methods. The structural-functional method occupies a significant place . From the perspective of this method, society is considered as functional system, which is characterized by such a function of any system as stability. This stability is ensured through reproduction, maintaining the balance of the system of elements.

The structural-functional approach allows us to establish general, universal patterns of the functional action of social systems. Any social institution or organization, state, parties, trade unions, church can be considered as a system.

The structural-functional approach is characterized by the following features:

The focus is on problems related to the functioning and reproduction of the social structure;

The structure is understood as a comprehensively integrated and harmonized system;

The functions of social institutions are determined in relation to the state of integration or equilibrium of the social structure;

The dynamics of social structure are explained on the basis of the “principle of consensus” - the principle of maintaining social balance.

The comparative method complements and corrects the structural-functional methodology. . This method is based on the premise that there are certain general patterns in the manifestation of social behavior, since in The social life, culture, and political systems of different peoples have much in common.

The comparative method involves comparing similar social phenomena: social structure, government structure, family forms, power, traditions, etc. The use of the comparative method broadens the horizons of research and contributes to the fruitful use of the experience of other countries and peoples. Max Weber, for example, compared Protestant Hindu varieties of fatalism in order to show how each of these types correlates with a corresponding system of secular values. E. Durkheim compared suicide statistics in Protestant and Catholic countries.

Sociology performs diverse functions in which its purpose and role are manifested. In the most general form, these functions can be divided into three main ones: theoretical-cognitive, practical-political and ideological-educational. The distinction between these functions should not, of course, be too rigid, excluding their interconnection and interaction.

Implementation of the epistemological function allows sociology to expand and concretize knowledge about the essence of society, its structure, patterns, main directions and trends, ways, forms and mechanisms of its functioning and development. The enrichment of scientific sociological knowledge occurs both on the basis of the internal improvement of theoretical sociology, and as a result of the dynamic development of the very object of knowledge of this science - social reality. And here a special role belongs to empirical sociology and special sociological theories directly related to it.

Practical-political function sociology is due to the fact that this science is not limited to the knowledge of social reality. Based on this, she develops proposals and recommendations for policy and practice aimed at improving social life and increasing the efficiency of managing social processes.

Sociology not only describes social life, its manifestations in various spheres and on different levels, but also evaluates them from the standpoint of humanism and universal human values. And here, the enrichment and improvement of theory is not an end in itself, but a necessary prerequisite and condition for the rationalization and optimization of social life in the interests of free and comprehensive development personality. In this regard, sociology is one of the theoretical foundations policies and practices.

The fact that within the framework of sociology not only theoretical and fundamental, but also empirical and applied research is carried out, emphasizes the particularly close connection and close interaction of sociological theory and social policy and practice. First of all, on the basis of empirical sociological research, the social ill health of society, the growth of social tension, etc. are revealed, and in connection with this, political and practical measures must be developed to prevent and overcome them. In this regard, social foresight, planning and forecasting are especially important as specific forms of implementing the practical-political function of sociology. Therefore, we can highlight the following functions of sociology: social design and construction; management function, organizational and technical function (development and implementation of social technologies).

List of used literature

political science sociology science

1. Kravchenko A.I. Sociology and political science: Textbook. - M., 2002

2. Dzhunusova Zh.Kh., Buluktaev Yu.O., Akimova A.M. Introduction to political science. - Almaty, 1998

3. Political Science: Course of lectures/ed. prof. M.N. Marchenko.- M., 2000

4. Sociology in questions and answers: Textbook / ed. prof. V.A. Chumakova.- Rostov n/d., 2000

5. Frolov S.S. Sociology: Textbook. - M., 2000

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