Organizational behavior is one of the concepts in the theory of organizations, the origins of which were W. Bennis, G. Leavitt, G. Likert, F. Luthans, K. Argyris and others. Its specificity lies in understanding behavior from the perspective of the organization as a whole. For the first time, the term “organizational behavior” was used by F. Roethlisberger in the 50s instead of the concept of “human relations”, which was fashionable at that time. This is a relatively new subject, which is defined as “the study of the structure, conditions for the effectiveness of the functioning of organizations, as well as the behavior of groups and individuals within the organization.”
The term "organizational behavior" carries several important ideas:
1. The essence of an organization is its behavior; Instead of describing an organization as a “thing” or structure, that is, statically, it is better described as a process, that is, dynamically.
2. The principle of social responsibility of the organization, the recognition that the organization operates in a certain social environment, it always works for someone, it has its own consumer and therefore it is important to know how the organization behaves in relation to the consumer and other segments of the social environment.
3. The idea of a “single team” - not only the behavior of people in the organization matters, but also the collective behavior of the organization as a purposeful social entity.
4. Behavior includes all forms of individual and group activity, including various forms of communication between people that ensure the functioning of the organization;
5. According to behaviorist methodology, the subject of studying people should be, first of all, their behavior, what can be observed and measured; Hence the practical conclusion - we need to develop observation skills, be attentive to what people do and say.
Organizational behavior is a science that studies the behavior of people (individuals and groups) in organizations with the aim of practical use of the acquired knowledge to improve the efficiency of human work.
Objects of study of organizational behavior
* behavior of individuals in an organization;
*problems of interpersonal relationships in the interaction of two individuals (colleagues or “boss-subordinate” pairs);
*dynamics of relationships within small groups (both formal and informal);
* emerging intergroup relations;
*organizations as integral systems, the basis of which is formed by intra-organizational relationships (for example, strategic alliances and joint ventures).
Most scientific disciplines (and organizational behavior is no exception) pursue four goals - description, awareness, prediction and control over certain phenomena.
The goals of organizational behavior are:
1. Systematized description of people’s behavior in various situations arising during the work process;
2. Explanation of the reasons for the actions of individuals in certain conditions;
3. Prediction of employee behavior in the future;
4. Mastering the skills of managing people’s behavior in the labor process and improving them.
Forces that determine organizational behavior
The nature of an organization is formed through the interaction of various forces, the variety of types of which can be classified into four areas - people, organizational structures, technology and the external environment in which the organization operates.
People (Individuals, Groups)
Structure (Individual types of work, Groups)
External environment (Government, Competition, Social and ethical factors)
Technologies (Equipment, Computer hardware and software)
The fulfillment of work tasks by employees of an organization requires the coordination of their efforts, which means that a certain structure of formal relations must be created in the company. Since the work process typically uses production equipment, people, organizational structures and technology interact in the work process. In addition, the elements we have considered are influenced by the external environment and, in turn, have an impact on it.
People. An organization's employees form its internal social system, which includes individuals and groups (large and small, formal and informal). One of the main characteristics of groups is their high dynamics (formation, development and collapse). People (employees) are living, thinking, feeling beings whose activities are aimed at achieving the goals set for the organization. We must remember that the organization exists to serve the people, and not the other way around.
Modern organizations are significantly different from their predecessors. Managers are faced with increasingly complex challenges. They must not only recognize the inevitability of different employee behavior patterns, but also be prepared to adapt to them.
Organizational structure. Organizational structure defines formal relationships between people and allows them to be used to achieve company goals. Carrying out various types of activities presupposes that the organization employs representatives of a variety of professions occupying various positions. Effective coordination of their efforts requires the development of some kind of structural scheme. The relationships of individuals within this structure create complex patterns of cooperation - coordination, adoption and implementation of decisions.
Technology. Technological support represents material resources involved in the process of management and production. The level of technology and technology has a significant impact on labor relations. Technology allows you to do more and work better, but it also imposes restrictions (based on the level of qualifications of employees), i.e. its use has both benefits and costs. The increasing role of robotics and the computerization of production, the redistribution of labor from the production sector to the service sector, the widespread introduction of computers and the development of user-oriented software, the rapid development of Internet capabilities - all these factors are putting increasing pressure on organizational behavior, complicating the problems of ensuring conflict-free balance technical and social systems.
Environment. The “life” of an organization takes place within the “framework” of the internal and external environment. Not a single organization, be it a factory or a school, has the opportunity to avoid the influence of the external environment, which affects both the position of individuals and working conditions, generating intense competition for access to resources and energy. Therefore, when studying human behavior in organizations, it is imperative to take into account the influence of numerous environmental factors.
Fundamental concepts of organizational behavior.
All social (and natural) sciences are based on a philosophical foundation of basic concepts that guide their development. Organizational behavior is based on a number of basic ideas about the nature of people and organizations, which are the very “time-tested” principles.
Basic concepts of organizational behavior:
Human nature
* Individual characteristics
* Perception
* Personal integrity
*Motivated behavior
* Desire for participation
* Personal value
Nature of the organization
* Social systems
* Mutual interest
* Ethical principles
Human nature
It is customary to distinguish six basic concepts that characterize any individual: individual characteristics, perception, personality integrity, motivation of behavior, desire for complicity and personal value.
Individual characteristics. The idea of individual characteristics originated in psychology. From the day they are born, each person is unique, and the individual experiences they acquire make people even more different from each other. The presence of individual characteristics predetermines the fact that the most effective motivation of employees presupposes a specific approach of the manager to each of them. The concept of the uniqueness of each person is usually called the law of individual characteristics.
Perception. Each of us individually perceives the events happening around us. Our attitude to objective reality passes through the filter of individual perception, which is a unique way for each person, formed on the basis of accumulated experience, of seeing, systematizing and interpreting things and events. The unique vision of each of us proves that we behave not like machines, but like human beings.
Personal integrity. Of course, organizations would happily jump at the opportunity to “hire” an individual's qualifications or analytical abilities, but in reality, companies have to deal with the whole person, and not with individual qualities.
Professional skill does not exist without experience and knowledge, a person’s personal life cannot be completely separated from the labor process, moral conditions are inseparable from physical ones. Each of us is a complete human being.
The implementation of organizational behavior presupposes that the administration of the organization needs not just qualified employees, but developed individuals.
Motivated behavior. One of the main principles of psychology states that normal human behavior is formed under the influence of certain factors that may be associated with the needs of the individual and/or the consequences of his actions. When we are dealing with human needs, it is necessary to remember that the motives of people are by no means what we think they should be; they are what people themselves desire.
Motivating employees is an essential attribute of any organization. Regardless of the technologies and equipment at its disposal, these resources cannot be used until the labor of pre-motivated people is applied to them.
Personal value. Every employee of the organization would like an attentive and respectful attitude from management. The theory that man is one of the economic instruments has long lost popularity. Today, the high value of qualifications and abilities, opportunities for self-development of each employee are in fashion.
Nature of the organization
Social systems. Organizations are social systems whose activities are regulated both by the laws of society and by psychological laws. Social roles and status are the same attribute of the human personality as psychological needs. People's behavior is shaped by their individual desires, as well as by the groups of which they are members.
Mutual interest. Each organization has certain social goals and is formed and functions on the basis of a certain community of interests of its members. In its absence, there is also no common base on which something valuable for society is created. The community of interests determines the organization’s ultimate task, which can only be solved by the combined efforts of employees and employers.
Ethical principles. In order to attract and retain valuable employees (whose demand is constantly increasing), organizations strive to comply with ethical principles in the course of their activities. More and more companies are recognizing this need and are developing various programs to help ensure high moral standards for both managers and employees.
From everything written above, we can conclude: organizational behavior allows you to more fully reveal the potential of the organization’s personnel and make a choice of directions for improving its activities, using modern technologies for these purposes.
1. SUBJECT, OBJECT AND TASKS OF ORGANIZATIONAL MANAGEMENT
Organizational behavior is a scientific discipline that studies the behavior of working people and how they carry out activities within specific organizational structures, or organizations.
Organizational behavior is the systematic, scientific analysis of individuals, groups, and organizations with the goal of understanding, predicting, and improving individual performance and organizational functioning. Studying this discipline provides a set of tools in the form of concepts and theories that help people understand, analyze and describe what happens in organizations and explain why it happens.
If psychology itself is focused on the analysis of human behavior in general, then organizational behavior is addressed to its special form - the behavior of a working person, which in most cases is carried out within the framework of a certain organization. The need for such a study is due to the fact that combining people into groups makes significant adjustments to their personal behavior. Individuals placed in certain organizational situations necessarily behave differently than if they were outside the organization.
This is primarily due to the fact that the organizational system itself begins to have a strong impact on people, which changes and reorients the tendencies of their behavior. A person must take into account the norms of behavior existing in the group, rules, traditions, customs, certain attitudes, as well as collective thought, will, etc.
In modern conditions, knowledge of the fundamentals of organizational behavior allows you to solve the following problems:
· to more fully reveal the potential of the organization’s personnel and select directions for improving its activities, using modern technologies for these purposes;
· develop projects of organizational systems that would meet criteria that place the person and his needs at the center;
· identify strategies for professional intervention to eliminate conservatism in the organization of work;
· overcome traditional and minimalist approaches to information technology.
The analysis shows that the objects are large and small enterprises, the subject is a set of managerial relations that arise between people in the process of joint work and are manifested in various forms of their behavior and at various levels of the organization (behavior in them, that is, the behavior of people).
2. MAIN PROBLEMS AND APPROACHES OF ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIOR
The field of study of OP is the study of individual and group parameters of human behavior in an organization.
There are three levels of consideration of behavior problems: personal, group, organizational.
The personal level is the level of the individual, his decisions and his characteristics, that is, motives, abilities, character. Morality, temperament, norms.
Group level - analysis of the characteristics of the group: age, gender, education, professional training, retraining, work experience, ability to make decisions, freedom to make decisions, interpersonal relationships, conflicts, etc.
Organizational level – organizational standards, goals that the employee should know about, requirements for the solution, enshrined within the organizational culture.
Approaches to the study of organizational behavior
1. Focus on human capital (supportive approach). Analysis of the employee’s personal potential. Achieving a level of competence, theoretical activity, etc. Ensuring the perfection of knowledge and skills of workers, creating an atmosphere for creative activity, providing the opportunity for self-realization.
2. The situational approach is based on the following principles:
· ability to quickly react to the situation here and now;
· making decisions in accordance with the situation;
· ability to see goals correctly;
· providing the only correct method of management;
· distribution of power;
· work assignments are universal in nature for organizing all types of situations.
3. A systems approach, it should be understood as a complex of interacting elements, that is, when making decisions it is necessary to evaluate their consequences for the entire organization, because the distinctive features of this approach are:
· consequences, both positive and negative, when interacting with people are placed on the shoulders of management, that is, the application of the approach is associated with human problems;
· this approach can be applied to any person;
· this approach requires time to analyze the entire system.
3. PREREQUISITES FOR THE DEVELOPMENT OF ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIOR
The study of modern theories of organizational behavior requires consideration of the history of the development of science as a whole, which together has gone through the path of evolution - progressive development and consistent improvement. It is precisely this natural form of the development of science that confirms its viability.
In the development of OP, two stages should be distinguished: empirical and scientific.
The first attempts to understand human behavior arose in ancient times on an empirical basis. Fundamental problems of personality were formulated in the works of the great ancient Greek thinkers Socrates, Plato, Aristotle and other philosophers in the 4th-5th centuries. BC. For the first time in the history of European social thought, they posed the problem of the relationship between the individual and society, the social environment, the relationship between individualism and collectivism.
Issues of individual behavior in the environment have been considered in various religious teachings. In particular, the idea of the primacy of the collective over the individual fueled early Christianity and, together with Orthodoxy, came to Rus'. Orthodoxy is characterized by a special spiritual spirit, a sense of belonging and unity, empathy, mutual love and sacrifice.
The prerequisites for the formation of the scientific concept of organizational behavior can be considered the ideas of freedom, equality and brotherhood of the French enlighteners (Voltaire, J.-J. Rousseau, P.A. Holbach), utopian socialists (T. More, T. Campanella, R. Owen) in the middle of the 18th century, class doctrine (K. Marx), psychology of peoples (W. Wundt) in Germany in the middle of the 19th century.
Many ideas of thinkers of the past and present are directly related to the problems of interpersonal communication and group interaction of people.
4. SYSTEMS APPROACH TO ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIOR
A systematic approach to describing organizational behavior consists of presenting employee behavior as a result of the cumulative influence of interrelated elements.
Social exchange is the exchange of various social benefits as the basis of social relations on which various structural formations (power, status, prestige) grow. According to the social exchange theory of D. Homans, the frequency and quality of rewards are directly proportional to the desire to help the source of a positive stimulus.
Social comparison is an individual’s comparison of labor costs and remuneration received with the labor costs and remuneration of colleagues. Levels of comparison can be different - individual, group, organizational, regional, country.
Social justice is an assessment of rewards based on the results of social comparison. It can be positive and negative depending on the individual’s experience of social interaction. Social justice is the main reason for choosing a particular form of organizational behavior (for example, fair work or avoidance).
Satisfaction is the employee’s assessment and awareness of his position. May be general, partial or completely absent.
Goal orientation is the desire to achieve a goal, activity based on awareness, hierarchy of goals, choice of means and calculation of results. Depending on the focus, various types of goal-directed behavior of the individual are formed: implementation of a life plan, following duty, following cultural norms, realizing close goals, self-directed behavior or lack of guidance.
Rationality is the ability to effectively achieve set goals and obtain favorable social comparison. The degree of rationality of organizational behavior allows us to determine the level of effectiveness of personnel management. Determining the rationality of organizational behavior is based on the use of test methods (MMPI test, R. Cattell, etc.).
Normativity is the compliance of an individual’s behavior with the norms accepted in a given social environment.
Deviance is the deviation of an individual’s behavior from the goals and norms shared by the environment.
All categories of the systemic description of organizational behavior are interrelated and are implemented in the practical activities of a manager in the aggregate and in combination with each other. An integrated approach allows us to achieve effective use of the organization’s human resources.
5. INCLUDING CHARACTERISTICS OF THE ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIOR MODEL
OP is a 3-level model, in which each subsequent level is based on the previous one. When a person joins an organization, he has his own character traits and established patterns of behavior. He becomes a member of a group, which seems to him, on the one hand, freedom and develops his abilities, and on the other, imposes restrictions on a person. The same applies to the organization as a whole.
1. Economy. system:Human capital:
1) prof. training and qualifications
2) labor experience and traditions
3) general culture and work culture
4) social-psych. human qualities
5) health and performance
The most effective areas for investing in human capital in different countries are considered to be:
1) healthcare and social. security
2) education
3) labor migration
2. National culture
Taking into account cultural differences is necessary. Because organizational behavior in different cultures has differences, which determine the variety of relationships and elements. There are 5 main characteristics:
1. Relationship with the environment. environment
· people are dependent on the environment. environment
· people live in harmony with the environment. environment
· people dominate the environment. environment
2. Time orientation
· orientation to the past
· focus on the present
future orientation
3. The nature of people
· kind people
people are not kind
· people can be both kind and not kind
4. Activity orientation
· action
· existence
· control
individualists
· hierarchy
6. Spatial orientation
· privacy
openness
· mixed character
6. OUTPUT CHARACTERISTICS OF OP
1) Productivity includes productivity and efficiency.
Enterprises operate productively if the product is in demand and its market share is high. However, productivity will depend on the efficiency of the enterprise in achieving its goals (profit, output per unit of time).
2) absenteeism (absent) Ex: conveyor. The level of absenteeism exceeding the permissible level affects the efficiency and productivity of work at the enterprise with the complication of technological processes and the introduction of more complex equipment
3) staff turnover (costs for personnel selection, but more trained personnel can fill the vacant position)
4) satisfaction
To measure the level of satisfaction, you can use two approaches:
1. single assessment method:
Completely dissatisfied _______________________Completely satisfied
2. summation of satisfaction ratings with various aspects of work:
Self-realization at work
nature of control
· fair remuneration
working conditions
· correspondence of work to personality type
psychological climate
The output elements of the EP provide a real opportunity to analyze the effectiveness of the implementation of many measures to improve work with personnel and changes in work within the organization.
7. FEATURES OF INFORMATION EXCHANGE IN THE COMMUNICATION PROCESS
The communication process is a process of information exchange. It is precisely because the exchange of information is built into all major types of management activities that we call communication a connecting process. And one of the important management tools in the hands of a manager is the information at his disposal. Using and transmitting this information, as well as receiving feedback, he organizes, leads and motivates subordinates. Therefore, much depends on his ability to convey information in such a way that the most adequate perception of this information is achieved by those to whom it is intended.
In the process of communication, information is transferred from one subject to another. Individuals, groups, and entire organizations can act as subjects of the communication process.
Communication is carried out by transmitting ideas, facts, opinions, sensations or perceptions, feelings and attitudes from one person to another, verbally or in some other form, with the aim of obtaining the desired reaction in return.
When considering the communication process, it is necessary to take into account that in the conditions of human communication, it is important not only how information is transmitted, but also how it is formed, clarified, and developed. Communication and information are different. But things are interconnected. Communication includes both what is communicated and how that “what” is communicated.
In order for communication to take place, there must be at least two people present. Therefore, each of the participants must have all or some abilities: see, hear, touch, smell and taste. Effective communication requires certain skills and abilities from each party.
Communication cannot be considered only as sending and receiving information, since we are dealing with the relationship of two individuals, each of whom is an active subject - mutual informing of them presupposes the establishment of joint activities. Therefore, in the communication process there is not only the movement of information, but also an active exchange of it.
In a specifically human exchange of information, the significance of information plays a special role for each participant in communication, since people do not just exchange words, but strive to develop a common meaning. And this is possible under the condition. That the information is not only accepted. But it is also understandable and meaningful.
The essence of the communication process is both the exchange of information and joint comprehension of the subject. Therefore, in every communicative process activity, communication and cognition are actually combined.
The exchange of information necessarily involves influencing the partner. The communicative influence that arises in this case is the psychological influence of one participant on another in order to change his behavior. The effectiveness of communication is measured precisely by how successful the impact is.
A communication network is a connection in a certain way between participants in the communication process using communication channels. Channels are connections that ensure interaction and transfer of information between communication objects.
Communication networks can be of two types: centralized and decentralized.
In centralized networks, information moves sequentially from one participant to another. (reflect a hierarchical model of organizational relationships and can be effective under certain conditions).
In decentralized networks, information flows freely circulate between participants based on the decentralization of power. This ensures the formation of effective organizational interaction based on independence, creativity and initiative.
8. PERSON’S PERCEPTION OF THE ENVIRONMENT
Perception can be defined in the most general terms as the process of receiving and processing information. It lies in the fact that information obtained from the external environment is processed, put into a certain order and systematized. It contains a person’s idea of the environment and forms the basis of his actions, serving as the source material for human behavior. Each person's perception of reality is different and is always subjective.
A person's perception of the organizational environment includes two processes: information selection and information systematization.
The most important feature of information perception is selectivity. A person, using visual, sound, and tactile channels for receiving information, does not perceive all the information coming to him, but only that which has a special meaning for him. The selection of information is influenced not only by the physical capabilities of the senses, but also by the psychological components of a person’s personality, such as attitude to what is happening, previous experience, professed values, mood, etc. As a result, the selection of information, on the one hand, allows a person to discard unimportant or unnecessary information, and on the other hand, leads to the loss of important information, to a significant distortion of reality. Systematization of information involves its processing in order to bring it to a certain form and comprehension, which allows a person to react in a certain way to the information received.
Systematization of information by a person is carried out by two methods:
Logical information processing;
Processing information based on human feelings, preferences, emotions, beliefs (“I love - I don’t like”, “I like - I don’t like”)
All factors influencing human perception can be divided into internal and external. Among the factors internal to a person, the following can be distinguished:
· the state of a person, his needs and expectations preceding the perception of the signal;
· the presence of positive or negative feelings in relation to the perceived signal;
· the degree of initial knowledge of the received signals.
External factors influencing a person’s perception of reality include:
· intensity of the transmitted signal;
· signal mobility;
· size;
· the state of the environment in which a person is located.
There are methods of perception that complicate, create barriers and lead to errors in the perception of human reality:
· stereotyping – reducing a more complex original phenomenon to a specific stereotype and, accordingly, to a simplified idea of this phenomenon.
· transferring assessments of individual characteristics of a phenomenon to its other characteristics or generalizing the assessment of an individual characteristic to the phenomenon as a whole.
· projection – transferring one’s own feelings, motives, fears onto other people.
first impression – (first impressions are deceiving).
9. COMMUNICATION PROCESS IN AN ORGANIZATION
The process of communication is the exchange of information between people. which is to ensure understanding of the information transmitted and received.
The following types of communications are distinguished:
· formal (determined by the organizational structure of the enterprise, the relationship between management levels and functional departments). The more management levels, the higher the likelihood of information distortion, since each management level can correct and filter messages;
· informal communications (for example, a channel for spreading rumors);
· vertical (inter-level) communications: top-down and bottom-up;
· horizontal communications – exchange of information between different departments to coordinate actions;
· interpersonal communications – oral communication of people in any of the listed types of communications.
Communications in an organization perform several important functions:
· providing information about the company's goals, how to do the job, standards of acceptable types of behavior, the need for changes, etc.
· motivating members of the organization, for example, by determining valence, increasing the degree of expectations and instrumentality, distributing specific goals and providing feedback.
· Monitoring and coordinating the efforts of individual employees, for example, by reducing slack, communicating roles, rules and regulations, and avoiding duplication of effort.
Information transfer can be carried out in the following directions:
· from top to bottom: setting tasks (what, when to do), instructing (how, in what way, who);
· from bottom to top: reports on performance, reports on inspections, reports on the personal opinion of the employee.
· in the horizontal direction: exchange of opinions, coordination of actions, planning, messages about execution.
Information is transmitted using sign systems. When classifying communication processes, we can distinguish:
· verbal communication, speech is used as a sign system;
· nonverbal communication, where various non-speech sign systems are used.
Errors that arise in the communication process are caused by: selection of information, selectivity of perception, emotions, non-verbal signals, language problems, etc. Sometimes low communication effectiveness is associated with sources of interference such as physical distance, lack of feedback, status effects, and cultural differences. Communication barriers lead to information distortion and loss. Using knowledge about the typology of communication barriers allows you to avoid negative consequences. Stand out:
1. communication barriers associated with the specifics of people’s expression of their thoughts and their perception
2. communication barriers associated with unsatisfactory relationships in groups, between groups, and with individuals. The message is not received due to a feeling of antagonism or is deliberately distorted;
3. organizational communication barriers (hierarchy levels, uncertainty of responsibilities, etc.);
4. technological communication barriers associated with the form of information transfer (ambiguity, possibility of repetition, etc.).
If a message is vague, the recipient may have difficulty deciphering it or may think the message does not mean what the sender intended. In this case, the likelihood increases that the recipient will act not on the basis of the message itself, but on the basis of his ideas, values, and perceptions, which influence decoding.
Up to (and including) the point at which the recipient decodes messages, the communication process is primarily about the exchange of information. Members of the organization know that they have achieved understanding and communicated effectively only after the feedback loop has been completed, i.e. the second half of the process occurs.
business communication leadership organizational management
10. NON-VERBAL COMMUNICATIONS IN BUSINESS COMMUNICATION
People communicate through verbal and nonverbal communications. The share of verbal communications in the process of human communication is about 10%. Verbal communications are realized through written and oral messages. Oral transmission of messages is carried out in the process of verbal dialogue, negotiations, meetings, presentations, telephone conversations, namely: when the largest volume of messages is transmitted via voice communication. Written communications are transmitted through documents in the form of letters, orders, instructions, instructions, regulations, etc.
Nonverbal communications are carried out through body language (up to 55% of all communications) and speech parameters (up to 35% of all communications). Body language has an impact on the other person. Body language includes: clothing, posture, gestures, actual body movements, posture, human figure, facial expression, eye contact, pupil size, distance between speakers, etc. Speech parameters include: speech rate, voice volume, voice timbre, intonation, choice of words, use of jargon, interjections, laughter, crying, whispering, various combinations of sounds that do not have independent meaning, etc.
Body language is used by all people, but is understood by only a few. You communicate with clients, business partners, guests, and family members not only through conversation, but also through the person’s mood.
Understanding the body language of others is very important, but learning to speak that language yourself is equally important.
With some practice, you can learn to correctly interpret the body language of others, which will allow you to better apply the signs of non-verbal body language that convey your true thoughts and allow you to better understand those with whom you communicate.
Without words, it will become clear to you whether your partners are lying to you, whether people of the opposite sex feel sympathy or antipathy towards you, whether your guests are bored, whether your clients are impatient; whether they are open, nervous, suspicious, angry or insecure.
Many body language signs can be used consciously or unconsciously.
A person who deliberately tilts his head to the side signals interest to us. A person interested in something unconsciously tilts his head to the side. An upset and angry person unconsciously droops at the corners of his mouth.
Examples of conscious body language are common in most European countries:
a raised hand with two fingers in a "V" signifies victory;
a raised clenched fist is a sign of threat;
a raised hand or finger is a sign that a person wants to say something;
a finger placed on the lips means: quieter;
a finger pointing at the clock is a sign that it is time to end the conversation;
a palm placed to the ear indicates: speak louder, it’s hard to hear.
By understanding unconscious body language, you will be able to recognize hidden social, emotional, sexual and other attitudes, as well as understand the state of mind, relationships and intentions of your acquaintances, relatives and partners.
11. TYPES AND TECHNIQUES OF LISTENING
Every person wants to see an attentive and friendly listener in their interlocutor. Therefore, each of us is pleased to communicate not with those who know how to speak, but with those who know how to listen. Research shows that no more than 10% of people know how to listen to their interlocutor. It is no coincidence that one of the areas of advanced training for managers in the leading countries of the world is courses in effective listening.
One of the most important moments in any listening is feedback, thanks to which the interlocutor gets the feeling that he is not speaking into space, but with a living person who listens and understands him. Moreover, in any statement there are at least two content levels: informational and emotional.
The following listening techniques can be distinguished:
1. Deaf silence (visible lack of reaction). 2. Assent.3. “Echo reaction” - repetition of the last word of the interlocutor. 4. “Mirror” - repeating the last phrase of the interlocutor with a change in word order. 5. “Paraphrase” - conveying the content of a partner’s statement in other words. 6 Motivation. 7. Clarifying questions. 8. Leading questions.
9. Ratings, advice. 10. Continuation (when the listener interjects himself into the remark, tries to complete the phrase, suggests words). 11. Emotions. 12. Irrelevant statements (not relevant or related only formally).
13. Logical consequences from the partner’s statements, an example of an assumption about the cause of the event. 14. “Rough reactions.” 15. Questioning (asks question after question without explaining the purpose). 16. Disdain for the partner (does not pay attention to him, does not listen, ignores the partner, his words.
Typically, there are 3 beats in listening:
Support;
Clarification;
Commenting.
During support, the main goal is to enable a person to express his position. Appropriate reactions of the listener at this stage are silence, assent, emotional “accompaniment”.
In the process of clarifying the goal: to make sure that you correctly understood the interlocutor, for this purpose clarifying, leading questions are asked, and a paraphrase is made.
When commenting, the listener expresses his opinion about what he heard: gives advice, assessments, comments.
12. ROLE BEHAVIOR IN THE ORGANIZATION
A role is a way of behavior set by society. The role consists of two basic bases:
· intentions;
· requirements, expectations of other people regarding roles.
During the day, a person performs various roles. He is inclined to make decisions, reason on problems that interest him, but most importantly, a person must learn not to put up with defeats. Therefore, it is necessary to constantly develop positive thinking, that is, a person must direct his efforts to solve the problems facing him.
Role theory of personality is a theory according to which a personality is described through the social functions and patterns of behavior learned and accepted by the subject or forced to be performed, determined by the social status of the individual in a given social group. The main provisions were formulated by J. Mead and R. Linton. The first focuses on the mechanisms of “role learning”, mastering roles in the process of interpersonal interaction, the second draws attention to the socio-cultural nature of role prescriptions and their connection with the social position of the individual, as well as the maintenance of role requirements by a system of social and group sanctions.
Within the framework of the theory, such phenomena as “role conflict” are experimentally identified - the subject’s experience of ambiguity or confrontation of role requirements from different social communities of which he is a member, which creates a stressful situation; integration and disintegration of the role structure of the individual is a consequence of the harmony or conflict of social relations; role set; role tension; adaptation to the role, etc.
Self-esteem influences role performance and is formed from childhood. By the age of 6, a child should learn to evaluate others and transfer it to himself. During the school years, self-esteem is adjusted and further developed.
There are 4 types of attitudes towards others:
· I am good - you are good - this is the most correct and productive attitude, since in most cases we are harmed not out of intent, but out of thoughtlessness;
· I'm good - you're bad - it is typical for those who are not capable of constructive self-affirmation; they strive to place responsibility on the shoulders of others. Such people humiliate others.
· I am bad - you are bad - such people lose the meaning of life, apathy towards work, and are easily irritated.
Thus, it is rare that a person completely belongs to one or another attitude. As a rule, a synthesis of such installations is observed.
13. DYNAMICS OF ROLE BEHAVIOR
Each person is forced to play many roles throughout his life. Ultimately, the role is either suitable or not, a person chooses different ways of behaving in the role. The same person in different roles can produce completely different impressions. It depends on your mood, experience, and situation. It is impossible to learn all the roles. Distinguish
· intended (prescribed) – those roles that cannot be chosen and changed: gender, race;
· selected (selected).
Role learning and role formation in a particular organization is undergoing changes, and this depends on a number of factors (changes in society).
The change in role is associated with the development of civilization and culture. Each person in one role or another absorbs certain patterns of behavior.
Thus, role development is a process in the course of a person’s life and work activity, which should be carried out in an ascending manner.
14. CONDITIONS FOR SUCCESSFUL ROLE BEHAVIOR
One of the reasons that can hinder successful role behavior is the lack of clarity and acceptability of the role. It begins to unfold from the first introductory conversation.
Causes of role-related conflict barriers:
· the employee performs several mutually exclusive roles;
· fulfillment of a role by an employee occupying a dual position in the organization;
· role overload, when employees went beyond the scope of their role when performing a task.
Actions of the manager to eliminate role problems:
1. change of work - it is necessary to analyze the situation enough to change the state of work.
2. reshuffling of employees;
3. unloading of roles;
4. create conditions for creative activity;
5. change your attitude towards people.
From the employee's side:
1. understand the situation (conduct a deep analysis);
2. change your attitude horizontally or vertically.
15. SOCIAL ROLES
Relationships in a team arise between people as bearers of certain social roles that presuppose constancy of behavior in accordance with a more or less clearly established standard.
For a role to emerge, a whole system of norms is necessary.
A social role is a set of norms that determine behavior in a given social position of a given social status. A person can form his own individual image according to his role, predict his behavior in the role and foresee the result.
Social roles vary:
By gender - men and women;
According to the method of manifestation - active and latent;
According to the degree of standardization - standardized and freely interpretable;
By importance – dominant and secondary.
Each role comes with specific rights and responsibilities. A role suggests how one should behave towards others and what can be expected from them. Certain rights, responsibilities and expectations are always associated with a role, and an individual who does not live up to them is subject to sanctions, and those who do justify them are rewarded. Different people often have different values, ideas about the same role and behave differently in it.
A role is a dynamic aspect of status. Status is a social rank that determines a person’s place in the system of social relations. Possessing status allows a person to expect and demand a certain attitude from other people.
The influence of roles in a person’s life is great and he gets used to his roles. The process of adapting to a role is also carried out individually and the person’s brain strictly controls actions; at such moments it controls what to say and how to act. To improve relationships between people, it is useful to use role inversion - the ability to put oneself in the place of another.
Roles in a team are divided into “production” (functional and social) and “interpersonal”.
Experts identify the following production roles:
· coordinator - has the greatest organizational abilities and, because of this, usually becomes the leader of the team, regardless of his knowledge and experience;
· idea generator – the most capable and talented member of the team, develops options for solving any problems facing us;
· controller – not capable of creative thinking, but due to deep knowledge, experience, and erudition he can properly evaluate any idea;
· grinder – has a broad view of the problem;
· enthusiast – the most active member of the team;
· benefit seeker – mediator in internal and external relations;
· performer – conscientiously implements other people’s ideas, but needs constant guidance;
· assistant - a person who does not personally strive for anything.
It is believed that the team will function normally if the listed roles are fully distributed and conscientiously performed. Based on their roles related to interpersonal relationships, team members are usually divided into leaders and followers. The first group consists of preferred persons (“stars”, authoritative, ambitious, attractive people to others). The second includes everyone else, including those who are not preferred (neglected, rejected), with whom they cooperate only by force and make them responsible for everything.
16. TRANSACTIONAL ANALYSIS
Transactional, or transactional, analysis is a system of group psychotherapy in which the interaction of individuals is analyzed from the point of view of the three main states of the Self.
The founder of this trend in psychology and psychotherapy is the American psychologist and psychiatrist Eric Berne, who developed it in the 50s. XX century E. Berne singled out the subject of research and observation - human behavior. The method created by E. Bern is divided into several stages:
· structural analysis, or theory of ego states;
· the actual transactional analysis of activity and communication, based on the concept of “transaction” as the interaction of the ego states of two individuals entering into communication (the ego state is understood as the actual way of existence of the I-subject);
· analysis of psychological games;
· script analysis (analysis of life script - “script”).
E. Bern believed that each person has his own life scenario, the model of which is outlined in early childhood. People grow up, but in accordance with their life scenario they continue to play various games. The entire life of mankind is filled with games. According to E. Bern, the most terrible game is war. There are three I-States: I-Adult, I-Parent, I-Child. Group psychotherapy, according to E. Bern, should develop at the Adult-Adult level. The head of an enterprise, a manager, must learn to identify the states of an Adult both in his own consciousness and behavior, and in the consciousness and behavior of other people, especially subordinates, clients, partners, achieving communication at the Adult-Adult level.
Skillful use of this method helps the manager achieve effective communication. Communication will be effective when it is conducted in the same language, i.e. Adult will talk to Adult, Child to Child, Parent to Parent.
There are transaction analysis in a narrow and broad sense. In a narrow sense, it is an analysis of the interaction of two or more people; in a broad sense, it is a socially oriented psychotherapeutic method, the ultimate goal of which is the formation of a harmonious, socially adapted personality.
Structural analysis studies how much of a person's personality and actions a particular ego state occupies.
The ego-state Parent (P), according to E. Bern, reveals itself in such manifestations as control, prohibitions, ideal requirements, dogmas, sanctions, care, power. A parent is a collection of dogmas and postulates that a person perceives in childhood and which he then retains throughout his life. This is the commanding part of the personality. The parent is the most inert part of the human self, always remaining outside the zone of criticism. A parent influences a person’s behavior by performing the function of conscience.
An adult (B) is distinguished by his state - attentive, interested, aimed at searching for information. The expression on the face of an Adult is thoughtful, attentive, open; intonations adequate to reality. Postures of a person with the ego-state Adult: the head and torso are tilted towards the interlocutor.
Child (RB) is a set of norms that characterize a child from various aspects: inattention, clumsiness. The state changes from depressed to over-enthusiastic. Postures: spontaneous mobility, fingers clenched into fists.
In transactional analysis, interaction in communication is understood as the interaction of positions.
1) additional transactions - adequately understand the situation and positions of each other.
2) Overlapping transactions - occur when the assessment of the situation and contact are inadequate, when one partner does not want to understand the other.
3) Hidden transactions – including two levels: expressed in words (verbal) and implied, psychological, the understanding of which is possible if the partners know each other sufficiently.
17. SCHEME OF INDIVIDUAL BEHAVIOR
External environment (down arrow) Freedom of choice (4 down arrows) Imagination – Conscience – Self-awareness – Will (one down arrow from all) Reaction (down arrow) External physiological manifestations (down arrow) individual movements and gestures (down arrow) Actions
Proactive behavior, which only a person can develop, presupposes the ability to choose a response to what is happening.
Human behavior is determined by:
1) motivation
2) perception
3) attitude
4) assimilation
18. BASICS OF MOTIVATION
The role of tools that cause the appearance of certain motives are incentives, which can be used:
Individual items.
Actions of other people.
Promises;
Bearers of obligations and opportunities;
Opportunities provided, etc.
Incentives have various forms, but in management practice one of its most common forms is material incentives, since the role of this stimulation process is extremely large. The fundamental difference between stimulation and motivation is that stimulation is only one of the means by which motivation can be achieved. From a management point of view, it is very important not only to know the direction of a person’s actions, but also to be able, if necessary, with the help of motivation to orient these actions towards certain goals.
19. APPLICATION OF THE SUBSTANTIVE THEORY OF MOTIVATION IN MANAGEMENT PRACTICE
The very first method of motivation, which arose thousands of years ago, was the “carrot and stick” method. This method provides only two forms of influence on the employee - either encouragement or punishment, regardless of the personal characteristics of the individual.
In the 1930s, the theory of “human relations” was developed (S. Freud, E. Mayo). In the 1940s, substantive theories of motivation were formed, and in the 1960s, procedural theories of motivation were developed.
In the development of theories of motivation, two main patterns should be highlighted:
· individualization of approach to each employee;
· increase in the number of factors influencing work motivation.
Need is a conscious need, a lack of something. Needs serve as a motive for action.
1. Hierarchical theory of needs
In 1940, Abraham Maslow proposed the theory of human needs.
He identified five hierarchical levels of needs:
1. Physiological needs (needs for water, food, sexual needs, etc.).
2. Needs for security and confidence in the future (needs for physical and social security, protection, stability).
3. Social needs (needs for communication, love, belonging to a group, etc.).
4. Needs for respect and recognition (the need for evaluation by others, prestige, respect, recognition of professional competence, attractiveness, etc.).
5. Needs for self-expression and self-development.
Application of the theory
1. Knowledge of the hierarchy of needs requires the manager, first of all, to determine which level of the hierarchy is most relevant for the employee. For example, a director has two secretaries. One is the daughter of a large businessman, who is not interested in the size of her salary; the attractiveness of work for her is connected with the interesting people around her and the attention they show her. The other’s husband lost his job, and she has to provide for a family of four on her own. In the first case, the work satisfies the needs of the third and fourth levels, in the second - the first level.
2. The hierarchy of needs allows us to understand that the levels of actual needs of employees may vary. For one subordinate, a few phrases from the boss, noting his great contribution to the common cause, are enough to redouble his efforts; for another, neither praise nor very high material rewards serve as motivating factors.
3. This concept helps the organization determine the sequence of employee motivation, taking into account not only physiological needs, but also the needs of higher levels.
4. Taking into account the dynamism of needs. (You can't expect that motivation that works once will work effectively all the time.)
Motivating factors actively influence human behavior and enhance work motivation.
20. APPLICATION OF PROCEDURAL THEORIES OF MOTIVATION IN MANAGEMENT PRACTICE
1. Theory X and Theory Y
Douglas McGregor describes the traditional view of human factors in manufacturing as "Theory X", which includes several theses that apply to the average person:
He is lazy by nature - he works as little as possible. He has no ambitions, he does not like responsibility, he prefers to be controlled. He is very self-centered and indifferent to the interests of the organization. By nature, he tends to resist change. He is gullible, not very smart, and is ready to be deceived by any charlatan or demagogue.
According to D. McGregory, Theory U is more consistent with the modern situation. This theory is based on the assumption that employees love to work, are creative, seek responsibility and can direct their activities independently. People are not passive by nature; they become so only as a result of working in a specific organization. Leaders are responsible for enabling people to develop their inherent good qualities. An important task is to create conditions in the organization under which people could more easily achieve both their own goals and the goals of the organization.
2. The theory of goal setting proceeds from the fact that an employee’s understanding of a goal activates the need for achievement and stimulates performance. Mastering goals contributes to improving the performance of individual workers and groups.
3. The theory of equity (J. Adams, 1970) establishes that people determine for themselves the ratio of the reward received and the effort expended and compare it with the reward of other people performing similar work. If the comparison shows an imbalance, that is, a person believes that his colleague received more compensation for the same work, then he experiences psychological stress. It is necessary to motivate this employee, relieve tension, and restore justice.
Main conclusion. Until people begin to believe that they are receiving fair compensation, they will tend to reduce the intensity of their work. A striking illustration of this theory can be considered the reduction in the efforts of public sector workers in Russia, due to the long delay in wages caused by the budget deficit.
4. Expectancy theory
In 1964, Victor Vroom outlined the foundations of a new motivational theory - expectancy theory. He argued that a leader must know three things related to the performance of individuals and the organization as a whole:
· a person believes that the results obtained depend on his efforts (Z→R)
· a person believes that the reward will correspond to the results obtained (P→B)
· for a person, the reward must be significant (V – valence – satisfaction with the reward).
The degree of labor motivation (M) can be expressed by the formula:
М=(З→Р)* (Р→В)* V
If one of these points is violated, the employee’s performance decreases. These provisions can be summarized as follows:
effort -> performance -> reward -> need for performance
Thus, the application of procedural theories of motivation allows the manager to take into account not only the needs of the staff, but also their perception of the current situation, as well as the possible consequences of the chosen type of behavior.
21. RULES OF EFFECTIVE MOTIVATION
1) Only what is asked is done – only what is measurable is done – only what is rewarded is done
2) During the working day, people do things to communicate
MOTHER'S RULE: If you (when you) do this, then you can do it
3) If the effectiveness of the quality of work does not improve, then reinforcements are not working
4) Have a clear idea at what stage of what cycle of motivation subordination is.
22. PROCESS OF PERCEPTION
The process of perception is the process by which a person selects, limits and interprets information to create his own picture of the world around him.
1) Selective perception - people noticing stimuli are associated with existing needs (those that they expect, those that rarely differ from others)
2) Selective distortion - people who notice irritation may perceive information in a way that is not intended by the sender, and interpret it in a way that supports, rather than challenges, beliefs.
3) Selective memorization - only that information is remembered that can be convinced.
23. ATTRIBUTION THEORY
In this theory, the factors that determine behavior are divided into 2 internal and external.
The accuracy of attribute determination depends on the following points:
1) Distinctiveness - consists in the fact that various human actions can be considered as ordinary behavior and as unusual behavior. If behavior is viewed as normal, then it is perceived as a consequence of internal attributes. If behavior is considered unusual, then it is perceived as a consequence of external attributes.
2) Consensus - behavior corresponds to a high consensus when other people in the original situation behave in a similar way. High consensus corresponds to external attribution, and low consensus corresponds to internal attribution.
30 Consistency – this behavior often demonstrates high consistency, explained by internal attribution, and low consistency, explained by external attribution.
24. METHODS OF BEHAVIOR MANAGEMENT
The most common methods are:
1) Positive reinforcement - after an employee implements his behavior, management rewards him.
2) Negative reinforcement is the consequence of something unpleasant that a person would like to avoid. Negative reinforcement strengthens and increases the likelihood of behavior by blocking or discouraging undesirable consequences.
25. BASIC STRATEGIES FOR MANAGING INDIVIDUAL BEHAVIOR
Management of the organization's behavior should be carried out taking into account the phase of the organization's life cycle (OLC). Life cycle phases are predictable changes in the state of an organization that occur over time with a certain sequence (from birth, heyday to cessation of existence or radical modernization).
According to L. Greiner's model of organizational development (1972), there are five stages (phases) of the life cycle of an organization, separated from each other by moments of organizational crises.
First stage: the birth of an organization - defining the main goal and striving to maximize profits, realizing the creative potential of the organization’s founders. The organizational structure is informal, resulting in a leadership crisis. The main task of the first stage is to enter the market and survive.
The second stage: childhood and adolescence - short-term profit and accelerated growth. A bureaucratic management structure is formed, which leads to the suppression of the autonomy of departments. The main task of the second stage is to strengthen and capture part of the market.
Third stage: maturity - systematic, balanced growth, formation of an individual image of the organization, decentralization of leadership and delegation of authority. Development is achieved through structural adjustment, which subsequently leads to a crisis of control. The main task is to diversify the organization's activities.
Fourth stage: aging of the organization (highest stage of maturity) - preservation of achieved results, changes in the system of coordination of the functioning of the organization's divisions. In the structure of the organization, strategic divisions are distinguished that have high independence, which subsequently becomes the cause of a border crisis. The main task is to ensure the stability and preservation of the organization.
Fifth stage: revival of the organization - the desire to revitalize the organization, expansion of cooperation. A new impetus for development is given by the creation of a team of like-minded people in the organization. The main task is the rejuvenation and revival of the organization. This stage may culminate in a crisis of “organizational fatigue” or trust. This stage is not the last in the life of the organization. It only indicates the logical completion of a certain type of organizational development. Next, a sixth stage may occur, based on a dual structure: a “habitual” structure to support daily routine operations and a “reflective” structure to stimulate promising activities and personal development.
Each stage is distinguished by the behavioral characteristics of personnel and the organization as a whole, management style, development goals and methods of achieving them. Management of organizational behavior should be focused on the reorganization of management structures. Organizational structures must change as the firm's challenges change. An imperfect structure leads to conflicts, disruption of normal work, and “role ambiguity,” which leads to a decrease in the organization’s performance and profitability.
In general terms, organizational effectiveness refers to the ability to achieve set goals at the lowest cost. Due to the increasing complexity of management tasks in a modern organization, a new concept of a highly effective organization is being formed. Thus, the process of managing organizational behavior should be aimed at creating a high-performance organization—an organization capable of achieving high performance.
26. WAYS TO INFLUENCE PRODUCTIVITY
1) Alternative work schedule - provides for the abandonment of a fixed work schedule, the replacement of which is proposed by an alternative:
Compressed work week
Flexible work schedule (4-6 hours at work)
2) Reducing routine work:
Constructiveness at work
Constant change of work rhythm
Expanding the number of employees, combining operations
Employee Generalizations
27. SOCIO-PSYCHOLOGICAL MODEL OF BEHAVIOR
In modern Russian psychology, in particular the Lomov School (MSU), where they study the psychological characteristics of the activities of small groups. Crews of airplanes and spacecraft were taken as the object of study. The results obtained are completely tied to organizations, since the number of high-risk situations and other indicators for modern business in Russia and space flights are the same.
Conducted studies have shown that during long-term collaboration, interpersonal interaction and external communication become 2-3 times more important than other factors. In addition, as the complexity of the tasks being performed increases, when solving them in a group, greater stability in the time and intensity characteristics of the actions is observed.
To characterize the behavior of workers in a group, it is necessary to know the main group characteristics:
· level and dynamics of the group’s psychological mood;
· organizational abilities of the group as a complex subject of activity in conditions of uncertainty and instability of the organization;
· highlighting the characteristics of leaders;
· adequacy of self-determination of the individual and group (role);
· the degree of compliance of organizational and group relations with activities;
· sources of tension in the group.
1. Personal level
Psychological characteristics:
· a person’s perception of the surrounding world. It influences behavior through values, principles, and beliefs.
· the criterial base sets the priorities of behavior. It consists of a disposition towards people, events, processes, a set of values, beliefs and principles.
· Individual traits and characteristics of a person’s character that directly influence behavior: hereditary and physiological characteristics of a person; character, factors emanating from the environment.
Social Features:
· circle of communication, professional and personal;
· role, a set of actions depending on psychological characteristics and place in the management hierarchy;
· status – assessment by others of the personality of a given subject and the role he uses.
Each person is a personality whose individuality is determined by life experience, refracted through personality traits and manifested through a person’s attitude to surrounding phenomena and the uniqueness of his internal mental functions.
Conventionally, we can talk about the internal, socio-psychological structure of the personality and its external structure as belonging to social groups.
The internal structure of personality includes a number of substructures:
a) the psychological environment that has developed in the consciousness of the individual: a system of needs, interests, claims, value orientations, ideals, beliefs, worldview;
b) psychological means, possibilities for the realization (abilities) of the individual: experience, skills, abilities;
c) mental properties of a person: character, emotions, will, thinking, memory, imagination, etc.;
d) physiological, hereditary qualities: temperament.
2. Group
Psychological features: psychological climate - the real state of interaction between people as participants in joint activities; conformism. Social features: status - role relations; professional - qualification relations.
Thus, being intermediate between individual and collective relationships, relationships in a group have specific characteristics that have a great influence on the model of organizational behavior.
The main problem of managing groups and group relationships is determining the optimal combination of group and organizational interests in which the labor factors motivating groups will be most effective.
28. CONCEPT OF GROUP AND CLASSIFICATION OF GROUPS
A group is a real-life entity in which people are brought together based on common characteristics of joint activities and in a certain way are aware of their belonging to this entity.
When joining groups for joint activities, problems arise that cannot be solved. It can also be interpersonal relationships. By uniting in groups, they experience this impact. People come together in groups to do specific work. The group influences the individual and the individual influences the group. The problem may be that in the process of activity with other people, people behave differently than when alone.
Signs of a social group:
· general goal and objectives of the activity;
· internal organization;
· group values;
· own sign of isolation;
· group pressure;
· consolidation of traditions and symbols.
Classification:
· a real group, an association of people that exists in a common space.
· conditional group, bringing together people for research on a certain basis.
· laboratory group, created to conduct research and determined based on the needs of the group.
· large groups, social communities, united on the basis of certain characteristics. They can be unorganized (rally) and spontaneous - organized along national, class, and gender lines.
· small groups – small groups may be official, but do not have legal status.
· formal groups are distinguished as structural units, have a formal leader, group positions, role structure, functions, tasks. Formal groups exist within formally accepted organizations. Informal, created spontaneously according to their likings. There are such corporations and teams.
Corporations are groups of randomly assembled people who lack cohesion. It is of little use and sometimes even harmful.
A team is the highest form of group organization in which interpersonal relationships are mediated by the individual.
The goals of a person joining an informal group are often not realized, but they can be:
· fulfillment of the need for communication;
· search for protection;
· need for help;
· personal sympathies;
· desire for new sensations;
· fulfillment of the need for involvement.
We need to see the positive that informal groups can bring. Very often, belonging to an informal group is a stronger factor than higher wages in a neighboring organization.
It is also necessary to take into account the negative manifestations of informal groups. They often behave in unpredictable ways, they absorb working time resources, give rise to rumors and create other situations unfavorable for the formal organization.
29. MAIN CHARACTERISTICS OF GROUPS
Main characteristics of the group
Composition (age; professional and social characteristics)
Structure (communications; preferences; power; emotional; interpersonal relationships and its connection with the functional structure of group activity). The structure is based on status-role relations, professionally qualified characteristics and gender and age composition.
Status is determined by a number of factors: seniority; job title; location of offices; education; social talents; awareness; accumulation of experience.
Role characteristics are determined by two sides: human behavior; his assessment. Evaluation of behavior in a role is given by self-esteem and by other people. For the team to function effectively, it is necessary that all roles complement each other, that is, the same role can perform several functions, and there may be conflicts. Professionally qualified characteristics include education and professional level.
Group processes. Group processes include those that organize the activities of the group and are associated with the development of the group.
Group norms and values; Group norms are the rules that a group develops to which its members obey; it is the norms that influence people’s behavior.
Norms help people of this group determine what behavior and what work is expected of them, if followed, it assumes that a person belongs to the group, and if he opposes it, then the norms can carry both a positive and negative picture. Norms are associated with values that are formed on the basis of a certain attitude.
The values of a social group may not coincide and may correlate differently with norms, so the manager’s task is to identify the hierarchy of values.
System of sanctions.
30. INTERACTION OF PERSON AND GROUP
The interaction between a person and a group is always two-way in nature: a person, through his work and actions, contributes to solving group problems, but the group also has a great influence on the person, helping him satisfy his needs for security, love, respect, self-expression, personality formation, elimination of worries, etc. P. It has been noted that in groups with good relationships, with an active intra-group life, people have better health and better morality, they are better protected from external influences and work more efficiently than people who are in an isolated state or in “sick” groups affected by insoluble conflicts and instability . The group protects the individual, supports him and teaches him both the ability to perform tasks and the norms and rules of behavior in the group.
But the group not only helps a person survive and improve his professional qualities. The influence of a group on a person has many manifestations.
Significant changes in human behavior that occur under the influence of a group.
Changes in such human characteristics as perception, motivation, sphere of attention, rating system, etc. A person expands the scope of his attention by increasing attention to the interests of other group members. His life becomes dependent on the actions of his colleagues, and this significantly changes his view of himself, his place in the environment and those around him.
In a group, a person receives a certain relative “weight”. The group not only distributes tasks and roles, but also determines the relative position of everyone. Group members can do exactly the same work, but have different “weights” in the group.
The group helps the individual gain a new vision of his self. A person begins to identify himself with the group, and this leads to significant changes in his worldview, in his understanding of his place in the world and his purpose.
Being in a group, participating in discussions and developing solutions, a person can also come up with suggestions and ideas that he would never have come up with if he were thinking about the problem alone. The effect of a “brain attack” on a person significantly increases a person’s creative potential.
It has been noted that in a group a person is much more inclined to take risks than in a situation where he acts alone. In some cases, this feature of changing human behavior is the source of more effective and active behavior of people in a group environment than if they acted alone.
While interacting with a group, a person tries to influence it in various ways, to make changes in its functioning so that it is acceptable to him, convenient for him and allows him to cope with his responsibilities. Naturally, both the form of influence and the degree of influence of a person on a group significantly depend on both his personal characteristics, his ability to influence, and the characteristics of the group. The interaction of a person with a group can be either in the nature of cooperation, or merger, or conflict. Each form of interaction may experience varying degrees of manifestation. That is, for example, we can talk about a hidden conflict, a weak conflict, or an insoluble conflict.
31. PROCESS OF FORMATION OF MOTIVATIONAL PROGRAMS
The problem of the economic interest of employees in improving the final results of the organization’s activities remains one of the most important. A person’s readiness and desire to do their job well is a key factor in the success of the organization itself.
Effective management of a person is possible only with proper motivation of his activities, only through the motives underlying his actions. You need to know what causes certain motives, how and in what ways they can be put into action, how the process of motivating people is carried out.
A person’s motivation for activity is understood as a set of internal and external driving forces that encourage a person to act, set the boundaries and forms, and the direction of these actions, focused on achieving certain goals.
Its main elements are:
· subjects and objects of motivation, as well as a system of social factors that determine the economic behavior of people. The latter, in turn, include creativity, motives, needs, incentives, attitudes, value orientations, interests and goals;
· external motivators, or incentives, of economic behavior, socio-political conditions, financial and tax policies, legal, housing and family conditions, spiritual environment, natural and geographical environment, etc.
Motives are things that cause certain human actions. They not only encourage a person to act, but also determine what needs to be done and how this action will be carried out. Motives are personal in nature and depend on many factors external and internal to a person, as well as on the action of other motives that arise in parallel with them.
Human behavior is usually determined by a set of motives that are in some relationship with each other in terms of the degree of impact on the person. The motivational structure of a person thus formed can be considered as the basis for his implementation of purposeful actions. Although a person's motivational structure has a certain stability, it can change consciously due to changes occurring in his personality. The role of tools that cause the appearance of certain motives are stimuli, which can be used as: individual objects. actions of other people. promises; carriers of obligations and opportunities; provided opportunities, etc.
Incentives are what are offered to a person as compensation for his activities or what he would like to receive as a result of certain actions. Moreover, a person’s reaction to stimuli can be both conscious and unconscious, and to certain stimuli his reaction may not even be subject to conscious control.
Incentives have various forms, but in management practice one of its most common forms is material incentives, since the role of this stimulation process is extremely large. At the same time, it is very important to take into account the specific circumstances under which financial incentives are provided. It is necessary to avoid exaggerating its capabilities. This is due to the fact that a person has a very complex and ambiguous system of needs, interests, priorities and goals.
The fundamental difference between stimulation and motivation is that stimulation is only one of the means by which motivation can be achieved. The higher the level of development of relationships in an organization, the less often incentives are used as a means of managing people. This is due to the fact that using education and training as one of the methods of motivating people, it is possible to ensure that members of the organization themselves show an interested participation in the affairs of the organization, carrying out the necessary actions. without waiting or without receiving the corresponding stimulating effect at all.
From a management point of view, it is very important not only to know the direction of a person’s actions, but also to be able, if necessary, with the help of motivation to orient these actions towards certain goals.
Thus, motivation in a more specific sense can be considered as a set of forces that encourage a person to carry out activities with the expenditure of certain efforts, at a certain level of diligence and conscientiousness, with a certain degree of persistence in the direction of achieving certain goals.
32. CONCEPT AND BASIC THEORIES OF LEADERSHIP
Leadership is the process of influencing individuals or groups to achieve set goals. Leadership is the most important factor in the system of managing organizational behavior. As a socio-economic phenomenon, leadership in its development has gone through a long path of evolution, during which it was based on physical, tribal, intellectual, economic and other characteristics. It represents the historically established social need of people to organize their joint activities. According to A. Roddick, “leadership is the ability to awaken in employees a dream to which they will strive, to “breathe” into them the energy necessary for movement.”
A leader is a person (group of people) who can have a real influence on the behavior of employees. The formal leader is not always a leader. The promotion of a leader is influenced by objective and subjective factors (situation, personal aspiration). The defining features when assessing and supporting a leader by a group are: energy, determination, perseverance, enthusiasm, ambition, abilities and knowledge, fairness, self-confidence, etc.
Basic Leadership Theories
There are several approaches to the study of leadership.
The trait approach (1930s) explains leadership by having a certain set of personal traits common to all leaders. However, practice has not confirmed the presence of a standard set of qualities that leads to success in all situations.
The behavioral approach (1940-50s) views leadership as a set of patterns of behavior of a leader in relation to subordinates.
The situational approach (early 1960s) argues that situational factors play a decisive role in leadership effectiveness, but does not reject the importance of personal and behavioral characteristics.
Modern approaches (1990s) postulate the effectiveness of adaptive leadership - reality-oriented leadership. It means the application of all known management styles, methods and ways of influencing people, in accordance with the specific situation. This allows us to interpret leadership not only as a science, but also as an art of management.
One of the most common is the leadership theory of K. Lewin (1938). She identifies three leadership styles:
Authoritarian - characterized by rigidity, exactingness, unity of command, prevalence of power functions, strict control and discipline, focus on results, ignoring socio-psychological factors;
Democratic - relies on collegiality, trust, informing subordinates, initiative, creativity, self-discipline, consciousness, responsibility, encouragement, transparency, orientation not only to results, but also to ways of achieving them;
Liberal - characterized by low demands, connivance, lack of discipline and exactingness, passivity of the leader and loss of control over subordinates, giving them complete freedom of action.
33. TYPES AND FUNCTIONS OF LEADERS
1. Leader-organizer. Its main difference is that it perceives the needs of the team as its own and actively acts. This leader is optimistic and confident that most problems can be solved.
2. Leader-creator. Attracts one, first of all, by the ability to see new things, to take on problems that may seem unresolved and even dangerous.
3. Leader-fighter. A strong-willed, self-confident person. He is the first to face danger or the unknown and enters into the fight without hesitation.
4. Leader-diplomat. He relies on excellent knowledge of the situation and its hidden details, is aware of gossip and gossip, and therefore knows well who can be influenced and how.
5. A comforting leader. You reach out to him because he is ready to support you in difficult times. Respects people, treats them kindly, polite, helpful, and capable of empathy.
Informal leaders can be divided into three types:
· business (instrumental) is recognized in the team, has a high qualification level, and successfully fulfills the duties assigned to him. He takes the initiative to solve a problem situation in accordance with group goals and has the appropriate knowledge, information, skills and techniques.
· everyone turns to the information leader with questions, because he is erudite, knows everything, can explain and help find the necessary information.
· an emotional leader is a person to whom each person in a group can turn for empathy and compassion. He takes over the functions of group mood in problematic situations.
From the perspective of group activity, the functions of an informal leader come down to two main ones: setting and maintaining goals, customs, and traditions; motivating the behavior of group members in accordance with group norms.
34. ORGANIZATIONAL CLIMATE
Organizational climate, unlike organizational culture, contains less stable characteristics and criteria that determine the climate mainly come from people, from employees and depend on subjective and objective factors: mood, character, state of health, satisfaction of needs, understanding and attitude to work. The climate in each department is built differently, and there are no departments that have the same organizational climate. An external factor influencing climate is changes in the organization.
When designing an organization, the psychological climate of each department is formed through certain stages. This is especially noticeable when random people get into the department. The psychological climate of an organization is sensitive to management styles.
Organizational climate is associated with organizational culture, and under its influence contradictions that arise both vertically and horizontally can be eliminated.
Thus, the formation of the organizational climate is influenced by both external and internal factors, and the main determinants are:
Managerial values, the values of managers and the characteristics of their perception by employees are important for the climate in the organization;
Economic conditions;
The organizational structure should be understood as a management structure, as a set of specialized, functioning units interconnected in the process of justification, development, adoption and implementation of management decisions. Changing the organizational structure often leads to a significant change in the climate of the organization;
Characteristics of organization members;
Organization size; It has been established that large organizations are characterized by greater rigidity and bureaucracy than small ones. It is easier to achieve a high level of cohesion in small companies than in large ones;
job content - this should be understood as the result of information about a specific job in a specific organization. The point is that the title of the work should reflect its content and should be realized. An applicant for a particular role must know to whom he reports. If a person does not know who to report to and what role he plays, this indicates a weak organizational culture. For whom the employee is directly responsible, the overall goal of the organization and the main areas of activity. It follows that employees must be clearly aware
The significance of the work, its order, reporting, relationship with other processes and links.
Management style, which comes down to a set of the most characteristic and sustainable methods for solving typical problems and developing management decisions, taking into account the peculiarities of mutual understanding of officials subordinate to a given manager.
35. ORGANIZATIONAL CULTURE AND ITS PARAMETERS
Organizational culture is, first of all, a characteristic of an organization, which includes a set of stable criteria and traits. For the first time, organizational culture as a management category was developed in the 80s in the USA. The formation of the concept was significantly influenced by such scientific areas as research in the field of construction management, organization theory and research in organizational behavior.
Organizational culture is a set of values, norms and principles that prevails in an organization and is shared by the majority of its members, which allows it to identify the organization in the external environment and achieve effective internal integration.
Studies of group behavior have shown that the behavior of its individual members is influenced by organizational culture, since organizational culture is built by people working in the organization and has individual characteristics (no organization has the same culture). It should be noted that the basis of organizational culture is, first of all, the needs of people and the needs of the organization. Therefore, by controlling the directions of change and adjusting the organizational culture, it is necessary to identify the needs of the individual and the organization.
Organizational culture influences the effectiveness of the organization as a whole, but it is important to note that it is manifested in the activities of people, primarily management personnel, in the structure of the organization, as well as the processes occurring in it. Research results have shown that organizational culture can contribute to the survival of the organization and the achievement of the highest results, but can lead to bankruptcy. That is, a modern leader needs to theoretically comprehend the parameters of organizational culture, but also be able to apply them in practice. This is especially true for senior managers who need to delve deeply into the essence of the internal and external environment, in particular public relations.
Organizational culture consists of the following components:
The philosophy that sets the meaning of the organization’s existence and its relationship to employees and clients; the dominant values on which the organization is based;
Norms shared by employees of the organization; the rules by which the “game” is played in the organization; the climate that exists in the organization and is manifested in the atmosphere in the organization;
Behavioral rituals expressed in the organization of certain ceremonies.
36. PROPERTIES, FUNCTIONS AND DIAGNOSTICS OF ORGANIZATIONAL CULTURE
1. Collaborative work forms employee proposals about organizational values and ways to follow these values.
2. Community. Prefers not only knowledge, values, attitudes, customs, but also many other things used by the group to satisfy the existing needs of the members of this group.
3. The basic elements of the organization’s culture do not require proof; they come naturally, of course.
4. Hierarchy and priority. Every culture offers a ranking of values.
5. Systematicity, it is assumed that organizational culture is a system and each link in the system can cause a certain complication in achieving the goal and cause failures in the management of the existence and development of the organization.
Thus, the named properties of organizational culture can destroy the organization or, on the contrary, elevate it.
Formation of organizational culture involves:
Defining the mission and core values of the organization;
Personnel participation in management influence on culture;
Formulation of standards of employee conduct;
Development of traditions, symbols, history of the company;
Attracting internal and external specialists;
Conducting corporate seminars, trainings, role-playing and psychological games, etc.
Organizational culture performs the following functions:
External (adaptation)
Internal (integration)
Organizational culture is associated with history, legend, symbolism, etc. The history of the company's development - values, traditions that are passed on to the newcomer. Based on the life of the company, new employees are given the opportunity to understand the main mission of the organization and the peculiarities of mutual understanding of its members. The situation he heard helps to comprehend the existing disputes about the impact of mistakes that can be made by him and warned in time.
The symbols of an organization are of great importance in shaping culture, emphasizing that people belong to a single whole.
Diagnostics of organizational culture is an opportunity for a specialist to study documents, regulations of the organization, and reporting material. This is possible in a situation of confidential communication with people at all levels. The information obtained can be presented in the form of tables, graphs, creating a profile of organizational culture, which includes the content of values and their consistency. The results obtained on organizational culture depend on and directly indicate the characteristics of management.
Managing organizational culture means shaping, strengthening and changing it.
37. ALGORITHM FOR PSYCHOLOGICAL RECONSTRUCTION
The conditions for implementing work in a new team often require a complex psychological restructuring; this algorithm must begin with the construction of an ideal final result. For construction, the Levy technique is used, such constructions are called. zebras because they have a black and white list.
Table 1. Estimated zebra crossing.
The first column is advantages, the second is disadvantages.
Analyzing this table, a table “Zebra B - target” is constructed, which also has 2 columns, 1 – ideals, 2 – goals.
Algorithm:
1) understand for yourself the essence of the new job and the qualities necessary for it
2) study
3) assess the level of your own need to engage in new business
4) leave the thought of a new activity
5) build an ideal end result for yourself
6) assess the degree of discrepancy between the ideal and the real
7) decide to rebuild in accordance with the ideal end result
8) draw up an individual reconstruction program for each factor
9) begin implementing the program, moving from more significant factors to less significant ones
10) involve the closest assistants of employees in the same work
Realization of implicit goals requires additional study and analysis, which can be implemented using the introspection tree.
The 3x A principle for active interaction:
1. appearance
3. attitude
38. PARADIGMS OF INTERACTION
Correctly constructing interaction between people means choosing the right paradigm, which can be different for different situations. These paradigms proceed from the fact that no matter what position a person occupies, they are not independent, they are constantly in a state of dependence with other people, which means that they find themselves in the position of a person influencing other people.
Paradigms:
1) won – won (disposition to search for mutual benefit of people)
2) won - lost (win of one - loss of another) is characteristic of an authoritarian leadership style
3) lost - won (she does not have her own criteria, such people are ready to please, they are easily influenced)
4) lost - lost (inevitably arises when two people with a “win-lose” mindset come together)
5) won (this alternative is characteristic of people who do not necessarily want others to lose, this approach is most often found in everyday negotiations)
6) win – win, or “don’t get involved” (refuse the agreement and remain in neutral interaction with each other)
The goal of the paradigm: the unification of all stimulating influences.
Stages of creating a paradigm:
1. analysis of methods and forms of employee incentives and the possibility of their use in specific conditions
2. analysis of current needs and employee satisfaction with work
3. comparison of analysis results
4. choice of methods and forms of stimulation
5. implementation of a motivational program
6. checking the effectiveness and methods of stimulation, as well as correction if necessary.
39. BEHAVIOR MANAGEMENT IN AN ORGANIZATION
A modern organization is a dynamically developing system. In the EP, socio-economic organizations are analyzed - planned, intentionally created social entities designed to solve economic problems.
The behavior of the organization is homeostatic, i.e. is able to maintain the most important parameters within acceptable limits when unexpected changes, disturbances and complications occur. Organizations counteract influences that disrupt their work and enhance beneficial influences, maintaining the stability of their internal environment and external relations and ensuring their development. The ability for self-preservation and development in the long term is called superstability.
The behavior of an organization in modern conditions should be analyzed in the context of the characteristics and patterns of its interaction with the external and internal environment. In this regard, the adaptability of an organization is of particular importance as the ability to adapt its behavior to various changes in external and internal factors.
The choice of a specific form of behavior of an organization determines its optimality - the use of rational means and activities. This forms the efficiency of the organization, which can generally be defined as achieving set goals at the lowest cost.
Analysis of an organization's behavior requires an analysis of its relationships with various objects: the state, founders, consumers, suppliers, employees, management, etc., while assessments of the organization's behavior made from different positions may be contradictory. To increase the objectivity and reliability of the analysis of an organization's behavior, it is necessary to conduct it regularly, based on modern ideas about the patterns and mechanisms of organizational behavior.
Any organization represents a duality of management relations - formal and personalized.
Formalized relationships direct employees toward establishing and complying with strict requirements, providing top-down influence.
Formalized management relationships can be:
Autocratic - employees obey the will of the manager;
Technocratic - workers obey the production process;
Bureaucratic - employees submit to the organizational order to the detriment of the interests of the business.
Personalized relationships - focus on “soft” requirements, giving employees independence in solving problems.
They can be:
Democratic – involving staff in the management of the organization;
Humanistic - focused on human relations;
Innovative - encouraging creativity and innovation in the organization.
The behavior of the organization should be oriented towards a harmonious combination of formalized and personalized attitudes and orientations in order to establish cooperation in the organization. Cooperation is assessed as an integral characteristic of an organization's behavior, the basis of partnership, equality, solidarity, mutual respect and responsibility.
Indicators of cooperation are:
Effectiveness - the degree to which a common goal is achieved;
Efficiency - rationality of achieving a goal;
Meaningfulness - perception of the goal and readiness for joint efforts;
Ethics is a means to an end.
Studying the behavior of an organization requires analyzing its demographic parameters. This approach is based on the biological theory of A. Marshall, which represents organizational development based on the method of biological analogies: organizations, like living organisms, are born, develop, and are eliminated. The dynamics of these processes in modern highly competitive conditions are very high. The experience of many countries shows that up to 80% of firms survive no more than 3-5 years. This situation is due to the fact that the market economy has a Darwinian nature: organizations succeed when they satisfy the desires of consumers more effectively than their competitors.
40. PRINCIPLES OF MARKETING IN ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIOR
In modern economic practice, the organization’s relationship with the majority of market participants should be built on the principles of marketing. Marketing is the activity of identifying and satisfying market needs for a variety of goods and services. Marketing should be considered as an economic, social, managerial and technological process based on the following basic principles:
Constant study of the state and dynamics of the market,
Adaptation to market conditions, taking into account the requirements and capabilities of end consumers,
Active formation of the market in the directions necessary for the organization.
Managing the behavior of an organization based on the principles of marketing should ensure work in a dynamic, continuous (ring) mode, ensuring the organization's flexibility and adaptability to turbulent changes in the market environment.
The goal of managing the behavior of an organization based on the principles of marketing is to determine promising areas of the organization’s activity in the market that provide the organization’s competitive advantages with minimal expenditure of resources.
Behavioral marketing in a broad sense refers to market-oriented behavior. Behavioral marketing in the activities of an organization is the activity of managing the behavior of individuals, groups and the organization as a whole in their interaction with market entities based on the principles of marketing.
Behavioral marketing integrates the activities of all structural elements of the organization, individual actions and tools, processes occurring in the organization, and focuses them on market needs. At the same time, behavioral marketing defines the market as the interaction of all environmental factors that influence the results of an organization's activities.
Anticipating the development of the situation and adapting to changes means developing, competing, and achieving success. Successful existence is possible only taking into account the complex interweaving of the changing external and internal environments of the organization, global trends in the development of society.
Behavioral marketing has a significant impact on organizational behavior, which is reflected in the organization’s system of relationships:
1) in the external environment (with consumers, suppliers, intermediaries, competitors, partners, owners, management bodies, the public);
2) in the internal environment (intrapersonal, interpersonal, intergroup, personal-group, intra-organizational relations).
The marketing approach to organizational behavior is implemented on the basis of a situational approach, i.e. taking into account the synergistic interaction (at each moment) of all factors of the external and internal environment of the organization.
Behavioral marketing is based on a customer-oriented ideology that determines the behavior of personnel and the organization as a whole. Moreover, the concept of “client” is given a new meaning; it does not mean only the direct buyer (consumer) of a product or service.
41. BEHAVIOR MANAGEMENT OF THE ORGANIZATION’S CLIENT PEOPLE
An important component of organizational behavior is the attitude towards the organization's clientele (consumers, customers, partners). The formation of this component should also be based on the principles of the marketing management concept.
There are four types of behavior of employees in relation to the clientele of the organization.
Clientele type of behavior is the behavior of staff focused on the complete and comprehensive satisfaction of customer requests and their active involvement in mutually beneficial relationships. It is most characteristic of the company's marketing orientation. When forming it, the following are of great importance: meeting clients, the manner of communication, its form and content, the professionalism of the staff and other elements that create a positive attitude and a constructive atmosphere of business communication.
Anti-client type of behavior - behavior of staff that repels the client. It can manifest itself in two directions. In the first case, the client may be put off by situations; in the second case, the client may be put off by the employees themselves.
Pseudo-client behavior is the behavior of staff that simultaneously attracts and alarms the client. Its essence is an exaggeratedly attentive attitude towards the client. This behavior is characterized by certain socio-psychological characteristics that give rise to conflicting feelings in the client.
Selective-client type of behavior is the behavior of staff that attracts some clients and repels others. This type is associated with awareness of one’s own importance and the choice, as a rule, of the most prestigious and profitable clients. It is a combination of clientele and anticlient types of behavior in relation to different subjects of interaction. In the practice of an organization’s interaction with clients, combined types of behavior may occur. The development of a marketing concept of behavior involves two important behavioral directions: - preventive (preventative) behavior - focused on preventing risks and disruptions in working with clients;
Compensatory behavior - failures and breakdowns in some situations are compensated by the manager’s successes in other areas. Behavioral marketing forms a certain type of marketing behavioral culture of an organization, the defining features of which are: the market orientation of the organization; image regulators of behavior; the organization's behavior towards customers; socially responsible marketing; marketing behavioral environment.
42. BEHAVIORAL ORIENTATION OF STAFF
The marketing behavioral environment is the highest form of development of an organization's behavioral orientation.
Production orientation is characterized by an undeveloped behavioral culture, suppressed image regulators, and the prevalence of one’s own interests. There is a pretentious image setting, the signs of which are distorted ideas about entrepreneurship and market relations.
Sales orientation is characterized by the emergence of a behavioral culture, the primitive formation of an image, which is provided by advertising in order to stimulate sales. There is a declarative image setting of personnel with signs of entrepreneurship and attempts to adapt to market relations.
Opportunistic orientation is characterized by the growth of a behavioral culture, where image regulators begin to actively influence the consciousness of staff and form important social norms of behavior. An instrumental image setting arises, the signs of which are developed entrepreneurship and the use of all market opportunities.
The regulatory levers of behavior are medium-term goals, the formation of a positive image, the choice of the optimal pricing policy, responsible advertising activities, respect for the interests of clients, and attention to customer service.
Marketing orientation is characterized by the development of a high-level behavioral culture, in which image regulators are interpreted by staff as a social necessity. They become norms and incentives, encouraging the satisfaction of the needs of target consumer groups and the implementation of the organization’s mission. A target image setting of personnel arises, based on self-regulation of behavior and improvement of interaction between market subjects.
In the practical activities of an organization, various types of behavioral orientation can be combined with each other.
The main task of behavioral marketing is to create a marketing behavioral environment based on marketing orientation.
Thus, each type of behavioral orientation reflects a certain level of the organization’s behavioral culture, of which the marketing behavioral orientation is the most effective.
Behavioral marketing of organizational behavior is the most effective direction of behavioral orientation of personnel, allowing to achieve effective organizational development based on full and comprehensive satisfaction of market needs.
In general, the formation of a marketing behavioral culture is a complex and lengthy process that requires the mobilization of all types of resources and significant efforts on the part of the organization’s management and personnel
43. MODELS OF NATIONAL CULTURE
National culture is an established set of value guidelines, behavioral norms, traditions and stereotypes, accepted in a given country or group of countries and internalized by an individual. An important component of any national culture is national business culture - the manifestation of culture in the business sphere.
National business culture determines the most important parameters of the management system: leadership style, motivation system, negotiation style, attitude to laws and regulations, communications and interpersonal relationships in the organization.
Features of national business culture depend on historical, religious, climatic, social and other factors and develop under the influence of the specific social environment of a given region (country). National business culture determines the formation of various systems of values and preferences, behavioral models and stereotypes. The most typical opposites of national cultures are individualistic, group and clan. Comparative characteristics of American, Japanese and Arab business cultures: patterns of behavior, The American model of business culture is based on instrumental (technocratic) ) approach, cultivation of individualism, orientation towards utilitarianism. The Japanese model of business culture has most fully absorbed the achievements of national culture, which is based on collectivism, identification of the individual with the group, and the desire for achievement and harmony.
The European model recognizes the need for rationalism in behavior and at the same time focuses on creative learning and self-development.
Different cultures exhibit different patterns of organizational behavior, even opposite ones, along several dimensions.
1. Attitude to time: - monochronic - consistency, stage-by-stage organization of work activity, concentration on one thing in a specific period, attitude to time as an important limited resource, accuracy and punctuality are valued. Typical for representatives of business cultures of the USA, England, Germany, Scandinavia, etc.;
Polychronic - combining several tasks in time, not always brought to completion, treating time as an unlimited, endless and inexhaustible resource. Typical for Asian, Latin American, Arab countries, southern Europe, Spain and Portugal. Obviously, Russia also gravitates towards a polychronic culture.
2. Attitude to nature (environment):
Nature is seen as an object subordinate to man, a source for satisfying needs. Interaction with nature is seen as a struggle to obtain certain resources or material benefits from nature. This approach is characteristic of most developed countries; - man is a part of nature and must live in harmony with it (for example, Asian countries, Japan).
Russia was previously characterized by the first type, but currently, due to environmental problems, we are moving to the second type.
A person’s attitude towards nature is reflected in behavioral stereotypes and assessments of current events.
3. Interpersonal relationships. Researchers from different schools identify up to 30 parameters related to the characteristics of interpersonal relationships among representatives of different national cultures.
Managers operating at the international level must know and take into account the various nuances of business relationships associated with the specific perception of individual components of culture and life: speech, behavior, business correspondence and appearance, office interior, non-verbal means of communication (facial expressions, posture, gestures, personal space), gifts and souvenirs, exchange of business cards, addresses, greetings, tips, etc.
Knowledge of the cultural values prevailing in Russian society is also necessary for foreign specialists who work in Russia and have business relations with its citizens whose cultural values and historical heritage differ from their own.
Further globalization of world relations, openness of borders, interpenetration of national cultures determine the need to use sociocultural management technologies that make it possible to implement a new management sociocultural paradigm
Due to the socio-cultural content, the organizational behavior of multinational companies can be based not only on respect for the individual, regardless of social origin, ethnicity, nationality, gender, age, religion, etc., but also on stimulating the cultural diversity of personnel, accumulating national potential, and using mental resources. work models as a necessary condition for the sustainable development of an organization in a cross-cultural space.
44. INTERNATIONAL CONTEXT OF ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIOR
An important feature of the development of the world community at the beginning of the 21st century. is the formation of a single economic space based on the processes of globalization and internationalization. This means a new stage in the development of international business, aimed at creating economic networks in different countries.
Accordingly, the boundaries of organizational behavior are expanding, making it possible to consider patterns and characteristics of behavior not only at the level of individuals, groups or organizations, but also the main parameters of the behavior of the national economic system as a whole. Ignoring the national characteristics of organizational behavior by a manager causes conflicts and makes it difficult to establish contacts and find profitable partners in the international business system. Conflicts that arise on this basis, as a rule, are acute and protracted due to the great emotional potential of people’s ethnic self-awareness and the possibility of rapid consolidation of all persons of a certain community along ethnic lines.
National culture has a significant influence on the behavior of people in an organization and generally positions this organization in the international environment.
The international context in business is implemented in various forms: working in an international team, managing a multicultural organization, communicating with people belonging to different ethnic groups and religions, etc.
With the beginning of the era of economic globalization in the 1970s. a new direction has emerged - cross-cultural (comparative) management, i.e. management at the intersection of cultures - national, business, corporate. The rapid development of the new direction began in the late 1980s - early 1990s. thanks to the research of G. Hofstede, F. Trompenaars, E. Hall and others. Cross-cultural management focuses on the study of behavioral characteristics inherent in various national business cultures, on the development of practical recommendations for improving the management efficiency of global organizations with a multinational field of activity.
The ability to identify cross-cultural management features is no less important at the micro level: on the scale of a separate organizational or corporate culture that has multinational characteristics.
This is especially true for Russia, where representatives of more than a hundred nations and nationalities live, actively interacting with each other in the organizational and inter-organizational space.
45. TYPES OF ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIOR MODELS
46. METHODS FOR MAKING GROUP DECISIONS
Leading Japanese companies have achieved a high level in using the positive factors of employee awareness and participation in decision making, in particular, by developing the “Quality Circles” system. The same organizational form works effectively in the direction of training employees, improving their skills, and development. Collective decision-making and putting forward new ideas require managers to have knowledge and ability to organize such events as “brainstorming”, “Delphi method”, “Gordon method”, expert surveys, modeling, conducting business games, considering business situations, etc. Labor intensity and high demands on the professionalism of the organizers of collective mental activity, as a rule, are justified by high economic and socio-psychological results, allowing the organization to remain competitive, developing, and the team to be highly productive, united, people - satisfied with their work and membership in the team and organization.
The concept of “dispute” is suitable for defining many situations of collective problem solving and collective activity. Let’s use the definition given in L. G. Pavlova’s book “Dispute, Discussion, Controversy”: a dispute is any clash of opinions, disagreement in points of view on any issue or subject, a struggle in which each side defends its rightness. Often the following words are perceived as synonyms for this word: discussion, dispute, polemic, debate, debate. But often in the scientific literature these concepts reflect separate types of disputes.
The decision-making process involves the use of various strategy options: reactive strategy, active strategy, integrated strategy.
A reactive strategy is associated with passively waiting for changes in the external and internal environment of the organization and responding to these changes as a fait accompli. Proponents of this strategy save costs, but suffer from “myopia” and passivity, which is fraught with significant losses in competition.
An active internal strategy involves active preparation for future events, proactive changes in the internal environment of the company (changes in priorities, redistribution of resources, structural reorganizations, etc.).
An active external strategy involves using a variety of opportunities to influence the organization’s external environment through advertising, contacts with the public, with authorities, with other companies, etc.
A strategy aimed at integrating internal and external processes implies the implementation of an active internal and external strategy based on the activities of strategic planning groups that analyze trends in changes in the external and internal environment of the organization, develop scenarios for possible developments and proposals for achieving the best results in a particular scenario .
At the first stage of the business game, its goal is formulated, the necessary initial information is given, teams are formed - small groups, and their activities are organized.
At the second stage, collective discussions of the problem are held in small groups, knowledge and experience are exchanged, group positions and points of view on solving the problem are developed.
At the third stage, an intergroup discussion is held, a discussion of the reports of each small group, and the development of a common decision.
The consideration of specific situations is organized in a similar way, i.e., decision-making using an analysis of the parameters of a specific situation taken from practice. If the situation is known, there are already precedents for the solution, the problem is solved in a standard way. If the situation is similar to those that previously occurred and were resolved, its resolution may be on the path of adaptation and optimization of decisions already made. If the situation is unknown, it is necessary to search for a new solution method, including using collective mental activity.
The Delphi method can be considered as a method of mathematical processing of expert opinions: each of them ranks ideas by importance, assigns each rank a certain number of points according to the adopted system, then the results are processed, and the idea with the most points is recognized as the most important.
W. Gordon's method is a method of synectics, i.e. combining heterogeneous things, so the participants are representatives of different fields of knowledge. Gordon's discussion framework is similar to brainstorming, but encourages word associations and a variety of comparisons that may seem inappropriate. For example, the properties of incompatible “objects” - a teapot and a cat - can be compared (by the way, as a result of the comparison, the idea was born to create a “meowing” teapot, i.e. a teapot with a whistle). The method of analogy is used when the participants in the discussion try to identify themselves with the subject of discussion. The method involves dividing the discussion participants into two groups: the first consists of idea generators - “seeders”. Sometimes they are not even given a clear goal - counting on the appearance of completely original proposals from related and sometimes distant fields of knowledge. The second group consists of experts who, after putting forward a mass of ideas by generators, comprehend and select ideas. Generators are usually the most active members of the group, possessing erudition and their own position. The organizers of the discussion must ensure an atmosphere of goodwill and cooperation. The process of finding a solution and finding it in such a group usually provides high job satisfaction and contributes to team unity and increased productivity.
Recognized methods for collaborative problem solving and active learning include business games and case studies.
Business games are a reproduction of the activities of business managers and management personnel, game modeling of management processes. Games can be divided into educational, industrial and research games, although other typologies exist. Organizing a business game requires serious preparation and sometimes the involvement of specialist consultants. The organization of the game involves consideration of the same stages as during the discussion. However, the preparation of a production business game aimed at developing a forecast for the development of an organization should include the collection and presentation to participants of analytical information relevant to the issue under consideration, and sometimes alternative calculations of the business plan. Information processing tools must be provided to the required extent and conditions must be created for work in groups and collaboration of all participants. Particularly difficult is the need to create an atmosphere of competition while maintaining goodwill and focus on the subject of discussion.
There are a number of other ways to organize joint mental activity, including the above-mentioned “brainstorming”, “Delphi method”, “Gordon method”, etc.
Brainstorming (brainstorming) must have a clear goal and include the following stages: silent generation of ideas, unordered listing of ideas, clarification of ideas, voting and ranking the importance of ideas to achieve the goal. Types of brainstorming: direct, reverse (starts with criticism of ideas), double (the number of participants exceeds the optimal number by two to three times with a corresponding increase in the duration of the event), conference of ideas (usually for 4-12 people for 2-3 days), individual brainstorming storm" (both a generator of ideas and a critic). As for the optimal number of participants in a brainstorming session, expert opinions differ: some prefer to focus on the “Miller number”, i.e. 5-9 people, while others expand the interval to 7-15 people. Stages of brainstorming:
1) dividing the group into “idea generators” and “in the process of criticizing the work, subgroups can change roles);
2) active activity of generators to put forward any proposals for solving the problem, forming an array of proposals;
3) active activity of critics in sorting proposals into successful, unsuccessful, controversial;
4) discussion of controversial proposals;
5) discussion of the accepted set of proposals, their elaboration, development of feasibility studies, ranking according to a set of significant advantages and disadvantages. Next - work in accordance with the target management scenario.
47. BEHAVIOR PATTERN BUILDING PROGRAM
The program includes 5 steps:
Stage 1: Determination of elements of behavior affecting the work of employees
Stage 2: Assess how often this behavior is leading
Stage 3: Identification of random elements of behavior
Stage 4a: Development of an impact strategy
Stage 4b: Application of the developed strategy
Stage 4c: Summarizing the dynamics of emerging necessary elements in behavior after exposure
Stage 4d: Maintaining the desired behavior
Stage 5: Assessing the improvement of the work performed
Stage 1 of the model is necessary because from the point of view of production, not all elements of behavior are valuable; first of all, it is necessary to highlight the elements of behavior that are critical for a given employee.
At stage 2, it is determined how often critical elements appear.
Stage 3 identifies those random actions that are not desired and determines the low level of performance.
After such a 4-step analysis, a strategy for influencing employees is developed and applied, which makes it possible to strengthen or consolidate the desired elements and stop the negative ones.
48. ORGANIZATIONAL STRUCTURE AS A FACTOR IN FORMING ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIOR
The behavior of an organization is largely determined by the configuration of the management system - the organizational structure, which reflects the composition and relationships between its units and levels of management. The effectiveness of the structure, to a greater extent than the formal distribution of functions between departments, depends on human behavior. Taking this into account, the organizational structure should be understood as an ordered set of steadily interconnected elements that ensure the functioning and development of the organization as a whole.
The behavior of an organization depends on the types of organizational structure, which are usually divided into the following types:
Bureaucratic (mechanistic) - include functional, linear, linear-functional and divisional (product, consumer, regional specialization structures);
Organic (adaptive) - include project, matrix, program-targeted and group (team) structures;
Innovative - include modular, integrated, conglomerate, atomistic, multidimensional, network, virtual and other structures.
Bureaucratic structures are based on the formalization of organizational behavior and limit the activities of personnel by regulating actions and work operations. Formalization of behavior makes it possible to reduce its variability and, ultimately, to manage and predict organizational behavior.
Organic structures are distinguished by a flexible structure, coordination of organizational behavior based on mutual agreement and cooperation. In organic structures there is no standardization of organizational behavior; they allow solving innovative problems.
The less predictable, more dynamic and more complex the environment, the more bureaucratic structures are replaced by organic ones or organic structures are partially incorporated into bureaucratic ones.
Innovative structures are characterized by high adaptability and openness, “intellectuality”, which determines the organization’s ability to self-learn, self-development and proactive self-government.
The structure of an organization directly affects the efficiency of its functioning, so it must be flexible and dynamic. In industrialized countries, corporate management structures change on average every three to five years, depending on the state of the organization.
The dynamics of organizational development require rational design of the organization in order to create an effective management mechanism. The formation of such a mechanism should be based not only on experience, analogies, familiar patterns and intuition, but also on scientific methods of organizational design. At the same time, it should be taken into account that the organizational structure is a behavioral system in which people and the groups they form constantly enter into various relationships to solve common problems.
The methodology for constructing an organization includes three stages:
Composition stage - the formation of a general structural diagram of the management apparatus (goals and problems of the organization, hierarchy and links, centralization and decentralization, forms of interaction with the external environment);
Stage of structuring - determining the composition of the main units and connections between them (division of labor and specialization, departmentalization and cooperation, coordination, distribution of powers and responsibilities);
The regulation stage is the development of regulatory characteristics of the management apparatus and procedures for management activities (establishment of job responsibilities, composition of departments, development of service regulations and procedures for performing work, determining the labor intensity of work).
The design of an organization involves a combination of scientific approaches with export analytical work and the study of advanced domestic and foreign experience. The criterion for the effectiveness of organizational design is the complete and sustainable achievement by the organization of its goals.
The dynamism of the external and internal environment of the organization determines the growing importance of situational organizational design, which determines the choice of organizational structure by changing various factors (strategy and tactics of the organization, technology, personnel, challenges of competitors, market requirements, etc.).
1. SUBJECT AND METHODS OF RESEARCH OF ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIOR
EP research allows us to determine ways to increase the efficiency of a person’s work activity. OP is a scientific discipline in which the results of new research and conceptual developments are constantly added to the main body of knowledge. OP is an applied science, thanks to which the experience of successful and unsuccessful companies is disseminated in other organizations.
The science of OP allows managers to analyze the behavior of an individual in an organization, promotes understanding of the problems of interpersonal relationships in the interaction of two individuals (colleagues or boss and subordinate), when considering the dynamics of relationships within small groups (both formal and informal), between groups when considering intra-organizational relationships – when the organization is viewed and managed as a complete system (for example, strategic alliances and joint ventures).
Objectives of the academic discipline: a systematic description of people’s behavior in various situations that arise in the organization; explanation of the reasons for the actions of individuals in certain conditions; predicting employee behavior in the future. The ultimate goal of studying OP is to master the skills of managing people’s behavior in the work process and improve them.
OP is not only a theoretical discipline, but also a comprehensive applied science about psychological, socio-psychological, social and organizational-economic aspects and factors that influence and largely determine the behavior and interaction of organizational subjects - people, groups, the team as a whole with each other. friend and with the external environment.
OP research methods:
Surveys (interviews, questionnaires, testing);
Collection of fixed information (study of documents, etc.);
Observations and experiments;
A method of structured observation (for example, when observing the organizational environment, the following elements are highlighted: premises, furnishings and equipment, design, lighting and color, appearance of members of the organization).
The research is based on laboratory and natural experiments.
2. INFLUENCE OF PERSONALITY ON OP
OP is based on a number of basic ideas about the nature of humans and organizations.
Basic concepts that characterize any individual.
Individual characteristics. Each person is unique, and the concept of his individual characteristics has strict scientific evidence (differences in DNA parameters, fingerprints, etc.). The presence of individual characteristics suggests that the most effective motivation of employees is the manager’s specific approach to each of them. The concept of the uniqueness of each person is usually called the law of individual characteristics.
Perception. The attitude of a person to objective reality depends on his individual perception, which is a unique way for each person, formed on the basis of accumulated experience, of seeing, systematizing and interpreting things and events.
Managers should analyze the characteristics of employees’ perceptions, take into account the degree of their emotionality and find an individual approach to each employee.
Personal integrity. Companies have to deal with a holistic personality, and not with its individual qualities - qualifications, ability to analyze, etc. A person’s personal life cannot be completely separated from the labor process; moral conditions are inseparable from physical ones.
The implementation of the EP assumes that the organization’s administration needs not just qualified employees, but developed individuals. Managers must take into account the impact of work on the whole person.
Motivation of behavior. Normal human behavior is formed under the influence of certain factors that may be associated with the needs of the individual and (or) the consequences of his actions. Managers have the opportunity to use two main ways to motivate employees: 1) demonstrating that certain actions will increase the degree of satisfaction of the subordinate's needs; 2) the threat of a decrease in the level of satisfaction of needs in cases where an individual carries out actions that are incorrect, from a management point of view.
Personal value. Every employee of the organization would like to be treated with care and respect by management.
3. NATURE OF ORGANIZATIONS
The foundation of the organizational concept is formed by three main “stones”: organizations are social systems (1), which are formed on the basis of common interests (2), and relations between management and employees are based on certain ethical principles (3).
1. Social systems. Organizations are social systems whose activities are regulated both by the laws of society and by psychological laws. Social roles and status are the same attribute of the human personality as psychological needs. People's behavior is shaped by their individual desires, as well as by the groups of which they are members. In fact, there are two social systems in an organization: formal (official) and informal.
The social system assumes that the organization's environment is subject to dynamic changes, all its elements are interdependent and each of them is influenced by any other element.
2. Community of interests. Each organization has certain social goals and is formed and functions on the basis of a certain community of interests of its members. In its absence, there is also no common base on which something valuable for society is created. The community of interests determines the organization’s ultimate task, which can only be solved by the combined efforts of employees and employers.
3. Ethical principles. In order to attract and retain valuable employees (whose demand is constantly increasing), organizations strive to comply with ethical principles in the course of their activities. More and more firms are recognizing this need and are developing various programs to help ensure high moral standards for both managers and employees. Managers recognize that since OP always affects people, ethical philosophy inevitably forms the basis of every action they take.
The ethics of the organization’s goals and actions is the main prerequisite for the emergence of the system triple reward that is, achieving the goals of individuals, organizations and society. Collaboration and teamwork contribute to increased job satisfaction by providing individuals with opportunities for learning and personal growth and a sense of making a valuable contribution to shared goals. In turn, the efficiency of the organization as a whole increases: product quality improves, service improves, and costs are reduced.
4. MAIN OP APPROACHES
The main theoretical approaches on which OP is based are orientation to human resources, situation, results and a systems approach.
Human resource oriented the approach involves analyzing the personal growth and development of individuals, their achievement of ever higher levels of competence, creative activity and performance. It is assumed that the task of management is to provide opportunities for improving the skills of employees, increasing their sense of responsibility, and creating an atmosphere conducive to increasing their contribution to achieving the goals of the organization. Thus, developing the abilities of employees and providing them with opportunities for self-realization directly lead to an increase in their productivity and degree of job satisfaction.
Situational approach to OP - achieving effectiveness in various situations - involves the use of specific patterns of behavior.
A thorough analysis of the situation that has arisen allows us to identify its significant factors and determine the most effective OP methods in the given circumstances. The advantage of the situational approach: it encourages an analysis of the conditions prevailing in the organization, the conclusions of which become the basis for decisions made. This concept encourages management to abandon assumptions about the possibility of universal employee behavior. Using a situational approach implies addressing an expanded range of scientific disciplines, being systematic and research-oriented.
The dominant goal for many is to perform their function, i.e. the basis of organizational behavior is results orientation. Productivity in its simplest terms is the ratio of what is output to what is put in (usually according to some predetermined standard).
Systematic approach of the organization assumes that it is considered as a complex of interacting elements. An event that seems to affect one employee or department may have an important impact on other subsystems or the organization as a whole. Consequently, when making decisions, managers are required to evaluate their long-term consequences for other elements of the organization, subsystems and the system as a whole.
The systems approach assumes that managers have a holistic view of the subject of management. Holistic OP interprets the relationship between “individuals and organizations” at the level of the individual as a whole, the group as a whole, the organization as a whole and the social system as a whole.
5. OP SYSTEM
Achieving the goals set for the organization involves the creation and implementation of an EP management system. Such systems exist in every organization, but in different forms. Systems that are consciously created and regularly monitored and improved are considered the most effective.
Main task OP systems – identification of the most important human and organizational factors influencing the organization’s achievement of its goals, and the creation of conditions for their effective management.
Foundation The organization's OP systems form the basic beliefs and intentions of the individuals who join forces to create it (for example, the owners of the company), as well as the managers who currently manage its activities.
Philosophy(theoretical model) OP of an organization's management includes a set of assumptions and beliefs of its leaders and managers regarding the real state of affairs of the company, the tasks of its production activities and a possible ideal system. Based on factual and value premises. Factual background- a descriptive view of existence, based on research from behavioral sciences, on our personal experience (essential points of the validity of which we are confident). Value prerequisites– the desirability of certain goals and activities. Value prerequisites are variable beliefs, which means they are entirely under our control: we can choose them, change them, abandon them. Many organizations are looking for opportunities to identify and establish their own values.
The OP system also includes visions, missions and goals. IN And denition is an idea of the possible (and desirable) future of the organization and its members.
The organization should also formulate mission, determining the directions of its activities, market segments and niches that it seeks to occupy, and the types of customers with whom it wants to maintain stable relationships. A mission statement includes a short list of an organization's competitive advantages or strengths. Unlike in And Today, the mission statement is more descriptive and focused on the near future. Further specification of the organization's objectives involves setting its goals based on the stated mission.
Goals- these are specific indicators that the organization strives for in a certain period of time (for example, within a year, in the next five years). Goal setting is a complex process, and the goals of senior management must be linked to the goals of employees. Therefore, the creation of an effective social system requires a real integration of individual, group and organizational goals.
6. PRINCIPLES OF BUILDING AN EP SYSTEM
1. The principle of optimality of the ratio of intra- and infrafunctions of the OP: determines the proportions between the functions aimed at organizing the OP system (intrafunctions) and the OP functions (infrafunctions), i.e., the focus of the system on the task or people.
2. Principle of potential imitations: the temporary departure of individual employees should not interrupt the process of carrying out any management functions. To do this, each employee of the system must be able to imitate the functions of a superior, subordinate employee and one or two employees of his level.
3. Economy principle: the most efficient and economical organization of the OP system, reducing the share of costs for the management system in the total costs per unit of output, increasing production efficiency.
4. Progressive principle: compliance of the EP system with advanced foreign and domestic analogues.
5. Perspective principle: When forming an EP system, the development prospects of the organization should be taken into account.
6. The principle of complexity: When forming a system, it is necessary to take into account all factors affecting the organization’s management system.
7. Principle of efficiency: timely decision-making to analyze and improve the EP system, preventing or actively eliminating deviations.
8. The principle of simplicity: the simpler the system, the better it works. Of course, this prevents simplification of the system to the detriment of production.
9. Hierarchy principle: in any vertical sections of the OP system, hierarchical interaction between management links must be ensured.
10. Principle of autonomy: in any horizontal and vertical sections of the system, rational autonomy of structural units or individual managers must be ensured.
11. The principle of consistency.
12. Principle of sustainability: To ensure the sustainable functioning of the EP system, it is necessary to provide special “local regulators”, which, if they deviate from the given goal of the organization, put one or another employee or department at a disadvantage and encourage them to regulate the system.
13. Systematic principle.
14. The principle of transparency.
15. Comfort principle: the system should provide maximum convenience for the creative processes of human justification, development, adoption and implementation of decisions.
7. BEHAVIOR AS A CATEGORY
Behavior is a set of actions performed over a relatively long period under constant or changing conditions. Behavior covers all actions entirely and allows them to be given a moral assessment, regardless of such local indicators as intentions, motives, etc., i.e. behavior provides more grounds for the moral assessment of a person than an act, motive, means, goal, since behavior – this is a system, this is a relatively stable phenomenon.
Regulators of behavior of individuals and groups are legal norms and decrees of the state (political regulators), production and administrative regulations, organizational charters and instructions (organizational regulators), customs, traditions, public opinion (public regulators), morality (system of moral norms).
Organizational behavior regulate macroeconomic, political, scientific and technical components (objective in relation to the organization), as well as the situation on the market in which the organization operates, the features of its current state, development prospects, its culture (traditions, customs, leadership style, relationships vertical and horizontal, etc.) and the potential of its leadership (the result and experience of previous activities, manifestation of the level of competence and morality).
In organizations that understand the value of a person, the regulation of his behavior is carried out on the basis of stimulating directions that correspond to the motives of the employee’s behavior and the underlying needs, interests, and value orientations, which allows for adequate external influence, i.e. stimulation.
Personality as an element of the system, “organization” should be considered as an independent system with its own internal structure.
Group can be considered as an independent system, the elements of which are subjects of professional activity. The nature of the connections between them determines the internal structure of the group and the degree of unfreedom of the individual.
Each individual, voluntarily joining a group engaged in professional activities, agrees to certain restrictions. In turn, the group guarantees a certain status to the person.
Social behavior can be understood as a process of purposeful activity in accordance with significant interests and needs of a person.
A type of social behavior is work activity and work behavior.
Labor activity- this is a strictly fixed in time and space expedient series of operations and functions performed by people united in an organization.
8. SCHOOL OF SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT (1885–1920)
The school of scientific management is most closely associated with the names of F. W. Taylor, F. Gilbreth and G. Gantt.
The first major step towards considering management as a science was made F. Taylor(1856–1915), who led the scientific management movement. Taylor's teaching is based on a mechanistic understanding of man, his place in the organization and the essence of his activities. He was interested in the effectiveness of not an individual person, but an organization, which marked the beginning of the development of the school of scientific management.
F. Taylor's main merit is the development of a number of methods for the scientific organization of labor, based on the study of worker movements using timing, standardization of techniques and tools.
Scientific management is closely related to the work F. Gilbreth, who conducted research in the field of labor movements, improved timing techniques, and developed scientific principles for organizing the workplace.
Scientific management did not neglect human factor. The merit of this school was the systematic use of incentives in order to create employee interest in increasing labor productivity and increasing production volume. Representatives of this movement recognized the importance of selecting people who must be physically and intellectually suitable for the work they perform, and also emphasized the great importance of training. It was F. Taylor who introduced into practice scientific approaches to the selection, placement and stimulation of workers.
The concept of scientific management was a major turning point, thanks to which management became widely recognized as an independent field of scientific research. For the first time, practical managers and scientists saw that the methods and approaches used in science and technology could be effectively used to achieve the goals of the organization.
9. SCHOOL OF ADMINISTRATIVE (1920–1950)
With the emergence of the administrative school, attention began to be paid to improving the management of the organization as a whole.
The founders of the administrative school (better known as classical school of management), in particular A. Fayol (1841–1925), had experience working as senior managers in big business. Subject A. Fayol's scientific research focused on management issues at the level of senior administration.
A. Fayol determined that any business organization is characterized by the presence of certain types of activities, or main functions, which are still used in the management of an organization: planning, organization, selection and placement of personnel, leadership (motivation) and control.
Purpose administrative school was the creation of universal principles of management, which affected two main aspects: the development of a rational management system for the organization and the construction of the structure of the organization and employee management.
A. Fayol developed the following 14 principles of management, which he followed in practice and on which, in his conviction, the success of management depended: 1) division of labor (increases qualifications and level of work performance); 2) power (the right to give commands and be responsible for results); 3) discipline; 4) unity of command (orders from only one manager and accountability to only one manager); 5) unity of leadership; 6) subordination of individual interests to common interests; 7) staff remuneration (payment should reflect the state of the organization and encourage workers to work with full dedication); 8) centralization (the level of centralization and decentralization should depend on the situation and be chosen in such a way as to give the best results); 9) chains of interaction (clear construction of chains of commands from management to subordinates); 10) order (everyone should know their place in the organization); 11) equality (workers should be treated fairly and kindly); 12) staff stability; 13) initiative (managers should encourage subordinates to come up with ideas); 14) corporate spirit (a spirit of unity and joint action should be created, a team form of work should be developed).
Prominent representatives of the administrative school were also M. Bloomfield(the concept of “personnel management”, or workforce management (1917)) and M. Weber, who proposed the concept of “rational bureaucracy” (1921), characterized ideal types of domination and put forward the position that bureaucracy - an order established by rules - is the most effective form of human organization.
In the concept of organization put forward by M. Weber, personality as such was absent. Procedures and rules determined all major activities, employee careers, specific decisions and management activities.
Having perfectly studied the technical side of the production process, the administrative school has largely exhausted its capabilities.
10. SCHOOL OF HUMAN RELATIONS (1930–1950)
The founder of the school of human relations is considered to be a professor at the Harvard Business School E. Mayo(1880–1949). He discovered that a group of workers was social system, which has its own control systems, and by influencing such a system in a certain way, labor results can be improved.
As a result of the research, it turned out that the human aspect has a greater impact on labor productivity than changes in technical and physical conditions. This study showed the importance of behavioral factors.
As a result, the human relations school became a counterweight to the entire scientific movement, since its emphasis shifted to people rather than to the concern for production, as in the scientific management school. The idea was that simply paying attention to people has a very large impact on productivity, that is, it was about increasing the effectiveness of the organization by increasing the efficiency of its human resources.
The shift of the center of gravity in management to the individual gave rise to the development of various behaviorist theories of management.
Behaviorism(from English behavior– behavior; behaviorism can be translated as behavioral psychology) is one of the trends in American psychology that arose at the beginning of the 20th century. Its founder is considered J. Watson(1878–1958), who argued that the subject of psychology, unlike other theories, is behavior, not consciousness or thinking.
A person’s personality from the point of view of behaviorism is a set of behavioral reactions inherent in a given person, i.e. skills, socially regulated instincts, socialized emotions plus the ability to be plastic in order to form new skills, as well as the ability to retain and retain skills. Thus, personality is an organized and relatively stable skill system. Skills form the basis for relatively stable behavior and adaptation to life situations. Changing the situation leads to the formation of new skills. By changing incentives and reinforcements, you can program a person to the desired behavior.
Besides D. Rotter And A. Maslow Among other representatives of the school of human relations, we can note the famous management theorist M. P. Follett(1868–1933), who analyzed leadership styles and developed leadership theory. She was the first to define management as “providing work with the help of others.” Her interpretation of management as “the art of obtaining results through the actions of others” emphasized flexibility and harmony in the relationship between managers and workers.
11. D. ROTTER’S THEORY OF SOCIAL LEARNING
In the 70s XX century behaviorism presented its concepts in a new light - in the theory of social learning. According to social learning theory D. Rotter Each person has a certain set of actions, behavioral reactions formed throughout life - behavioral potential.
Behavioral potential, according to D. Rotter, includes five main blocks of behavioral reactions, "technique of existence":
1) behavioral reactions aimed at achieving success and results serve as the basis for social recognition;
2) behavioral reactions of adaptation, adaptation - this is a technique for coordinating with the requirements of other people, social norms, etc.;
3) defensive behavioral reactions - used in situations whose requirements exceed a person’s capabilities at the moment (these are reactions such as denial, suppression of desires, devaluation, shading, etc.);
4) avoidance technique – behavioral reactions aimed at “getting out of the field of tension”, leaving, escaping, resting, etc.;
5) aggressive behavioral reactions - this can be real physical aggression, and symbolic forms of aggression: irony, criticism of another, ridicule, intrigue, etc.
12. THEORY OF NEEDS A. MASLOW
Development of the school of human relations in the 40-60s. XX century contributed to the development by behavioral scientists of several theories of motivation. One of them is hierarchical A. Maslow's theory of needs(1908–1970) – “pyramid of needs”.
According to this theory, a person has a complex structure the following hierarchical needs, in accordance with which management should take place:
1) physiological– lower needs – food, water, air, shelter and other needs that a person must satisfy in order to survive. People who work mainly due to the need to satisfy these needs have little interest in the content of the work, concentrating their attention on pay, working conditions, convenience of the workplace, etc. To manage such people, it is necessary that a minimum salary ensure their survival and working conditions did not burden their existence too much;
2) security of your existence– the desire and desire of people to be in a stable and safe state that protects them from fear, disease and other suffering. They evaluate their work primarily from the point of view of ensuring their stable existence in the future (job security, pensions, medical care). To manage this kind of people, it is necessary to create a clear and reliable system of social insurance, apply simple and fair rules for regulating their activities, pay above the subsistence level for work, and not involve them in making risky decisions and carrying out actions related to risk and change;
3) social(belonging to a team, communication, attention to oneself, caring for others, etc.). In relation to such employees, management should take the form of a friendly partnership; conditions should be created for them that facilitate communication at work;
4) need for recognition and respect. This group of needs reflects people's desire to be competent, strong, capable, self-confident, and to experience recognition and respect from others. When managing these people, it is necessary to use various forms of expressing recognition of their merits;
5) self-expression, self-realization, full use of your capabilities. This is the highest group of human needs, which, to a much greater extent than the needs of other groups, are individual in nature. They realize a person’s desire for creativity in the broad sense of the word. When managing such people, it is necessary to give them original tasks, provide greater freedom in choosing means of solving problems, and involve them in work that requires ingenuity and creativity.
13. PERSONALITY STRUCTURE
A person’s individuality is determined by his life experience, refracted through personality traits and manifested through his attitude to surrounding phenomena and the uniqueness of his internal mental functions.
Personality– a systemic quality acquired by an individual in specific activities and communication, characterizing him in terms of involvement in social relations.
A person is not born an individual, but becomes one as he actively enters into the life of society and masters the accumulated social experience. The formation of personality occurs throughout a person’s entire life. The formation of personality in a team occurs both through involuntary imitation of generally accepted group norms and through conscious assimilation of the requirements of the team.
Each individual is a bearer of what is common, which is characteristic of the whole society, and at the same time special, typical of a certain group. But personality has individual characteristics that are determined by hereditary characteristics, natural inclinations, etc.
Conventionally, we can talk about the internal, socio-psychological structure of the personality and its external structure as belonging to social groups.
Internal personality structure includes a number of substructures:
a) the psychological environment that has developed in the consciousness of the individual: a system of needs, interests, claims, value orientations, ideals, beliefs, worldview;
b) mental properties: character, intellect, emotions, will, thinking, memory, imagination, etc.
c) psychological properties, possibilities of realization (abilities) of the individual: experience, skills, abilities;
d) physiological, hereditary qualities: temperament, etc.
External social structure of personality characterized by belonging to various social groups. Such groups can be, for example, socio-demographic (men and women, young and older workers, family and non-family), professional and qualification (belonging to different professions, differences in qualifications, job status, etc.), etc.
People can also belong to other groups that differ in their psychology of behavior - party, national, territorial, religious, various formal and informal associations.
A manager who takes into account the personal qualities of a subordinate can find an individual approach to each employee, and therefore activate internal reserves to enhance his activities.
14. NEEDS AND MOTIVES OF THE PERSONALITY
Need can be defined as a person’s need for something, prompting him to take action to realize this need. The need is always associated with activity and determines the activity of the individual.
From the objective side
a) a specific item of need (need);
b) objective environment - a situation of need satisfaction that is conducive to need satisfaction;
c) objective means of satisfying needs;
d) the objective value of satisfying a need and the effort required to satisfy it.
From the subjective side The need is characterized by the following factors:
a) the image of the object of need (need) in the consciousness of the individual;
b) subjective environment: the internal system of human needs, the level of its development and state at the moment;
c) subjective means: the individual’s capabilities (abilities) to satisfy the need;
d) the subjective value of need satisfaction.
The needs determined by production, in turn, actively influence its development.
People's needs are realized through their abilities. To satisfy some need, you need to apply your abilities to create material and spiritual values. Needs develop along with the development of society, never reaching a limit.
It is the constant reproduction of such unsatisfied needs, due to the constant increase in needs, that serves as an important incentive for human activity and the development of production.
In the psychological mechanism of personality behavior, an important role is played by value orientations, that is, relatively stable, socially conditioned relationships of the individual to material and spiritual goods, which are for him the goal or means of satisfying his needs.
Closely related to value orientations social attitudes people – their attitude to certain phenomena. Social attitudes influence the emotional reaction and people’s attitude, for example, to various changes in work, and require psychological preparation for innovation.
Knowing the expectations of the individual, the manager can find the most acceptable forms of regulating his behavior.
15. MENTAL PROPERTIES OF PERSONALITY
Mental properties of personality– character, intelligence, emotions, thinking, memory, imagination, etc.
Character- the individual personality of a person, manifested in the characteristics of his behavior and attitude towards people and surrounding activities, in particular towards work, his responsibilities and duty.
Character is not given to a person from birth, but is formed in the process of active socially useful activity.
The ability to objectively evaluate oneself helps to develop character traits such as modesty and integrity. Increased self-esteem and arrogance are negative character traits that cause conflict situations.
The attitude towards people is characterized by such positive character traits as politeness, sociability, goodwill, or, conversely, negative ones - isolation, rudeness, tactlessness, etc.
A person’s diligence, conscientiousness, accuracy, and diligence characterize a person’s attitude to public duty and work; they are opposed by passivity, laziness, negligence, etc.
Among the many qualities of a person that make up her individuality, the qualities of intelligence: curiosity, depth of mind, flexibility and agility of mind, logic, etc.
Will represents the regulating side of consciousness, expressed in a person’s ability to perform purposeful actions and deeds that require overcoming difficulties. The level of development of the will is manifested in the following basic volitional properties of the individual: purposefulness, determination, perseverance, endurance, independence.
In psychology, a distinction is made between moral, intellectual and aesthetic feelings of an individual.
Moral sense called the emotional attitude of a person to the behavior of people and his own; intellectual feelings– these are experiences that arise in the process of mental activity; aesthetic feelings arise and develop when man perceives and creates beauty.
The conditions for carrying out a particular type of activity are human abilities, determined by natural data, as well as experience, skills, and abilities. Abilities can be developed in the process of training and education, active social activities.
The skillful use of human abilities largely depends on the leader.
16. PHYSIOLOGICAL PROPERTIES OF PERSONALITY
Human behavior depends not only on social conditions, but also on his natural features.
Such features are determined by temperament, which determines the nature of the flow of emotions and thinking, and the volitional action of the individual.
Depending on the temperament, which is given to man by nature, they distinguish between choleric, sanguine, phlegmatic and melancholic.
Cholerics They are highly efficient, energetic and active. They can work uphill and can overcome difficulties. But a wave of recovery can quickly give way to a period of decline in mood. Choleric is easily excited, has a quick temper, speaks quickly, and fluctuates intonation. A choleric person enthusiastically devotes himself to his favorite work, charges other people with his energy, but his work is characterized by cyclical nature. It is difficult for him to restrain the manifestation of his emotions; he is often too straightforward and harsh.
Sanguine cheerful, easily gets along with people, quickly switches from one type of work to another, does not like monotonous work. Emotions are subject to him, he has good self-control, quickly adapts to a new environment, and is optimistic. Speaks loudly, clearly, with expressive gestures. A sanguine person easily grasps new things and is flexible in communicating with people around him.
Phlegmatic person characterized by a slow reaction: slowly switches from one job to another, is inactive, takes a long time to adapt to a new environment. To motivate him to action, he needs a certain impulse, a push. He is reserved, reasonable, slow and stress-resistant. But he does not adapt well to the changed environment, he is characterized by poverty of emotions, so he has difficulty getting along with people.
Melancholic impressionable, easily vulnerable, emotional, he often experiences panic, despondency, melancholy, painfully endures failures, indecisive, cautious. This is usually a shy person who has difficulty finding contact with other people. To get a melancholic person to work effectively, you need constant energetic pressure and control from the manager.
People with a clearly defined type of temperament are rare, however, every person gravitates towards one or another type of temperament.
17. BASICS OF PERSONAL BEHAVIOR. PERCEPTION
The three fundamental personal principles of human behavior are perception, criterial basis and motivation.
Perception, that is, the process of obtaining information from the environment and processing it is an important source of explanation of behavior. By changing the perception of the life situation in which a person finds himself, one can change his behavior.
In itself, this process of obtaining information is the same for everyone: the input is receiving information from the external environment, processing it and putting it in a certain order, and the output is systematized information, which contains a person’s idea of the environment and forms the basis of his actions, that is, information that is the source material for human behavior.
However, people in the same situation may each perceive it differently. Moreover, the perception may be distorted. Factors influencing perception include an object And subject of observation in the context of the situation in which perception occurs.
An individual's (subject's) attempt to interpret what he sees is greatly influenced by personal perception.
To the most common personal characteristics(the so-called criterion basis) affecting perception include:
location. This is a different interpretation of the same situation - mainly due to different locations relative to any objects, phenomena, etc.;
motives. Unsatisfied needs or motives stimulate individuals and can have a strong influence on their perceptions;
interests. Since people's personal interests differ to a large extent, their perceptions of the same situations differ;
experience, like personal interests, it narrows the focus of perception. People perceive those things with which they are connected. However, in many cases, experience can cancel interest in the object;
expectations can distort a person’s perception, since he often sees what he expects to see.
Perception is also influenced by a person’s personal characteristics.
Movement, sounds, object size, and other attributes also influence perception.
18. FEATURES OF HUMAN PERCEPTION
Our perception of people differs from our perception of inanimate objects: observing people, we try to explain why they behave the way they do and not otherwise, that is, to assess their internal state.
Explaining the characteristics of people's behavior depending on their addiction from their characteristics- the essence of the theory of the same name. According to this theory, when observing an individual's behavior, we try to determine whether it is caused by internal or external causes. This, in turn, largely depends on certain factors - specificity, consistency, consistency.
Internal regulators of behavior are under the personal control of the individual. External regulators of behavior are carried out under the influence of external reasons, in connection with a certain situation. So, if one of the employees was late for work, then the reason for this lateness can be regarded as internal (overslept) and external (got caught in a traffic jam).
Characteristic determines to what extent a particular behavior of an individual is characteristic in various situations, and how unusual this behavior is. If this is an isolated case, then most likely this behavior is due to external reasons; if this behavior is repeated, then it can be assessed as an internal manifestation.
If everyone in a similar situation behaves in a similar way, we can talk about consistency behavior.
Finally, we evaluate consistency human actions. How will the person behave next?
A person perceives information selectively, that is, it passes through a kind of psychological filter. Any characteristic that makes a person, object, or event stand out increases the likelihood that it will be perceived.
Projection. This is the tendency of a person to attribute his own feelings, moods, experiences, fears and motives of activity to other people.
Stereotypes. These are stable forms of existence, closed from the influence of new experience. In the structure of a stereotype, the main role is played by its emotional charge, which clearly indicates what is accepted and what is unacceptable, what is “good” or “bad” in relation to any object.
Gallo effect. It occurs when an impression of an individual is formed on the basis of single characteristics - intelligence, sociability or appearance.
Opinions of others can form an attitude towards the partner, which will not allow one to critically evaluate the partner’s behavior.
Simplification close to the gallo effect, but somewhat different from it. The essence of simplification is the formation of a fairly “complete” idea of a partner based on very fragmentary information obtained on the basis of a first impression, to which some people attach too much importance.
Communication incompetence: low level of culture, inability to listen and adequately understand your partner, inability to competently and, no less important, clearly express your thoughts.
19. PERSONALITY SETTINGS
Settings- these are sensations, feelings and beliefs that largely determine employees’ perception of the external environment, prompting them to plan certain actions and behaviors.
Employee attitudes are of great importance to the organization. Negative attitudes are a symptom of problems that have arisen and at the same time the cause of future difficulties. The consequences of such attitudes are sudden strikes, decreased work intensity, absenteeism and high staff turnover, etc. Favorable attitudes of employees, on the contrary, have a positive impact on the results of the organization.
Concept "social attitude" used to denote a one-way psychological connection between a person - with people, any animate and inanimate objects and phenomena. In social psychology, the definition given by G. Allport is more often used: "social attitude“is a state of psychological readiness of an individual to behave in a certain way in relation to an object, determined by its past experience.”
An attitude as a holistic phenomenon is formed on the basis of not only the individual’s own experience, but also the experience received from other people, therefore the main form of transmission of attitudes is verbal(verbal).
Installations of this type, when in his personal experience a person deals with a separate, single object, are called private(partial). Generalized settings that is, attitudes towards a set of homogeneous objects owe their origin to interpersonal and mass communication. They serve as a factor in strengthening the individual’s attitudes, since listening to opinions that are consistent with the views of the individual himself strengthens him in the correctness of his own attitudes and encourages him to turn to the same source for information.
Basic settings properties– stability or variability. If an individual in all situations implements a way of behavior in relation to an object that has become habitual and natural for him, then this indicates the stability of his attitude. One of the factors in changing attitudes is the impact of mass communication. An attitude manifests its influence on behavior and activity as a practical determinant of things and phenomena towards which a person’s vital interests are directed and which are undesirable and unpleasant for him. Distinguish types of installations according to their modality: 1) positive (“for” the object); 2) negative (“against” the object); 3) neutral.
Main installation function– regulation of an individual’s social behavior. The system of individual attitudes provides the possibility of his orientation in social reality.
"The La Pierre Paradox": systematic discrepancy between stated attitudes towards an object and behavior dictated by the situation.
Protective function of social attitude is achieved through the desire for uniformity of attitudes among the immediate social environment, for example, between members of the same family or work team. Antisocial the attitude protects the self-esteem of the subject in the group if he acts in a certain way and refrains from other, unauthorized behavior.
20. ROLE BEHAVIOR IN THE ORGANIZATION
Each employee performs a certain role, and how successfully he performs it and how satisfied he is with the nature, content and results of his activities in the organization and his interaction with the organizational environment will depend on the degree of likelihood of conflicts arising that disrupt the interaction between a person and the organization.
Necessary conditions successful role behavior are clarity and acceptability of the role.
Under certain circumstances, the fulfillment of a particular role may be difficult due to the contradictions generated by the role itself.
At the same time, in some situations, role uncertainty can be considered as a positive characteristic of relations in an organization, since it contributes to the development of independence, training of employees, expands the scope of decision-making and develops among members of the organization a sense of responsibility and commitment towards the organization.
The main reasons leading to conflicts:
An employee performs several roles that are mutually exclusive at certain moments;
The presence of a conflicting order or a conflicting task;
Contradictions between the values of the individual and the nature of the role he performs;
Changes in the content of the role, accompanied by inconsistency in remuneration;
Role overload when an employee's tasks exceed the scope of the role.
Contradictions and conflicts that arise during the performance of roles can be eliminated by:
1) changes in work (content and method of implementation of the role);
2) human development (advanced training, etc.);
3) role reshuffles of employees.
There are formal and informal role statuses.
Formal status reflects the location of the role in the hierarchical structure of the organization, shows what power rights its performer has, what is his position in the formal hierarchy of distribution, influence on the activities of the organization.
Informal The status of a role is determined by the people around it and is set either by the personal characteristics of its performer, or by the informally defined meanings and influence of the role in the organization.
When studying role behavior, when building interaction between a person and an organization, it is possible to determine the entire set of actions that are carried out by the organization in the process of its functioning.
21. METHODS FOR STUDYING THE PERSONALITY OF AN EMPLOYEE
To successfully cooperate with an employee in achieving common goals, the manager must know:
1) vocational training the employee, his ability to perform a certain type of work, the “power” of incentives for this particular activity;
2) socio-psychological qualities, in particular, a person’s ability to interact with other people in the process of teamwork;
3) business qualities, that is, the ability to achieve certain practical results in a short time without fuss and extra effort;
4) intellectual and psychological capabilities: flexibility of intellect and willpower, creativity and ability to take risks, initiative and sober calculation;
5) the conditions under which personality traits manifest themselves, and the limits beyond which they begin to fail. You need to be able to operate with this knowledge in order to obtain a reliable forecast of an employee’s business (and sometimes everyday) behavior.
Observation method. The object of observation and the purposes for which it is carried out must be determined, and the mode (order, algorithm) of observation must be chosen.
Observation is effective from the moment when the signs of a person’s work performance and signs of the peculiarities of the process of his activity are clearly defined, presented in the form of a unified system and can be recorded in a standard way.
Business games method. These games actually show all the main points of management activities, which is why many of them can be used as a means of testing management abilities.
Test movement method: a person is tested in natural or specially organized conditions by appointing him to a position that he has not previously occupied. A classic example is the replacement of the first manager during vacation by one of his deputies. The relocation method will be effective if the time to fill the position is long enough for the person being tested to make independent decisions.
Method for solving educational management problems. Instead of real problems, you can offer a system of training tasks that are adequate or similar to real ones in terms of solution structures and level of complexity. This method allows, by varying the content of tasks, to determine more accurately than other methods whether a person has the ability to solve not only today’s real problems, but also the problems of the future.
22. CONCEPT OF GROUP
In the system of various scientific disciplines, the concept "group" is interpreted differently. Thus, G. M. Andreeva gives the definition conditional groups: these are associations of people according to some common characteristic necessary in a given system of analysis for the purposes of statistical accounting and scientific research.
Real groups are associations of people in which there is a unity of activity, conditions, circumstances, characteristics. Groups can be large or small (contact), in which there is the possibility of direct contact between everyone.
Small groups- these are two or more persons interacting with each other in such a way that each person influences the others and is at the same time influenced by other persons.
Groups are divided into formal and informal.
Formal groups have legal status and are created by management to consolidate the division of labor and improve its organization; the role and place of these groups in the general labor process are defined in the regulatory document “Regulations on the division”. Among the formal groups there are teams– subordinate groups of the manager and his employees, workers(target) groups created for the purpose and duration of a specific task, committees– special and permanent groups to which certain powers are delegated for management, coordination of activities, etc. (bank board, board of directors).
Based on the performance of socially significant work by a formal group, the concept is distinguished "labor collective"- a working group that has reached a high level of cohesion, acting as a new system, a single community that combines the advantages of formal and informal groups.
Informal groups are formed spontaneously to satisfy the individual needs of workers, which for one reason or another (incompetent management, authoritarian management methods, etc.) are not satisfied within the formal group. The behavior of members of informal groups led by an informal leader can both contribute to and hinder the achievement of organizational goals.
23. MAIN CHARACTERISTICS OF THE GROUP
The main characteristics of the group include:
Group members– depends on its type and can be designated by a set of certain characteristics and parameters;
group structure depending on the goals of the study and the conditions defined as essential, it can be designated from the standpoint of the implementation of the “power-subordination” relationship, preferences, interpersonal relationships, division of labor, communications, material and documentary flows in the group in the process of joint work, etc. .;
group processes– these are the processes of communication, interaction (status, role, position of group members and their changes), perception (group members’ perception of other members and other groups), attraction (attractiveness, attraction), as well as organizational processes: group formation, formation, increase in cohesion , group pressure, leadership, organization of joint activities, decision making;
group norms- these are elements of group culture, rules of proper behavior from the point of view of the group for each status level, and often for each member of the group. The Group expects proper compliance with the norms and rules of conduct established by it and, when appropriate, applies sanctions, aimed at adjustment (reward and punishment).
The composition of the group, the processes occurring in it and group norms determine group potential. Identifying the potential of the group and the extent of its use, as well as identifying and creating conditions in which the positive direction of the potential is used more effectively, and the negative one ceases to appear, is a serious problem for the head of the organization, the leader of the group and its members.
24. FACTORS OF GROUP BEHAVIOR
Research has shown that group performance standards can increase severalfold if everyone's performance affects the success of others and depends on their overall success.
The following main ones are distinguished factors of group behavior:
1) professional teamwork of the group, which is formed as a result of joint work in a team and is manifested in the norms of interchangeability, complementarity, mutual responsibility, etc.;
2) moral and psychological cohesion: the presence of norms of mutual assistance and mutual support based on common ideas about themselves:
3) interpersonal compatibility: psychological readiness of workers to cooperate with each other;
4) purposefulness and democracy– basically these factors are set by the leader and depend on his position in relation to the group. For example, a goal may be imposed by management or developed jointly by all employees;
5) productivity and satisfaction with work results. This factor is an indicator of professional group efforts, which shows how much the human potential of the group has been translated into concrete deeds, how much the labor efforts of the professional group are recognized, if the wages of its workers are calculated based on the final results.
The successful work activity of a professional group also depends on other factors, which can be called variables:
Group level of aspirations, i.e., employees’ disposition to achieve results;
Qualification potential;
Requirements for the final result, which determines the quality of group work;
Degree of interaction with other professional groups;
Age and gender composition of the group;
Intragroup interpersonal communications, the violation of which can disrupt the working rhythm, pace of work and reduce quality;
Positions that can be sole or variable, when in certain situations one of the employees turns out to be the leader;
The permanence of a professional group or the temporary nature of its work.
The group norm of productivity is the most important variable factor in group performance, the axis of all intragroup relations.
25. DISTINGUISHING FEATURES OF SMALL GROUPS
In a small (primary) work collective, the processes of achieving production and educational goals are concretized, the connection between personal, group (collective) and state interests is expressed directly, the most frequent and stable interpersonal contacts are carried out, and collectivist relations are formed.
The primary labor collective is characterized by appropriate structures and performs certain functions. Its development occurs in accordance with socio-psychological processes of group dynamics, the main ones are:
Employee communication;
Team cohesion;
Labor conflicts;
Management and leadership, etc.
Members of the primary labor team work in direct contact and interaction, and the leader of this team also has direct contact with each of the subordinates.
In the primary work collective, the socio-psychological characteristics of this team are formed: value orientations, norms, attitudes, moods, traditions, moral and psychological climate.
Value orientation groups - a socially conditioned orientation of consciousness and behavior of a group, which has social and group significance, expressed in the preference of relationships to certain objects.
Social setting– the readiness of the team for a certain assessment of the situation and the way of acting in it, a predisposition to certain events, people, objects.
Tradition- a way of realizing sustainable social relations, supported by the strength of public opinion, collective habits and beliefs.
Moral and psychological climate– a relatively stable emotional mood prevailing in a team, which includes people’s moods, their emotional experiences and worries, attitudes towards each other, and surrounding events.
26. FORMING A COLLECTED GROUP
Cohesion– one of the most important qualities that determine the effectiveness of group activities. The determinants of cohesion are:
1) group existence time: Too short a period does not allow achieving a high level of cohesion, and too long can lead to a decrease in the achieved level;
2) group size: an increase in the number of group members (more than nine people) may lead to a decrease in cohesion;
3) age of group members: Teams whose members are peers are considered more cohesive;
4) external threat: the leader often does not take into account that the disappearance of an external threat often leads to a breakdown in cohesion;
5) previous success: pride in joint achievements increases cohesion, while failures, on the contrary, reduce it. Common attitudes and value orientations (for example, religion and ethics) also contribute to group cohesion.
Efficiency joint activities are related to:
With the emotional closeness of the participants in joint activities;
With the participation of group members in establishing the goals of joint activities;
With interdependence, which involves mutual assistance, mutual compensation of shortcomings;
With timely and skillful resolution of the conflict;
With the refusal to hide conflicts, the search for solutions of true agreement;
With the characteristics of group leadership;
With group cohesion.
High requirements for joining the group, complex rituals and prestige of the group make it more cohesive. Isolation from other people increases the interaction and interdependence of group members. The growth of cohesion is facilitated by democratic procedures and the participation of group members in decision making.
Each team develops its own norms, attitudes, values, traditions, so managing a team is a special and more complex task than managing each subordinate individually.
One of the most important areas for increasing the efficiency of an organization is correct selection of its composition: The higher the qualifications, education, and professional culture of the team members, the higher the social needs, activity, and level of development of the team as a whole, the more developed is the desire of each member of the organization to actively influence the affairs of his team.
The cohesion and compatibility of people in a team, the moral and psychological climate are also determined by the correct approach to forming a team, taking into account socio-psychological factors: number, age, gender, level of education, type of temperament, etc.
27. STAGES OF TEAM DEVELOPMENT
As teams develop, they usually go through certain stages:
1) "grinding in". At first glance, the new team looks businesslike and organized, but in reality people are looking at each other and trying to determine their level of interest in its creation.
True feelings are often hidden, one person increases his authority, and interaction occurs in familiar forms. There is almost no discussion of goals and methods of work. People are often not interested in colleagues and hardly listen to each other, without actually engaging in creative and inspired teamwork;
2) "close combat" Many teams go through a period of revolution, when the leader’s contribution is assessed, clans and factions are formed, and disagreements are expressed more openly. Personal relationships become of great importance, and the strengths and weaknesses of individuals become apparent. The team begins to discuss how to reach agreement and tries to improve relationships. Sometimes there is a power struggle for leadership;
3) "experimentation". The potential of the team increases, and it begins to decide how to use the abilities and resources now available. The team often works in spurts, but they have the energy and desire to understand how they can work better. Working methods are revised, a desire to experiment appears, measures are taken to increase productivity;
4) “efficiency”. The team gains experience in successfully solving problems and using resources. The emphasis is on the correct use of resources, time and on clarifying tasks. Employees begin to take pride in being part of a “winning team,” approach problems realistically, and solve them creatively. Management functions move smoothly from one employee to another depending on the specific task;
5) "maturity". In a developed team there are strong connections between its members. People are judged on their merits, not on their pretensions. The relationship is informal but satisfying. Personal differences are quickly resolved. The team turns into a successful unit of society - a team and arouses the admiration of outsiders. He is capable of delivering excellent results and sets high standards of achievement.
The leader of the team must be able to foresee the onset of the next stage of development of the team and lead the group forward. As the quality of the team’s work improves, the possibilities for introducing innovations into the management process also expand. Delegation of authority is increasing and more people are involved in planning and decision making. The leader helps the team go through all stages of development and reach their full potential, using both personal example and authority.
28. ESSENCE OF ORGANIZATIONAL AND ADMINISTRATIVE METHODS OF MANAGEMENT
When we talk about the ways in which a control system influences control objects or about the ways in which some parts of the control system influence others, we are dealing with management methods. When we talk about the methods of influence of the leader himself, we mean leadership methods.
Management methods and leadership methods are interconnected, they implement interrelated goals and objectives, but at the same time they have specific goals and features.
Management methods are, on the one hand, more fundamental than leadership methods; on the other hand, the use of management methods is largely carried out through the specific activities of the manager, i.e. through management methods.
Guidance Methods are diverse, among them we can highlight: methods organizational impact– rely primarily on power, the right to command, the official authority of the leader, and economic And socio-psychological– to use the material and spiritual interests of workers, their psychological characteristics.
Organize– means bringing people together to work together. The word "organization" has a double meaning: firstly, as the function of a leader to organize people; secondly, as a system that brings together people and resources.
Organization as a function of leadership consists of components:
a) having a clear plan;
b) the organization's ability to achieve and fulfill the requirements of the plan;
c) the availability of people, money, materials, and other resources to complete the task;
d) the presence of competent managers who would be able to force the organization to achieve its goals and consolidate what has been achieved.
Seven main elements of organization(P. M. Kerzhentsev):
1) goal (what is the purpose of the work?);
2) type of organization (what form of organization is most suitable for performing the intended work?);
3) methods (what organizational methods will be used to achieve the intended goal?);
4) people (with the help of which people and how many of them will the work be done?);
5) material resources;
7) control (how to keep records of work and organize actual control over its implementation?).
The work of a manager is closely related to the organizational function. Leadership is a chain of organizational actions. You can manage the entire course of a team’s life, and you can organize the execution of a specific task by specific people. The organization function is one of the most important functions of a leader.
29. RULES FOR EFFECTIVE INSTRUCTIONS
Basic rules by observing which a manager can hope for the effective execution of his orders:
1) any order must be objectively necessary;
2) do not give instructions unless you are sure that it is real and can be carried out;
3) before giving an order, consult with your subordinate;
4) provide the subordinate with the conditions necessary to perform the work;
5) when giving instructions, take into account the individual characteristics of subordinates;
6) assignments should educate and develop independence and initiative among subordinates;
7) it is better to give instructions in the form of a request rather than an order;
8) give instructions in a calm, friendly, firm and confident tone;
9) under any circumstances, remember the need to be polite and maintain your subordinate’s self-esteem;
10) teach more than command;
11) interest the subordinate in the social significance of the task, its immediate practical benefit for the team and for him personally;
12) organize an atmosphere of competition, evoke in the employee a desire to distinguish himself, to demonstrate his abilities, emphasize his special role, the importance of his efforts;
13) do not assign several tasks to the contractor at the same time;
14) make sure that the subordinate clearly understands the essence of the assignment and his tasks;
15) indicate the exact deadline for completing the work and the form of its presentation;
16) require a subordinate to perform the work assigned to him;
17) do not allow a subordinate to shift his task to you;
18) do not allow unauthorized tasks;
19) when giving a subordinate responsibility for completing an assignment, remember that your personal responsibility as a leader does not decrease.
30. ORGANIZATIONAL AND FUNCTIONAL STRUCTURE OF MANAGEMENT OF THE ORGANIZATION
The purpose of organizational activities is to create a good organizational and functional management structure and the correct selection of performers.
For the effective operation of an organization, it is important to clearly and clearly define the functional responsibilities and powers of personnel, as well as their relationships in the work process.
The duties and powers of employees are established using:
job descriptions(establish the scope of powers and measures of responsibility of a person holding a certain position);
Organizational and functional organization schemes(displays the interactions (relationships) between individual links in the control system).
1) the principle of division into groups of equal size;
2) a functional feature - the creation of departments for production, marketing, personnel, financial issues, etc.;
3) territorial basis - if the enterprise operates in territories remote from each other;
4) type of product manufactured;
5) the interests of consumers - this is especially typical for the service department.
In addition to creating an organizational structure and selecting performers, the organizational function includes the provision of materials, tools, and workspaces.
The manager, when starting to develop and implement an organizational structure scheme, must provide for the following: necessary conditions and principles:
1. Correct selection of performers, their training.
2. The employee undertakes to comply with all reasonable instructions of his superiors, and the enterprise undertakes to pay for his services for this; Anyone dissatisfied with their job has the right to quit.
3. The work should be divided into parts so that each worker can quickly and easily master his area of work.
4. Clear job descriptions must be created.
5. Each employee should have only one immediate supervisor.
6. Creating conditions for departments and employees to fulfill their tasks and responsibilities.
There are no standard organizational structures, since each company has its own characteristics.
The diagram should reflect the real structure of the company and not be a theoretical model. If difficulties arise when drawing up an organizational and functional chart of an enterprise, this may mean that the organization itself is defective.
31. CONTENT OF THE ORGANIZATIONAL MANAGEMENT STRUCTURE
Organizational management structures can vary in complexity and detail, but any of them contains three blocks:
Linear;
Functional;
Providing.
Linear block provides the main production functions of the enterprise (in a factory these are workshops, in the army - combat units, at a construction site - sections, brigades, etc.). As the volume and complexity of production grows, departments increasingly need to provide conditions for performing their functions.
Function block organizational structure provides assistance with its recommendations to line and support services.
Functional services can also make decisions on functional issues - on labor and wages, production, technological development, etc.
Providing block i.e., the support service is designed to free linear units from non-productive functions. Accounting, personnel department, planning department and other departments, in addition to support functions, also perform advisory functions with the manager.
The problems of ensuring clear interaction between linear, functional and supporting services can be minimized if these services interact clearly.
32. DIVISIONAL STRUCTURE OF MANAGEMENT OF THE ORGANIZATION
One of the types of organizational management structures is divisional structure. The first developments of its concept date back to the 20s, and the peak of its industrial use - to the 60-70s. XX century
The key figures in the management of organizations with a divisional structure are not the heads of functional departments, but managers(managers) heading production departments.
Structuring organization by departments is usually done according to one of three criteria: by products manufactured or services provided (product specialization); by customer orientation (consumer specialization); by territories served (regional specialization).
Some businesses produce a wide range of products or services that meet the needs of several large consumer groups or markets. Every group or market has clearly defined needs. If two or more of these needs become particularly important to an enterprise, it may use a customer-oriented organizational structure.
An example of the active use of consumer-oriented organizational structure is commercial banks; The main groups of consumers using their services are individual clients (private individuals), pension funds, trust firms, and international financial organizations.
Flaw. Divisional management structures led to an increase in hierarchy, i.e. vertical management, requiring the formation of intermediate levels of management to coordinate the work of departments, groups, etc. The duplication of management functions at different levels ultimately contributed to an increase in the costs of maintaining the management apparatus.
Positive points– concentration of management functions in only one production manager; clearer assignment of authority and responsibility for key results; more effective control system; freedom of individual behavior. Different types of divisional structure have the same goal - to ensure a more effective response of the enterprise to a particular environmental factor.
The heads of production departments within the product or territory assigned to them coordinate activities not only “along the line”, but also “by function,” thereby developing the required qualities of general management. This creates a good talent pool for the strategic level of the organization. Separating decisions into levels speeds up their adoption and improves their quality.
33. CLASSIFICATION OF LEADERSHIP STYLES
Leadership style is a set of management techniques and methods inherent in a certain type of leader.
Comparative characteristics of traditional and “modern” leadership styles
Traditional Chief: Applies criticism
Modern leader: Applies praise
Traditional Chief: Gives orders and instructions
Modern leader: Defines goals oriented towards the consciousness of subordinates
Traditional Chief: Takes the efforts of subordinates for granted.
Modern leader: Praises for efforts expended and results obtained.
Traditional Chief: Emphasizes ordering work to be done.
Modern leader: Emphasizes encouragement
Traditional Chief: The main thing for him is that the subordinate must be at his workplace all the time
Modern leader: Stimulates increased efficiency and quality of work of subordinates, focuses on trust and final results
Traditional Chief: Demeanor is strictly official
Modern leader: Behavior – friendly, democratic, relaxed
Even the most progressive leader must master both the latest methods of influencing subordinates and traditional ones in order to be able to act depending on the nature of the subordinate and the current situation.
Depending on the degree of manifestation of collegiality and unity of command, three main leadership styles can be distinguished: authoritarian (autocratic), democratic and liberal, which are rarely found in their “pure form”.
Authoritarian style- this is the use of orders, instructions, instructions that do not imply objections from subordinates. The manager himself determines who should do what, when, how, gives commands and demands reports on their execution. It is used in emergency situations - in a military situation, in the event of various types of natural or man-made disasters.
Negative The qualities of an autocrat are especially evident when the leader lacks organizational skills, general culture, and professional preparedness. Under these circumstances, such a leader can turn into a tyrant. Advantages: lightning-fast reaction, energy, determination, speed of decision-making, perseverance.
Democratic style leadership implies friendly advice, instructions in the form of requests, and the active participation of subordinates in the development of management decisions. This is the most effective leadership style, because it fosters initiative, a creative attitude to work, and a sense of responsibility and ownership in subordinates.
Liberal style management is the leader's non-interference in the work of subordinates, at least until the subordinates themselves ask the leader for advice. This style is permissible only in those limited cases when subordinates are higher than the manager in terms of their qualifications or equal to him and at the same time know the main production tasks of the team no worse than him.
34. FORMATION OF AN INDIVIDUAL MANAGEMENT STYLE
Individual leadership style, based on a democratic style, which turns into authoritarian in acute situations, and in relation to highly qualified creative individuals - into liberal, can be considered the optimal leadership style.
When assessing an individual leadership style, special importance is attached to the manager’s ability to achieve mutual understanding with employees of different ages, gender, different professions, different education, marital status, temperament, and qualifications. A leader’s ability to convince people, inspire them to carry out even unpleasant tasks, and help them replace their usual way of action with a new, more rational, more effective one is also valued.
Effective leadership lies in not limiting yourself to the rigid boundaries of any one style: all styles fit within the framework of the general theory of management, all of them can be useful and even necessary in a given situation.
Formation of the right individual style will be facilitated by adherence to the following principles.
Feedback. Subordinates, as a rule, seek to receive an assessment of the work they have done directly from their supervisor. The manager must be able to timely and accurately evaluate the work of his subordinates.
Definition of freedom of action of a subordinate. Knowing the character of his subordinates, the manager must decide in each individual case how to make the employee’s work more effective.
Consider the subordinate's attitude towards work. The manager helps his subordinates develop the correct psychological orientation, establish a scale of life values, and clearly define the place of work in their lives.
Focus on the final results of work.
Promotion. The manager must instill in his subordinates that the best way to make a career is to perform well in their current daily duties, complementing this with hints about the desirability of promotion.
Personal behavior of the leader. The leader cannot afford to express personal likes and dislikes.
Repeat and repeat. A leader should not expect people to understand his orders the first time.
Don't be overly gloomy and serious. The leader must understand that humor helps soften the most tense situations.
35. AUTHORITY OF THE LEADER
True leader's authority represents well-deserved respect for him and is based on such components as knowledge, experience, intelligence of the leader, his trust in his subordinates and his exactingness towards them, care for them, and high personal qualities.
An ineptly formed individual leadership style contributes to the emergence of false authority which reduces the effectiveness of management; Subordinates often flatter the leader without actually respecting him.
The high authority of a manager in a subordinate group or organization is the basis of his high reputation, which is a broader concept than the authority of a leader. A manager's positive reputation inspires trust and respect among staff and increases his or her own self-esteem.
If the authority of a manager is determined by his assessment by members of a group or organization, then reputation is formed from communication and interaction in all areas of his interaction with society - in the organization, family, politics, region, everyday life.
In general components formation positive reputation manager may be his professional competence, leadership qualities and personal authority in the organization, leadership style, image, performance and healthy lifestyle, his assessment by society in different areas and situations.
The psychological preparedness of a leader is, first of all, a management culture, good manners, the ability to manage one’s feelings and emotions, a sense of responsibility, and collectivism.
Of great importance for a leader is his ability to speak simply, accessiblely, expressively, emotionally, clearly and concisely.
The leader's quiet and calm tone gives his words weight and a businesslike character.
The leader should not show familiarity.
A manager must be able not only to speak, but also, no less important, to listen, and also to challenge a subordinate to a conversation in order to understand him.
Both the leader’s appearance and his ability to behave in society have a psychological impact on the subordinate.
36. TYPES AND CULTURE OF COMMUNICATION
Communication is a form of human activity that ensures the emergence of psychological contact, manifested in the exchange of information, mutual influence, mutual experience and mutual understanding.
Communication can be written, oral, by telephone, email, etc. Each type of communication has its own techniques and methods.
Types of communication:
“mask contact” is formal communication in which there is no desire to understand and take into account the personality characteristics of the interlocutor, familiar masks are used (politeness, severity, indifference, etc.), i.e. a set of gestures, standard phrases that allow one to hide true emotions, attitude towards the interlocutor. In some situations, "mask contact" is necessary;
Primitive communication, when a person is assessed as a necessary or interfering object: in the first case, they actively come into contact, in the second, they use aggressive, rude remarks. Having received what they wanted from their interlocutor, they lose interest in him without hiding it;
Formal-role communication, in which both the content and means of communication are regulated and instead of knowing the personality of the interlocutor, they make do with knowledge of his social role;
Business communication, when the personality, character, age, and mood of the interlocutor are taken into account, but the interests of the business are more significant than possible personal differences;
spiritual communication of friends, when you can touch on any topic without necessarily resorting to words, your friend will understand you by facial expression, gestures, and intonation. Such communication is possible when each participant can anticipate the interlocutor’s reactions, knows his interests, beliefs, etc.;
manipulative communication, aimed at extracting benefits from the interlocutor using various techniques (flattery, intimidation, deception, demonstration of kindness, etc.), depending on the characteristics of the interlocutor;
social communication, in which people say not what they think, but what is supposed to be said in such cases; This communication is closed, because people’s points of view on this or that issue do not matter and do not determine the nature of this type of communication.
The basis communication culture constitute its moral standards: contracts must be fulfilled, man is the highest value, the need to imagine oneself in the place of another.
The quality of his work, the emotional mood of employees, the stability of personnel, the socio-psychological climate in the organization, the presence or absence of conflict situations, the development of business contacts, which affects the economic situation in the organization, depend on the art of business communication of the manager.
37. MECHANISM OF EMPLOYEE PARTICIPATION IN MANAGEMENT
Empowering employees is any process that provides workers with greater autonomy by increasing their access to information and providing control over the factors that determine the performance of work tasks. Empowerment helps eliminate employees' feelings of powerlessness and enhances their sense of self-worth. Basic Ways to empower employees:
1) assistance to employees in achieving a high level of working knowledge and skills:
2) expansion of employee control functions (providing greater freedom of action in the labor process, accompanied by increased responsibility for results);
3) familiarizing employees with examples of successful role models (observing the actions of highly effective employees);
4) the practice of social encouragement and persuasion;
5) emotional support.
Various methods are used to empower employees. behavioral tools(joint goal setting, feedback on work results, modeling, various reward systems), but the main ones are various programs for participation in management. Implementing these types of programs helps employees develop a sense of ownership, their participation in decision-making processes, and a sense of choice in their work environment.
Participation in management implies that in order to achieve the goals of the organization, employees have the opportunity to realize their abilities, show initiative and creativity. In accordance with the “path-goal” management method, participation in the decision-making process is associated with a high sense of responsibility among employees and an increase in the degree of their motivation to achieve goals.
Participation in management causes a change in the motivation of employees who have the opportunity to influence the situation, an increase in self-esteem, the degree of job satisfaction, and improved interactions with managers. In addition, the likelihood of conflicts and stress is reduced, workers’ sensitivity to change increases, staff turnover and absenteeism rates are reduced, and communication improves.
A critical element of the effectiveness of any participatory management program is the degree to which its employees understand responsibility for the opportunities provided to them.
38. ESSENCE OF CONFLICTS
Conflict is a contradiction that arises between people in the process of resolving certain issues.
One of the parties to the conflict requires a change in the behavior of the other party. However, not every contradiction can be called a conflict: the fact that people have different views and opinions about any problem does not interfere with their coordinated work. The emergence of conflict is facilitated by contradictions affecting the interests, status, and moral dignity of an individual or group. Conflicts create tense relationships in the team, switch the attention of employees from direct work to “showing things up,” and have a serious impact on their neuropsychological state.
Conflict is a multidimensional, dynamic, developing process that has not only forms of manifestation, but also the following stages of development:
1) conflict situation;
2) the conflict (incident) itself;
3) conflict resolution.
Intentional, deliberate intrigue, the purpose of which is to force people to act according to the planned scenario. You can reduce the possibility of developing intrigues by:
Formation of stable personal ideas about phenomena and processes;
Creating acceptable information transparency at all levels of activity;
Formation of the organizational culture of the team and company;
Creation of cohesive, purposeful teams.
39. TYPES OF CONFLICTS
Conflicts are divided into natural and artificial. Natural– arise spontaneously when there is a large discrepancy between someone’s idea of a person, organization or activity and the person’s own idea of himself, organization or activity. Artificial conflicts are created by people to achieve certain goals, including to relieve accumulated stress.
Depending on the degree of employee involvement in them conflicts are divided:
On horizontal(employees who are not subordinate to each other are involved);
vertical(they involve subordinate employees);
mixed(employees are involved, both those who are not subordinate to each other, and those who are subordinate).
Emotional conflicts: their source is distrust, suspiciousness, based not on objective, but on subjective reasons.
The socio-psychological typology of conflicts is based on the interconnection of people within the framework of their relationships in a team.
Motivational conflicts. The most pronounced motives are security, belonging to a particular community, prestige, self-esteem, and self-realization.
Communication conflicts. A communication conflict is evident when no one dares to establish feedback with the manager, that is, no one draws the boss’s attention to his mistakes. A similar situation is when an employee does not hear words of recognition, as a result of which he loses self-confidence.
Conflicts between power and anarchy: when the manager is opposed by opposition, which is joined by the majority of employees.
Intrapersonal conflict. One of its most common forms is role-playing conflict when a person is presented with conflicting demands regarding what the result of his work should be.
Interpersonal conflict The most common. Most often, this is a struggle between managers over limited resources, capital, labor, time to use equipment, or approval of a project.
Such conflict also manifests itself as a clash of personalities: people with different character traits, views and values are sometimes unable to get along with each other.
Conflict between the individual and the group. If the expectations of the group conflict with the expectations of the individual, conflict may arise.
Intergroup conflict. Intergroup conflicts can arise between the trade union and the administration, between formal and informal groups.
40. CONFLICT SITUATION AND ITS GROWTH INTO CONFLICT
The basic concept of conflict is conflict situation, which presupposes the presence of two main components - participants in the conflict (opponents) and the subject of the conflict.
Participants in the conflict due to the complexity of their structures, they are not identical to each other “in strength,” that is, in rank. If a participant in a conflict acts in it only on his own behalf and pursues only his personal interests and goals, then he is classified as an opponent of the first rank. If a group of individuals pursuing a common group goal comes into conflict, then we are talking about an opponent of the second rank. An opponent of the third rank is a structure consisting of simple groups of the second rank directly interacting with each other. An opponent of zero rank is a person who, in contradiction with himself, develops his own position.
The root cause, which is the basis of the conflict situation, is subject of conflict. Its definition is the most difficult, but the main task, which is solved simultaneously with identifying the causes of the conflict.
For a conflict to arise, in addition to the participants (opponents) and the subject of the conflict, certain actions on the part of opponents are required, called incident.
Thus, conflict– this is a conflict situation plus an incident (actions of the parties to the conflict). Conflict situation can exist long before a direct clash between opponents; it can move on to new opponents even when the causes of the conflict have already disappeared. Incident can arise both on the initiative of opponents (or one of them) and for objective reasons (for example, the failure of an important task or a manager’s mistake).
The conflict situation and the incident are relatively independent of each other. Thus, a conflict situation may be based on objective circumstances, and an incident may arise unexpectedly. On the other hand, a conflict situation (like an incident) can be created by the opponent intentionally, in order to achieve certain goals. The situation can also be generated by him without a purpose or even to his own detriment for psychological reasons.
41. CAUSES OF CONFLICTS
In socio-psychological terms, a conflict situation is a sharp discrepancy in the sphere of communication between the expected and specific actions of employees.
The emergence of a conflict is result of interaction the following three components:
Situation (a set of objective preconditions that provoke the emergence of a conflict);
The personality of the conflict participant (her awareness of the situation of entering into a conflict);
The individual’s attitude to the situation (whether she has motives for entering into conflict).
In a conflict situation, it is very important for a manager to timely determine the true cause of the conflict, since the main thing for eliminating conflicts is to eliminate their preconditions.
Causes occurrence of conflicts:
1. Inability to correctly formulate a goal and setting the wrong goal by the manager.
2. Inability to take into account the individual characteristics of people.
3. Innovative changes in the structure of the organization - change of managers, emergence of new professional groups, promotions, salary reductions, etc.
4. Incorrect stimulation of subordinates with rewards and punishment.
5. Wrong attitude towards criticism.
6. Tactlessness and sometimes rudeness on the part of the manager.
A special place is occupied by the so-called reactive aggression, when people begin to look for the culprit of all troubles and misfortunes in their close circle, in their environment.
The main condition for a conflict to escalate into a quarrel is the dissatisfaction of team members with each other, the subjective emotional attitude of one conflicting party to the other. Negative emotions are the main cause of conflict, while business disagreements in this case are only a reason to express hostility towards a person.
The cause of the conflict can also be a random combination of circumstances – a kind of “force majeure”. Such a conflict is difficult to foresee, and in this case the manager has to act quickly on the results, and not on preventing the conflict.
42. WAYS TO RESOLUTE CONFLICTS
The manager is obliged to intervene in the conflict, while clearly delineating his legal and moral rights.
To resolve the conflict the manager must:
1) objectively assess the situation and acknowledge the existence of a conflict, which will remove many negative aspects (omissions, “behind-the-scenes” actions, etc.) and bring its resolution closer;
2) distinguish the cause of the conflict from its subject - the immediate cause, which is often disguised;
3) determine the type of conflict, its stage, the subject of the conflict, the goals of the main participants (opponents) of the conflict;
4) find out the motives of each opponent for entering into conflict, which can be both positive and negative;
5) before taking action, imagine and analyze possible solutions.
Ways to get out of conflict based on the direct actions of the leader:
1) negotiations with opponents - when a compromise is reached, the basis of the conflict may disappear;
2) change the subject of the conflict, and therefore change the attitude towards the conflict;
3) separate disputes between the conflicting parties from the problem that needs to be solved, analyze a number of possible ways to solve the problem and choose the best one, mutually acceptable to all parties to the conflict;
4) strive to create ideal jobs;
5) use an integrated approach to minimizing conflict situations, which includes:
Prevention of conflict situations by increasing the reliability of the personnel management system;
Development of conflict resolution algorithms on a scientific basis and a clear scheme of administration actions in specific situations;
Creation of an adequate system of mental self-regulation and high emotional stability of personnel; application of psychotechnologies for positive impact on personnel;
Conflict-free procedures for relocation (redistribution), part-time employment and dismissal (reduction) of personnel.
If the basis of the conflict is made up of objective conditions, then its simple interruption without taking effective measures to overcome the causes can create an even more acute situation, since after the conflict is interrupted, the conflict situation persists.
43. CONCEPT OF LEADERSHIP
Every group has a leader. He may be officially appointed, or he may not hold any official position, but actually lead the team due to his organizational abilities. The manager is appointed officially, from the outside, and the leader is nominated from below. The process of influencing people from a leadership position in an organization is called formal leadership. However, a person holding a high position cannot automatically become a leader in an organization, since leadership is largely characterized by an informal basis.
Informal leader is a member of the team who collects a relatively large number of votes in any choice situation. Functions informal leader comes down to two main ones:
Establishes goodwill, responsibility, mutual understanding or, conversely, contributes to the emergence of aggressiveness and isolation of the group, acquisitiveness, etc.
Having established the norms, goals, customs and traditions of the group, the informal leader motivates the behavior of each member, forcing him to follow the standards of group behavior. The leader carries out motivation by evaluating the actions of a group member with a look, gesture or word; The majority of group members voluntarily and not always consciously join this assessment.
Social psychology distinguishes, but does not contrast, the concepts of management and leadership. Management- this is the process of managing the labor activity of a team, carried out by a leader - an intermediary of social control and power on the basis of administrative and legal powers and social norms. Leadership– the process of internal socio-psychological self-organization and self-management of relationships and activities of team members through the individual initiative of the participants.
The phenomenon of leadership arises in problematic situations. However, in terms of group goals, leadership can be either positive or negative.
Psychological qualities of a leader:
Self confidence;
Sharp and flexible mind;
Competence as a thorough knowledge of one's business;
Strong will;
The ability to understand the peculiarities of human psychology;
Organizational skills.
Sometimes a person who does not have the listed qualities becomes a leader; on the other hand, a person may have these qualities, but not be a leader. According to situational leadership theory a leader becomes the person who, when any situation arises in a group, has the qualities, properties, abilities, and experience necessary for the optimal solution of this situation for this group.
44. TYPES OF LEADERSHIP
There are two polar types of leadership – instrumental and emotional.
Instrumental(business) leader is a group member who takes the initiative to solve a problem situation in accordance with group goals and has the appropriate knowledge, information, skills and techniques.
Emotional Leader is a group member who takes on the function of regulating group mood (expressive functions) in problem situations. Sometimes the position of an emotional leader is called the epicenter of emotional contacts.
Main functions, which the leader performs:
Distribution of roles, responsibilities, tasks;
Monitoring the behavior of each group member;
Planning the actions and means by which the group achieves its goals;
Representation of collective interests, will, desires;
Arbitrator function;
Reference function;
Group symbol function;
Function of the bearer of responsibility;
“Father” function (a true leader is the focus of all positive emotions of group members, the ideal object of identification and feelings of devotion);
Function of the bearer of group guilt.
Force and coercion in leadership are often replaced by motivation and inspiration. Influence is based on people's acceptance of the demands of a leader who does not use overt or direct displays of power.
Research shows that a leader's knowledge and abilities are rated higher than those of other group members.
45. LEADERSHIP AND POWER IN AN ORGANIZATION
From the point of view of the effectiveness of the team, it is most expedient if the manager is also its leader.
However, no matter how much a person strives to become a leader, he will never become one if those around him do not perceive him as a leader.
A manager is often appointed to his post regardless of whether his subordinates believe that he is suitable for this role. In other words, leadership is a social phenomenon in its essence, and leadership is psychological.
Leadership is not management. Management focuses on getting people to do things right, while leadership focuses on getting people to do the right things. An effective manager is not necessarily an effective leader, and vice versa.
Manager is a person who directs the work of others and is personally responsible for its results. A good manager establishes the order and sequence of work performed. He builds his interaction with subordinates more on facts and within the framework of established goals. Leader inspires people and inspires enthusiasm in employees, conveying to them its vision of the future and helping them adapt to the new and go through the stage of change.
Managers Most often, out of necessity, they are guided by goals set by someone. Leaders They set their own goals and use them to change people’s attitudes towards business.
Managers tend to develop their actions in detail and in time. Leaders achieve organizational effectiveness by developing a vision of the future and ways to achieve it, without delving into operational details and routine.
Using your professionalism, various abilities and skills, managers concentrate their efforts in the area of decision making. They try to narrow down the set of ways to solve the problem. Decisions are often made based on past experiences. Leaders, on the contrary, they make constant attempts to develop new and controversial solutions to the problem. Most importantly, once they solve a problem, leaders take on the risk and burden of identifying new problems, especially when there are significant opportunities for corresponding rewards.
It is obvious that in practice there is no ideal observance of these two types of relationships in management.
46. EFFECTIVE LEADERSHIP
In modern conditions, effective leadership is not an “iron” or “steady hand”, but a high sensitivity to the needs of its followers, which is manifested in the development of employees, in including them in group work, in helping them achieve personal goals.
An effective leader, consistent with the new philosophy of management, is considered to be a person who realizes that his authority directly depends on the respect of his subordinates, and not on his formal status.
Effective Leader:
He is accessible to any employee, and when discussing any problems he is invariably friendly;
Deeply involved in the personnel management process, constantly pays attention to reward systems, personally knows many employees;
Does not tolerate armchair style, prefers to appear more often among ordinary workers and discuss local problems, knows how to listen and hear, is decisive and persistent, does not have a reputation for being cunning;
We tolerate expressions of open disagreement, delegate authority to performers, and build relationships on trust;
In difficult moments, does not seek to find someone to blame, prefers oral rather than written information;
Features of leader behavior:
1) instructions and orders give way to persuasion, strict control to trust; transition to cooperative relationships;
2) managers-leaders strive to develop collective forms of work as a single team, which dramatically increases the mutual exchange of information between members of work groups;
3) leaders are always open to new ideas coming from colleagues, subordinates, and clients. For such leaders, free expression of ideas and exchange of opinions become a natural form of relationship;
4) the manager-leader strives to create and maintain a good psychological climate in the team, not to infringe on the interests of some employees at the expense of others, and readily and publicly recognizes the merits of employees.
Today we need leaders who know how to lead an organization out of crisis situations.
Characteristic features of the activity "crisis leader":
Desire to become a leader in difficult situations and find pleasure in fulfilling this role;
The desire to be competitive in everything and always;
High adaptability;
Tendency to innovation;
Lack of fear of failures, using them as new starting points for development.
47. FORMATION OF A MANAGER TEAM
In its general sense team is a single whole, a team of like-minded people united by a common goal. It is the commonality of goals that is the main condition for forming a team. A team has the potential to achieve much more than the sum of the individual's accomplishments.
A team can achieve its goals more or less effectively depending on the size and composition of the team, group norms, cohesion, conflict, status, the functional role of its members, and the work of the manager in managing his team.
Number. An ideal group should consist of 3–9 people. As a group grows in size, communication among its members becomes more complex and agreement becomes more difficult to achieve.
Compound(the degree of similarity between personalities, their points of view and approaches to solving problems). It is recommended that the group be made up of people with different points of view.
Group norms(norms accepted in groups) have a strong influence on the behavior of each individual and on the direction in which the group will work - achieving the goals of the organization or counteracting them.
Cohesion- a measure of the attraction of group members to each other and to the group. Highly cohesive groups tend to have fewer communication problems. A potential negative consequence of high cohesion is group like-mindedness.
Group like-mindedness. This is the tendency for an individual to suppress his views on some phenomenon in order not to disrupt the cohesion of the group. As a result, the decisions made by such a team are not always effective: the team tries to make an average decision that will not hurt anyone.
Conflict. Differences in opinion increase the likelihood of conflict. Although active exchange of views is beneficial, it can lead to intragroup disputes and other manifestations of open conflict, which are always detrimental.
It is the personal responsibility of all members of a good team to create an environment in which the team's potential can flourish.
Stages of team formation (B. Bass)
1) acceptance by group members of each other;
2) development of communications and development of a mechanism for making group decisions;
3) formation of group solidarity;
4) the desire to maximize group success through the rational use of individual abilities, opportunities and mutual assistance.
48. DISTRIBUTION OF ROLES OF THE MANAGEMENT TEAM
A critical factor determining the effectiveness of a manager's team is the distribution of functions among its members, that is, the distribution of roles in the team. Target roles – working out and performing basic team tasks. The activities of people playing target roles are aimed directly at achieving the goals of the group. Supporters roles contribute to maintaining and activating the life and activities of the team.
Target Roles
Chairman– this is the main role. This person performs a very specific role-functional task.
Coordinator recognizes and controls the process of activities and goals of the team, pays attention to everyone, takes into account the feelings, interests and motives of the activities of people in the team, summarizes incoming proposals. The main task is to create conditions conducive to each team member making his assigned role contribution.
Idea's generator develops new ideas, solutions, approaches.
Informant. His task is to search and provide the group with all the necessary information.
Expert expresses opinions or beliefs regarding any proposal.
Worker explains, gives examples, develops ideas, predicts the future fate of the proposal if it is accepted.
Finisher generalizes, summarizes all proposals, sums up, formulates the final decision.
Each target role carries a huge functional load, so it is undesirable for one person to perform several roles at the same time. Taking into account the specifics of production, target roles may change, their list may be supplemented with new ones or, conversely, reduced.
The presence of players playing supporting roles is not necessary - the performance of these roles can be combined with the performance of other functions.
Key supporting roles
Encourager. His job is to be friendly, praise others for their ideas, agree with them, and positively evaluate their contributions to solving the problem; resolve conflicts between team members.
Giving shape. This person does not control or coordinate the process, but monitors its dynamics and supports it. It creates an environment in which every team member strives to perform at their best.
Executor Must follow team decisions while being thoughtful about other people's ideas.
Setting criteria is obliged to establish criteria that should guide the group when choosing substantive (or procedural) points (or evaluating the team’s decision).
Responsible for external contacts. His task is to connect the team with the outside world.
Many people combine different roles. A combination of roles balances the functions and abilities of the people on the manager's team.
49. SELF-MANAGED TEAMS
Self-Managed Teams- These are working groups that are given significant autonomy. Such teams take full responsibility for the behavior of their members and the results of their production activities. Members of a self-managed team can have several professions, i.e. they are multi-professionals. This allows them to move from one task to another depending on the needs of the group.
Team meetings take up a significant amount of time as team members gradually take on more and more management responsibilities. As they gain more experience, self-managed teams are able to propose changes to the pay system or production organization.
There are no problems with the adaptation of a newcomer to the team, since the “veterans” are always ready to provide him with all possible assistance and pass on to him knowledge about organizational behavior and culture.
TO benefits self-managed teams include:
Increasing flexibility and developing the potential of human capital within the boundaries of human capabilities;
Increased productivity and reduced need for specialized specialists;
The emergence of a powerful synergistic effect;
Reducing absenteeism and tardiness rates;
High team loyalty, increased level of job satisfaction.
Self-managed teams are a brilliant example of the application of organizational behavior and participatory management principles. Their growing popularity is largely due to the fact that as formal groups they enjoy the support of the organization, allow them to reach a significant proportion of the company's employees, and are developmental models of organizational behavior.
50. LIFE CYCLE OF AN ORGANIZATION
Widespread concept life cycle organization - its changes with a certain sequence of states when interacting with the environment. There are certain stages that organizations go through, and the transitions from one stage to another are predictable, not random.
There are four main stages life cycle of an organization: 1) the firm expands its operations and accumulates resources; the organization is built on a functional principle, the leadership is autocratic; 2) resources are rationalized, further growth becomes selective as the need for increased efficiency arises; 3) expansion into new markets begins in order to optimally use resources; 4) new structures are being created to optimize work and rational planning; At this stage of evolution, the company decentralizes.
Dividing the life cycle of an organization into appropriate time periods involves the following stages.
1. Entrepreneurship stage. The organization is in its infancy; the product life cycle is being formed. The organization's goals are still unclear; progress to the next stage requires a stable supply of resources.
2. Collectivity stage. The innovative processes of the previous stage are developed, and the mission of the organization is formed. Communication and structure within the organization remain informal. Members of the organization spend a lot of time developing contacts and demonstrate high levels of commitment.
3. Stage of formalization and management. The structure of the organization is stabilized, rules are introduced, and procedures are defined. The emphasis is on innovation efficiency and sustainability. The role of the top management of the organization is increasing, the decision-making process is becoming more balanced and conservative.
4. Stage of developing the structure. The organization increases product output and expands the service market. Leaders identify new development opportunities. The organizational structure becomes more complex and mature. The decision-making mechanism is decentralized.
5. Decline stage. As a result of competition and a shrinking market, the demand for the organization's products or services decreases. Leaders are looking for ways to hold onto markets and seize new opportunities. The need for workers, especially the most valuable specialties, is increasing. The number of conflicts is often increasing. New people are coming to management to try to stem the downward trend. The mechanism for developing and making decisions is centralized.
51. TYPES OF ORGANIZATIONAL MANAGEMENT
Moving on to creating conditions for economic growth and high quality goods and services, the organization must choose a type of management that corresponds to the characteristics and objectives of this stage, guided by its goals.
Organizational behavior choices
Characteristics of the organization: Main purpose
Control type – operational: Profit maximization
Control type – strategic: Profit maximization taking into account the interests of society
Characteristics of the organization: The main way to achieve goals
Control type – operational: Optimizing the use of internal resources
Control type – strategic: Establishing a dynamic balance with an uncertain and unstable environment
Characteristics of the organization: The importance of the time factor
Control type – operational: Not the most important factor in competition
Control type – strategic: The most important factor in competition
Characteristics of the organization: Short-term performance evaluation
Control type – operational: Profitability
Control type – strategic: Accuracy of forecasting changes in the internal environment and time of adaptation to changes in the external environment, quality of goods and services
Characteristics of the organization: Attitude towards staff
Control type – operational: Employees are one of the organization’s resources
Control type – strategic: Employees are the most important resource of an organization
The main criterion when choosing the type of management of an organization should be the implementation of effective activities while simultaneously planning for the future. Organizational maturity manifested in the fact that the main attention is paid to the efficiency of innovation and stability, product output increases and the service market expands, managers identify new opportunities for organizational development. All this is aimed at ensuring the strategic viability of the organization, maintaining and strengthening its stable position in the market. At the maturity stage, it is especially important to periodically and timely adjust the management structure of the organization, abolish bodies that have completed their task, timely introduce new divisions into the structure, create temporary target structural units to solve certain problems, allocate specialists to analyze the state of affairs and develop development prospects, etc. . P.
52. ORGANIZATIONAL CULTURE AND ITS TYPES
In concept "organizational culture" includes ideas, beliefs, traditions and values that are expressed in the dominant management style, methods of motivating employees, the image of the organization, etc.
Properties of organizational culture:
Forms employees’ ideas about organizational values and ways to follow these values;
Community: knowledge, values, attitudes, customs are used by a group to meet the needs of its members;
The basic elements of an organization's culture do not require proof - they are self-evident;
Hierarchy and priority: any culture involves ranking of values; Absolute values are often put at the forefront, the priority of which is unconditional;
Systematicity: organizational culture is a complex system that combines individual elements into a single whole.
Among the functions of organizational culture are:
1. Are common functions are divided into regulatory and reproductive functions. Regulatory functions provide adaptive (external) and integrative (internal) tasks of the organization.
2. K specific The following functions include:
Security: culture serves as a kind of barrier to the emergence of undesirable tendencies and negative values characteristic of the external environment;
Integrating: by instilling a certain system of values that synthesizes the interests of all levels of the organization, organizational culture creates a sense of identity of interests of individuals and separate groups;
Regulatory: organizational culture includes informal, unwritten rules that indicate how people should behave in the process of work;
Substituting, or function of a substitute for formal relations;
Educational and developmental;
Quality management function;
The function of adapting a business organization to the needs of society;
The function of legitimizing organizational activities.
Organizations with strong culture have a coherent set of values and norms that closely bind their members to each other and promote their involvement in the process of achieving organizational goals. Weak culture Gives vague guidance on how employees should behave. In organizations with weak cultures, formal organizational structure rather than values and norms are primarily used to coordinate organizational behavior.
53. THE SIGNIFICANCE OF ORGANIZATIONAL CHANGE
Organizational changes is the company’s mastery of new ideas or behavior patterns. The activities of an organization are a constant response to the need for changes coming from both the internal and external environment. Managing the change process requires guided and long-term development of both leaders and the organization. Change is not an end in itself, it is constant process.
The drivers of organizational change exist both inside and outside the organization. External forces are formed in all sectors of the external environment (consumers, competitors, technologies, national economy, international sphere). Domestic the driving forces of change arise from the activities of the organization itself and the management decisions made within it (growth strategy, demands of employees, trade unions, low productivity indicators).
When making decisions to reorient the internal activities of the organization, management must be proactive and reactive, that is, either be active themselves or respond to the requirements of the situation. Be proactive- means to anticipate events, initiate changes, strive to control the very destiny of the organization. Behavior reactive character is a response to current events, adaptation to changes, and mitigation of their consequences.
Changes may concern any aspect or activity factor companies, which include:
Basic structure. The nature and level of business activity, legal structure, ownership, sources of financing, the nature of international operations change, mergers, divisions occur, joint ventures or projects are created;
Goals and objectives of the activity. Modification of goals is necessary even for the most successful organizations, if only because current goals have already been achieved;
Technology used. Equipment, materials and energy, technological and information processes are changing;
Management processes and structures. The internal structure of the organization, the content of labor processes, decision-making processes, and information systems are changing. Structural change is one of the most common and visible forms of change in an organization. This is a real need when there are significant changes in goals or strategy;
Organizational culture. Values, traditions, informal relationships, motives and processes, and leadership style are changing. The most common and effective tool for changing the culture of an organization is training;
Human factor. Management and subordinates, their level of competence, motivation, behavior and labor efficiency change;
Organizational performance. The financial, economic and social aspects of its activities are changing, and its business prestige in the eyes of the public and business circles is changing.
54. RESISTANCE TO ORGANIZATIONAL CHANGE AND ITS TYPES
Resistance to change– these are any actions of employees aimed at discrediting, delaying or opposing the implementation of changes in the labor process.
Often employees resist change for no apparent reason. Effective change management requires management to identify counteracting factors and the ability to apply methods to involve employees in the change process.
The reaction of employees to changes in the work process is complex and prevents them from directly adapting to the changes. First of all, changes affect the attitudes of each employee and cause certain reactions determined by attitude towards changes. One type of psychological protective mechanisms is stereotypes, preventing the correct perception of innovations.
Often, in an effort to maintain balance, the group makes attempts, regardless of the changes that occur, to keep attitudes and assessments intact by any means. Consequently, every external influence causes opposition within the group. Thus, each group is a self-correcting mechanism, whose task is to restore balance at the slightest threat of change. This characteristic of organizations is called homeostasis.
There are three main type of resistance to change, influencing the formation of a negative attitude of employees towards change.
Logic resistance– means employees disagree with facts, rational arguments, and logic. Occurs due to the real time and effort required to adapt to changes, including mastering new job responsibilities. These are real costs that employees bear, even though in the long term we are talking about changes that are favorable to them, which means that management needs to compensate them one way or another.
Psychological resistance– based on emotions, feelings and attitudes; internally “logical” from the point of view of the employee’s attitudes and feelings about change. Employees may be afraid of the unknown, distrust managers, and feel a threat to their safety. Even if the manager considers such feelings unjustified, he must take them into account.
Sociological resistance- the result of the challenge that changes pose to group interests, norms, and values. Since public interests (political coalitions, the values of trade unions and various communities) are a very significant factor in the external environment, management must carefully consider the attitude of various coalitions and groups to change. At the small group level, change jeopardizes the values of friendships and the statuses of team members.
55. REASONS FOR RESISTANCE TO CHANGE ON THE SIDE OF ORGANIZATIONAL PERSONNEL
Reasons for resistance to change:
Employees’ feeling of discomfort caused by the very nature of the change, when employees show uncertainty about the correctness of the technical decisions being made and negatively perceive the uncertainty that has arisen;
Fear of the unknown, threat to the safety of their work;
Methods for implementing changes when employees are unhappy with the restriction of information, do not accept an authoritarian approach that does not involve their participation in implementing changes;
Employees feel unfair because someone else is benefiting from the changes they make;
Feeling that change will lead to personal losses;
The belief that change is not necessary or desirable for the organization.
Experience shows that most often employee resistance to innovation occurs in cases where:
The goals of the changes are not explained to people;
Employees themselves were not involved in planning these changes;
The traditions of the team and their usual style and mode of operation are ignored. Formal and informal groups will stubbornly resist innovations that threaten their usual relationships;
It seems to subordinates that a mistake was made in preparing the reforms; especially if people suspect that there is a threat of a salary reduction, demotion or loss of favor with the manager;
Perestroika threatens subordinates with a sharp increase in the volume of work. A similar threat arises if the manager did not bother to plan changes far enough in advance;
People think that everything is fine;
The initiator of reforms is not respected and has no authority;
When planning reforms, the team does not see the final result;
The worker does not know what his personal benefit will be;
The subordinate does not feel the confidence or conviction of the leader;
Reforms are proposed and implemented in a categorical manner, using administrative methods;
Innovation may entail staff reductions;
The team doesn’t know how much it will cost (costs, effort);
Reform does not bring quick results;
The reforms will benefit a narrow circle of people;
The progress of the reform is rarely discussed in the team;
There is no atmosphere of trust in the team, etc.
56. METHODS OF OVERCOMING RESISTANCE
Methods by which you can reduce or completely eliminate resistance:
transfer of information– open discussion of ideas and activities will help employees become convinced in advance of the need for change;
involving subordinates in decision making. This allows employees who may be resistant to freely express their views on these innovations, potential problems and changes;
relief and support– means by which employees fit into the new environment more easily. For example, a manager can provide emotional support, such as listening carefully to employees or giving them some time to relax after a stressful period. There may be a need for additional professional training to improve the skills of employees;
negotiations to ensure approval of innovations. The implication is that the consent of those who resist is obtained through material incentives. For example, management may offer the union higher wages or promise not to fire workers; or the manager is offered a more interesting job if he recognizes the need for change;
co-optation- giving a person who can or is resisting change a leading role in making decisions about the introduction of innovations and in their implementation. For example, a worker or group of employees who are skeptical about future innovations may be placed on a committee that analyzes the technology being used and determines which machines should be purchased;
maneuvering in order to reduce resistance to change - selective use of information or drawing up a clear schedule of activities and events in order to have the desired impact on subordinates;
compulsion– the use of formal power by management, aimed at encouraging staff acceptance of changes, when opponents of change are faced with a choice between transformations and deprivation of part of their remuneration or work. Coercion should be resorted to in critical situations when the very fate of the organization depends on achieving a result;
senior management support– indicates that transformations are of great importance for the organization. Such support is especially necessary in cases where changes affect several departments or when their implementation involves the redistribution of resource flows.
57. ROLE OF THE MANAGER WHEN CARRYING OUT CHANGES IN THE ORGANIZATION
Managers play a decisive role in initiating and implementing change, as they are responsible for developing a strategy for change and planning activities for its implementation.
A huge role in the process of implementing changes belongs to transformative leaders, i.e., managers who initiate strategic changes aimed at strengthening and developing the organization’s position. They are the ones who formulate the vision and “show the product face to face,” help employees see the big picture, strive to create a continuously learning organization and employees, and prepare them to solve complex problems.
Qualities of a transformative leader
1. Creative in And denition. Transformational leaders create and promote their vision for the organization, that is, the long-term image of the company expressed in a certain form, or an idea of what the company can and should become. IN And activity forces employees to distract themselves from immediate problems, take a more active part in the activities of the organization, and form common beliefs and values, which are the basis for changing the organizational culture.
2. The presence of communicative charisma. The transformational leader needs to convince employees that what is being proposed in And making the company's future realistically achievable, and motivating them to transform the future into the present. Charisma- one of the characteristics of leadership, the ability of a leader to influence employees, to encourage them to take constant actions desired by the leader. Charismatic leaders take the risks of change by demonstrating a high degree of competence and grounded self-confidence. Employees treat such leaders with great respect and trust, and tend to express emotional commitment to them. And Denia. But charismatic leaders (like all managers) need to recognize the emotional vulnerability of employees during change and take actions to reduce employees' fear while encouraging them to make changes.
3. Ability to provide stimulating training. The most important task of transformations (and managers) is to develop the potential abilities of employees for creative perception and learning from the experience of changes. Double loop learning: the information obtained during the implementation of the change (first cycle) allows for more effective management of future transformations (second cycle). Such training develops employees' forecasting skills and overcoming their own paradigms. This is different from unit learning loop, when employees resolve current problems by adapting to changes imposed on them from above.
58. ESSENCE OF CHANGE STRATEGY
Let's consider a model of the process of successful management of organizational change, consisting of several stages and developed by L. Greiner.
1. Pressure and inducement. Management must recognize the need for change.
2. Mediation and reorientation of attention. Although management may sense the need for change, they may fail to make an accurate analysis of the problems. The services of an external consultant who can objectively assess the situation may be required. You can also involve your employees as intermediaries, but on condition that they can be considered impartial and express an opinion that is unlikely to please senior management. For mediation to be effective, it must result in a change in orientation, and this involves the perception of new points of view.
3. Diagnosis and awareness. Management collects relevant information, determines the true causes of problems that require a change in the existing situation.
4. Finding a new solution and obligations to implement it. After recognizing the existence of a problem, management looks for a way to correct the situation.
5. Experiment and detection. An organization rarely takes on the risk of making major changes in one fell swoop. She is more likely to test planned changes and identify hidden challenges before implementing innovations on a large scale.
6. Reinforcement and agreement. The final step is to motivate people to accept the change by convincing them that the change is beneficial to both the organization and themselves. Possible ways to reinforce agreement to innovation are praise, promotion, increased pay for higher productivity, permission to take part in a discussion of the process of introducing innovations, problems, amendments that need to be made, etc.
Participation in organizational development, that is, the participation of an organization, department or work group in various planned activities during the implementation of an organizational development program, involves improving the functioning of the organization by enabling its members to more effectively manage the culture of the group and the organization.
The essence of organizational behavior, various aspects of managing the behavior of individuals and groups in an organization are considered, the specifics of managing organizational behavior in conditions of organizational changes in Russia and foreign countries are shown. For teachers, graduate students and students of higher educational institutions, managers of human resources services of enterprises.
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The given introductory fragment of the book Organizational behavior (L. V. Zgonnik, 2015) provided by our book partner - the company liters.
Topic 1. FUNDAMENTALS OF ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIOR. THEORIES OF BEHAVIOR IN ORGANIZATIONS
1.1. Theoretical Foundations of Organizational Behavior
The modern period of development of the Russian economy is characterized by overcoming the inertia of socio-economic processes of the administrative-planned economy, an essential modification of the role of man in the reproduction process. In particular, within the framework of the system of state regulation, this is manifested in the tendency to consider human capital as an alternative to the raw material orientation of the national economic model. At the same time, the human-centric paradigm is systemic in nature and involves the implementation of tactical and strategic development measures at all socio-economic levels based on an integrated consideration of human motives, goals, needs, and capabilities.
The evolution of the development of personnel management in organizations includes various approaches, scientific schools and directions that use the concepts of “resources”, “capital”, “factor” in relation to the organization’s personnel, thereby showing that personnel are completely free from the components of the mechanistic perception of a person in production.
Among modern management theorists and practitioners, the transition of advanced countries into the era of “information society”, following the period of industrial society and defined as “post-industrial” and “consumer society”, indicates that, based on high achievements in the field of scientific and technological progress, high capital-labor ratio, the determining factor in development has become information available anywhere on the planet, processed by employees and the basis for decision-making, and the main subject of business interests is the consumer.
However, in the modern socio-economic system, it is impossible to win the competition in the market only through the achievements of technology and technology. It is required to use a more promising and effective resource, which can only be a person with his creative and physical potential, the ability not only to simply reproduce the workforce, but also to self-development.
Scientific and technological progress objectively stimulates the growth of requirements for the quality of the workforce; workers have become more educated and literate, including in legal terms, and more free to create their own organizations. The self-awareness of workers and their level of self-esteem have grown, which can be considered as one of the reasons why modern Western management as a science, in fact, deals largely with organizational behavior.
Organizational behavior is a complex applied science about psychological, socio-psychological, social and organizational-economic aspects and factors that influence and largely determine the behavior and interaction of organizational subjects - people, groups, the team as a whole with each other and with the external environment. Among these aspects and factors are status, role, individual characteristics, goals, interests, value orientations, motives, incentives, system properties, features of ontogenesis, etc.1
Organizational behavior is also defined as a field of knowledge that seeks to understand and learn to predict the behavior of people in an organization, as well as to manage this behavior.
The subject of research in organizational behavior is the social, socio-psychological and psychological patterns of behavior of subjects of an economic organization in an environment associated with production, distribution, exchange, consumption, management and ownership2.
The main goals of studying organizational behavior include the following:
– a systematic description of people’s behavior in various conditions arising during the work process;
– prediction of employee behavior in the future;
– mastering the skills of managing people’s behavior in the labor process and improving them3.
The main practical goal of studying organizational behavior is to determine ways to increase the efficiency of human work, both individual and collective.
The main scientific management school of organizational behavior is the empirical one, which carefully studies the situational experience of a large number of organizations in order not only to replenish theoretical knowledge, but also to form a scientifically based set of models of organizational behavior.
Organizational behavior is based on studies of economic psychology and economic sociology, however, unlike these sciences, which cover all economic processes, it only considers what is happening in business organizations and focuses on the contingent of line managers4.
Organizational behavior can rightfully be considered as a basic discipline, mastery of which allows line and functional managers and leaders to better understand the causes and factors of people’s behavior in a business organization and, on this basis, increase the efficiency of managing the leading factor of production - personnel - and ensure the competitiveness and survival of the organization5.
The scope of organizational behavior is usually formed through the interaction of four basic factors: personnel, organizational structure, technology and the external environment in which a particular organization operates. The interdependence between these factors can be characterized as follows:
1. The performance of work by the organization’s personnel presupposes the coordination of its efforts, which means that the framework and rules of coordination, power and influence must be defined, i.e., a certain structure of formal relations must be created.
Qualitative indicators of work come first in the labor process: attitude to work, innovative thinking, creativity, reliability, responsibility, etc. Today we have to deal more with the human capital of the organization, which is complex and truly invaluable, but only if it formed for this particular organization according to certain rules and laws (corporate human capital).
At the same time, within the framework of human capital at the organizational level, it is necessary to distinguish between special capital, formed as a result of a person’s practical activity, the realization of work abilities, and highly specialized human capital, which represents a set of, on the one hand, psycho-emotional, motivational, mental attitudes, and, on the other, accumulated a person of general and specific knowledge, skills, and abilities. Possession of highly specialized human capital increases the degree of coordination of corporate and private economic interests, since it is highly specialized capital that carries the charge of the industry competitiveness of the corporation.
Special and highly specialized human capital differ in the time factor of formation: the latter has a longer period of formation and payback. This can be confirmed by the fact that, as a rule, in organizations, workers who have just joined the production process are less effective, even if they have a higher educational level. At the same time, highly specialized capital is less liquid in the labor market than general or special capital.
On the one hand, this is consistent with corporate interests, since it ensures an increase in labor productivity, an increase in the socio-economic efficiency of the corporation, while maintaining the required level of its reproduction, it reduces the risk of possible losses when an employee is fired.
On the other hand, for an employee, focusing on the processes of formation and reproduction of highly specialized human capital (except for the initial stage of work) can subsequently lead to a decrease in competitiveness in the labor market and deformation, a decrease in a certain part of the total human capital (in particular, the health fund) during the transition to a similar industry company. The reason for this lies in the different levels of corporate social responsibility, management system, organizational culture, etc., which cause internal competition between the employee’s informal norms and, as a result, a state of distress.
2. In the labor process, workers use production equipment (organization property), organizational structures and technologies.
The organizational structure determines the formal relationships within the team, allows for effective coordination of the efforts of employees, sets the boundaries and forms of power, leadership and influence in the organization, and involves the development of a structural scheme of subordination and interaction, cooperation or competition within the framework of the mechanism for implementing management decisions.
Technological support includes material resources involved in the management and production process. The level of technology and technology has a significant impact on labor relations, but activities at a particular workplace have their own psychological specifics. Technology allows you to do more and work better, but it also imposes qualification restrictions, which can lead to increased costs for the organization.
3. The organization as a system as a whole and its constituent subsystems (personnel, technology, organizational structures) are subject to influence from the external environment. At the same time, by producing and selling goods (services), each of the elements of the system individually and the entire organization as a whole influence the external environment.
Every organization exists within a more complexly structured system. Changes in the external environment increasingly influence the organization, leaving it with a choice:
a) close external boundaries and not change adequately to the external environment, provided that the organization does not have time to improve;
b) constantly transform, adapting to the environment, as well as staying ahead of changes by developing the potential of its employees.
No organization can avoid the influence of the external environment, which affects both the situation of people and working conditions, generating competition for access to resources and factors of production. Therefore, when studying human behavior in organizations, it is imperative to take into account the impact of numerous and systemically differentiated environmental factors.
Basic approaches to organizational behavior 6
Cognitive approach evaluates a person on higher criteria than other approaches, focusing on the positive and voluntary aspects of human behavior. Concepts such as motivation, expectations, needs and rewards are used.
Cognition as a basic element of the cognitive approach is the act of perceiving some information. From the perspective of this approach, acts of cognition precede behavior, causing a contribution to a person’s way of thinking, to his expectations, perceptions, problem solving and information processing.
Behaviorist approach explains human behavior using the fundamental principle of “stimulus-response (response)”. Cognitive processes such as thinking, expecting, and perceiving may occur but are not necessary to predict, control, and manage behavior.
Social learning approach integrates the achievements of cognitive and behaviorist concepts. This approach essentially recognizes that behavior is best explained in terms of a continuous interaction between cognitive, behavioral, and environmental factors. The individual and the situation determined by the environment do not function as independent elements: they interact in combination with behavior itself, determine the nature of human behavior, with the possibility of analyzing human behavior, cognition, changing and constructing the environment by people, applying rules and symbolic processes in teaching people. The social learning approach is an adequate conceptual model of organizational personnel behavior that facilitates understanding, prediction and control.
1.2. Models of organizational behavior
“Behavior is the externally observable motor activity of living beings, including moments of immobility, the executive link of the highest level of interaction of the whole organism with the environment. The source of behavior is the needs of a living being. Behavior is carried out as a unity of mental - incentive, regulatory, reflective links (reflecting the conditions in which the objects of the creature's needs and drives are located) and executive, external actions that bring the body closer or further away from certain objects, as well as transforming them. Human behavior is always socially conditioned and acquires the characteristics of conscious, collective, goal-setting, voluntary and social activity”7.
Real work behavior includes several forms. Correctly determining the form of behavior of a particular employee makes it possible to determine adequate methods of adjustment and increase the validity of predicting behavior8.
Target forms of behavior are determined by the employee’s desire for a particular goal. The first group of goals is related to job responsibilities and functions performed in the workplace. The form of behavior in this case is called functional work behavior and is determined by the content and organization of work.
Target economic behavior determined by the desire to achieve a high level of well-being and quality of life. It is believed that this form of behavior results from a constant comparison of the costs of one’s own labor with compensation for them. Several formulas for such behavior can be distinguished: “maximum income at the cost of maximum effort”, “minimum income with minimum effort”, “maximum income with minimum labor”.
They are classified as a separate subspecies organizational behavior, which is associated with the reaction of employees to the use of various incentive methods, regulation of activities, regulations, administrative instructions that ensure the achievement of the organization’s goals. Essentially, it is a piece of behavior “regulated” by an organization that allows it to get the results it wants.
An employee planning his career, professional development, and growth of qualifications with the goal of moving up the steps of the hierarchy shows target stratification behavior , i.e., strives to change its status.
Workers with innovative behavior Non-standard solutions often come to mind; they are constantly looking for ways to improve content, organization, and working conditions. Not all of their proposals can be implemented, but such employees ensure the progress and future of the organization, as evidenced by the practice of Japanese firms.
In a situation of change (place of work, team) it is typical adaptive behavior , capable of leaving an imprint on a person’s activities and distorting the correct perception of him by others.
The stability of the organization's structure, the continuity of its traditions and customs is achieved through ceremonial subordination component of behavior. The rules of etiquette, the manner of addressing employees, superiors, and subordinates reproduce the culture of the organization and its structural features.
The following models of organizational behavior are also distinguished9:
1. At the core authoritarian model lies power. In order to force a subordinate to fulfill the duties assigned to him, the manager must have the appropriate authority to impose penalties on a subordinate who does not obey orders. At the same time, managers are focused on formal, official powers, resort to strict control over the labor process, suppress potential leaders and the manifestation of initiative.
2. Guardian model characterizes the search for a method that promotes the development of workers' sense of job satisfaction and a sense of security, which would reduce the level of disappointment and aggression, improve the quality of work, and lead to the implementation of social security programs.
The success of the guardianship model depends on economic resources. The efforts of the organization's management are aimed at obtaining the funds necessary to pay wages and provide social benefits. The main benefit of the custodial model is that it gives employees a sense of security and satisfaction.
3. Support model organizational behavior is based on the principle of supportive relationships. At the same time, management and other organizational processes must ensure the maximum likelihood that, when interacting with the organization, each of its members, with experience and certain expectations, will feel supported, allowing him to maintain a sense of self-worth and significance.
The supportive model is especially effective when combined with other organizational behavior models. It meets the desire of employees to satisfy a wide range of their needs.
4. Collegiate model behavior is typical for a group of people striving to achieve a common goal: people’s activities are determined by a creative attitude to work responsibilities, since it is most adequate to their intellectual needs; employees develop a sense of partnership and self-discipline; Employees who feel a sense of responsibility independently set certain boundaries for their behavior in the team.
Most types of economic behavior of business entities, be it, for example, market, traditional, egocentric, humanistic, have their origin, implementation and theoretical differentiation based on the criterion of economic rationality, which is often understood as maximizing subjective benefit in conditions of absolute freedom of choice of market alternatives and complete possession of information.
From the point of view of the volume and object of property rights in the modern Russian economy, one can distinguish a “rent-oriented” and “profit-oriented” model of economic behavior.
Under “rent-seeking” behavior refers to the extraction of personalized benefits through government benefits or the use of a monopoly position within the framework of access to government or any other limited funds (resources).
The interest of the organization’s personnel (hired employees) in maximizing the income received will be carried out within the framework of “profit-oriented” models of economic behavior implementation.
Taking into account that any model of economic behavior is determined by endogenous (business practices) and exogenous factors (sociocultural norms, economic culture), as well as integral (essential) characteristics of economic entities, we can draw the following conclusion. The determinant of rent-seeking behavior is the real and potential possibility of using a “monopoly” position within a certain complex economic unit, which involves limiting the sphere of influence of a simple economic unit on production processes, its powers in the process of making economic decisions through the functioning of the institution of private property.
Questions for self-control:
1. Expand the subject of science and academic discipline “Organizational Behavior” and its connection with other management disciplines.
2. What are the differences between management and organizational behavior?
3. Describe known models of organizational behavior.
4. Name the distinctive features of social learning theory.
3. Fundamental concepts of organizational behavior
Determinants of Organizational Behavior
The nature of an organization is formed through the interaction of various factors and conditions, the diversity of which can be classified according to four areas - people, organizational structures, technology and the external environment, in which this organization operates (Figure 1).
People
Individuals
External environment
Macro environment
Microenvironment
Organizational behavior
Structure system of subordination and interaction
Technologies
Technological chain
Equipment
and software
security
Figure 1 – Main factors determining organizational behavior
The fulfillment of work tasks by employees of an organization requires the coordination of their efforts, which means that a certain structure of formal relations must be created in the company. Since the work process typically uses production equipment, people, organizational structures and technology interact in the work process. In addition, the elements we have considered are influenced by the external environment and, in turn, have an impact on it.
PEOPLE. An organization's employees form its internal social system, which includes individuals and groups (large and small, formal and informal). One of the main characteristics of groups is their high dynamics (formation, development and collapse). People (employees) are living, thinking, feeling beings whose activities are aimed at achieving the goals set for the organization.
Modern organizations are significantly different from their predecessors. Managers are faced with increasingly complex challenges. They must not only recognize the inevitability of different employee behavior patterns, but also be prepared to adapt to them.
ORGANIZATIONAL STRUCTURE. Organizational structure determines formal relations between people and allows them to be used to achieve company goals. Carrying out various types of activities presupposes that the organization employs representatives of a variety of professions occupying various positions. Effective coordination of their efforts requires the development of some kind of structural scheme. The relationships of individuals within this structure create complex patterns of cooperation - coordination, adoption and implementation of decisions.
Some time ago, the prevailing trend was to simplify many organizational structures, mainly through the reduction of middle management positions, caused by the need to reduce costs while maintaining the competitiveness of the company. In addition, the process of consolidation of organizations (mainly in the form of mergers and acquisitions) is gaining momentum. Some organizations are experimenting with hiring temporary (so-called situational) employees to perform specific tasks.
TECHNOLOGY. Technological support represents material resources involved in the process of management and production. The level of technology and technology has a significant impact on labor relations. Technology allows you to do more and work better, but it also imposes restrictions (based on the level of qualifications of employees), i.e. its use has both benefits and costs. Computerization of production, redistribution of labor from the production sector to the service sector, the widespread introduction of computers and the development of user-oriented software, the rapid development of the capabilities of the Internet - all these factors are putting increasing pressure on industrial enterprises, complicating the problems of ensuring a conflict-free balance of technical and social systems.
ENVIRONMENT. The “life” of an organization takes place within the “framework” of the internal and external environment. Not a single organization, be it a factory or a school, has the opportunity to avoid the influence of the external environment, which affects both the position of individuals and working conditions, generating intense competition for access to resources and energy. Therefore, when studying human behavior in organizations, it is imperative to take into account the influence of numerous environmental factors.
1
Concept of organizational behavior
Modern changes in the environment have led to a change in management paradigm. The new approach consists in recognizing the primacy of the individual in the organization, his knowledge, and skills for effective operation.
An individual who comes to work in an organization assumes a number of restrictions on his behavior dictated by the regulations, the norms of this organization, and the corporate code of conduct. In the 20th century the employer entered into a moral contract with the employee, according to which, in exchange for loyalty to the organization and willingness to follow instructions, the employee received guarantees of employment, career growth, and material remuneration.
Today, employers need knowledge much more than simple performance discipline. The ability to learn begins to be valued over devotion. As a result, a new type of organizational contract appears, which has the nature of a commercial partnership: the parties undertake to interact as long as it is beneficial to each of them, but to cooperate with maximum impact in the form of creativity on the part of the employee and creating conditions for this creativity on the part of the organization. As a result, relations within the organization change; the market component (component) is strengthened in them, which represents a more rigid form of relationship that requires adequate behavior of both the employee and the employer. This situation makes it especially relevant to develop modern approaches to teaching EP when preparing specialists to work in changing conditions.
For the first time, the concept of “organizational behavior” (hereinafter OP) was used by the American psychologist F. Roethlisberger (50s of the 20th century), while studying organizations. But the systematic development of organizational behavior as an academic discipline began in the 70s. in the USA (F. Lutens, 1976)
The concept of “organizational behavior” was introduced in connection with the need to designate a variety of behavioral reactions of an individual (group) to organizational influences (incentives, role and administrative requirements, regulations and sanctions), as well as in connection with the variability of the types of these reactions. The need to study organizational behavior is that:
1. behavioral reactions to homogeneous external influences are varied;
2. the behavior of people in and outside the organization is different;
3. behavioral reactions of the same person (group, organization) are different in different situations.
Organizational behavior– changing each other’s reactions in the process of interaction to achieve set goals. Behavior is a person’s reaction to internal and external influences. The essence of management from the perspective of organizational behavior is to direct the entire team of the organization in one direction.
Organizational behavior is a science that studies the behavior of people (individuals and groups) in organizations with the aim of practical use of the acquired knowledge to improve the efficiency of a person’s work activity.
Organizational behavior- this is the behavior of employees involved in certain management processes that have their own cycles, rhythms, pace, structure of relationships, organizational framework of requirements for employees. These processes, on the one hand, are directed by the efforts of managers at all levels of management, and on the other hand, they are implemented in the behavior of direct participants, i.e. workers at different management levels.
Objects of EP study
Behavior of individuals in an organization;
Problems of interpersonal relationships in the interaction of two individuals (colleagues or “boss-subordinate” pairs);
The dynamics of relationships within small groups (both formal and informal);
Emerging intergroup relations;
Organizations as holistic systems, the basis of which are formed by intra-organizational relationships (for example, strategic alliances and joint ventures).
Most scientific disciplines (and OP is no exception) pursue four goals– description, awareness, prediction and control over certain phenomena.
The objectives of the OP are:
1. systematic description behavior of people in various situations arising in the process of work;
2. explanation of reasons actions of individuals in certain conditions;
3. behavior prediction employee in the future;
4. mastering behavior management skills people in the process of work and their improvement.
Organizational behavior can be classified as follows:
1. According to the degree of awareness of human behavior: conscious and unconscious.
2. By goals: aimed at solving individual, group, and organization-wide goals.
3. By type of subject-carrier: individual, group, role and organizational.
4. By type of influence on the subject-carrier: reactive (reaction to appropriate sanctions from the leader, group or organization), conformal (reproduction of the behavior of the leader, group), role-playing (response to the impersonal requirements of official and professional regulations).
5. According to the consequences of the implementation of this type of behavior for the group: constructive (focused on strengthening unity or increasing the efficiency of the group) and destructive (leading to disintegration and a decrease in the efficiency of the group or organization).
6. According to the form of the course: cooperative (oriented towards maintaining cooperation) and conflict.
The essence of OP lies in the systematic, scientific analysis of the behavior of individuals, groups, organizations in order to understand, predict and improve individual performance and functioning of the organization, taking into account the influence of the external environment. OP involves the study and formation of the behavior of individuals and groups in order to achieve the organization’s goals and increase the efficiency of its activities. OP is a multi-discipline (cross-discipline) because it uses principles and methods borrowed from other disciplines: organization theory, psychology, social psychology, management, personnel management. In turn, EP represents the basis for the study of a whole range of management disciplines. The OP has a clear orientation towards the individual within the group, its behavior: people within the group, their feelings, perceptions, receptivity to new things, reaction to the environment.
Characteristic features of the OP
One of the main distinguishing features of the science of organizational behavior is its interdisciplinary nature.
Another distinctive feature of the OP is its systematic nature, based on research results and conceptual developments.
The third feature of OP is the constantly increasing popularity of theories and research from practicing managers. Modern managers are very receptive to new ideas; they support OP research and test new models in practice.
Surveys - interviews, questionnaires, testing - measuring the level of satisfaction with work, the organizational climate of the team, interviews can also be conducted by phone;
Collection of fixed information - study of documents existing in the organization and regulating the activities of employees and groups (charter of the organization, corporate code of conduct, contracts, job descriptions, regulations on departments);
Observations - study of the situation, the state of the workplace, the appearance of employees in accordance with the requirements of organizational culture;
Experiments – conducting laboratory or natural experiments;
Internet using.
The research currently being conducted on the Internet relates to a wide range of issues and areas and is cognitively oriented, i.e., it concerns primarily cognitive processes in various fields of activity, including EP. Studying OP via the Internet has a number of advantages:
1) saving resources when conducting a survey: time, money and other resources;
2) the ability to ensure greater accuracy by involving a larger number of subjects;
3) ease of changing methodological tools at the stage of development and testing;
4) reducing the influence of the experimenter;
5) use of additional software control when performing tasks.
However, these advantages come with certain difficulties, especially for the OP. For example, the user becomes completely anonymous, which can lead to decreased control over the subject’s behavior and distortion of information about the respondent.
In order to reduce data distortion, the following procedures are used: simultaneous comparisons of data obtained through the network with data obtained traditionally, as well as with theoretical concepts.
2. Fundamental concepts of OP
All social (and natural) sciences are based on a philosophical foundation of basic concepts that guide their development. OP is based on a number of basic ideas about the nature of humans and organizations (Table 1), which are the same “time-tested” principles.
Table 1 – Basic concepts of organizational behavior
Human nature
It is customary to distinguish six basic concepts that characterize any individual: individual characteristics, perception, personality integrity, motivation of behavior, desire for complicity and personal value.
INDIVIDUAL CHARACTERISTICS. The idea of individual characteristics originated in psychology. From the day they are born, each person is unique, and the individual experiences they acquire make people even more different from each other. The presence of individual characteristics predetermines the fact that the most effective motivation of employees presupposes a specific approach of the manager to each of them. The idea that each person is unique is usually called the law of individual characteristics.
PERCEPTION. Each of us individually perceives the events happening around us. Our attitude to objective reality passes through the filter of individual perception, which is a unique way for each person, formed on the basis of accumulated experience, of seeing, systematizing and interpreting things and events.
The unique vision of each of us proves that we behave not like machines, but like human beings.
INTEGRITY OF PERSONALITY. Of course, organizations would happily jump at the opportunity to “hire” an individual's qualifications or analytical abilities, but in reality, companies have to deal with the whole person, and not with individual qualities. Professional skill does not exist without experience and knowledge, a person’s personal life cannot be completely separated from the labor process, moral conditions are inseparable from physical ones. Each of us is a complete human being.
The implementation of the EP assumes that the organization’s administration needs not just qualified employees, but developed individuals.
MOTIVATED BEHAVIOR. One of the main principles of psychology states that normal human behavior is formed under the influence of certain factors that may be associated with the needs of the individual and/or the consequences of his actions. When we are dealing with human needs, it is necessary to remember that the motives of people are by no means what we think they should be; they are what people themselves desire.
Motivating employees is an essential attribute of any organization. Regardless of the technologies and equipment at its disposal, these resources cannot be used until the labor of pre-motivated people is applied to them.
VALUE OF PERSONALITY. Every employee of the organization would like an attentive and respectful attitude from management. The theory that man is one of the economic instruments has long lost popularity. Today, the high value of qualifications and abilities, opportunities for self-development of each employee are in fashion.
The nature of organizations
The foundation of the organizational concept is formed by three main “stones” - the proposition that organizations are social systems that are formed on the basis of mutual interests, and relations between management and employees are based on certain ethical principles.
SOCIAL SYSTEMS. In sociology, it is generally accepted that organizations are social systems, the activities of which are regulated both by the laws of society and by psychological laws. In fact, two social systems exist side by side in an organization. One of them is a formal (official) social system, the other is an informal one.
The social system assumes that the organization's environment is subject to dynamic changes, all its elements are interdependent and each of them is influenced by any other element.
COMMUNITY OF INTERESTS. Organizations need people, and in turn, people need organizations. Every organization has certain social goals. They are formed and conduct their activities on the basis of a certain community of interests of their members. Managers need hired workers, because without them it is impossible to carry out the organization’s tasks; employees need company because it helps them achieve their personal goals. In the absence of reciprocity, there is also no common basis on which something valuable to society is created. As shown in Figure 2, a community of interests determines the organization’s ultimate task, which can only be solved by the combined efforts of employees and employers.
ETHICAL PRINCIPLES. In order to attract and retain valuable employees (whose demand is constantly increasing), organizations base their activities on compliance with ethical principles. An increasing number of firms are recognizing this need and are developing various programs to promote high moral standards for both managers and employees. Companies adopt codes of ethics, provide ethics training, reward employees for ethical behavior, promote positive behavior models, and establish internal procedures to monitor compliance with moral principles.
The ethics of the organization's goals and actions is the main prerequisite for the emergence of a triple reward system, i.e. achieving the goals of individuals, organizations and society. Collaboration and working in teams increases individuals' satisfaction with the nature of their work because they gain opportunities for learning and personal growth and feel that they are making a valuable contribution to the achievement of common goals. In turn, the efficiency of the organization as a whole increases: product quality improves, service improves, and costs are reduced. But perhaps the greatest benefit accrues to a society that enjoys high-quality goods and services, increases the potential of its citizens, and creates an atmosphere of cooperation and progress.
Employee Goals
Super task,
expressing
community
interests
Organizational goals
Employees
Organization
Society
Ethical principles
Joint
implementation
tasks
Figure 2 – Community of interests of workers and organizations and society