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Social dynamics are the processes of society in the process of its development, transition from one state to another.
The term social dynamics, both in our and foreign literature, is interpreted ambiguously.
The aggravation of social dynamics, the fundamental logic of behavioral stereotypes and old values lead to a sharp increase in the role of society and its influence on the individual. In other words, today the social level clearly dominates the humanitarian and psychological level, and the individual characteristics of people adapt to new socially significant patterns associated with the realities of a market economy. Shifting the center of gravity to the social level, due to its objective-logical nature, allows us to achieve a mass effect when using social technologies.
The source of social dynamics, which adds to the anatomical (structural) dimension of society also the physiological (characterizing its growth and development), to social harmony - the vertical melody, to the peace of repetition of the same thing - progress associated with the emergence of a new, more complex - are according to Comte, forces of different orders.
For Lavrov, social dynamics was not the self-development of social forms in the spirit of the spontaneous evolution of Comte or the organic development of Spencer; he did not think of it as extra-personal. For some formulations he was even reproached for sociological nominalism, but in essence this was unfair. Watson, he defended biographies as a scientific subject.
The spiral type of social dynamics reflects a set of genetically related processes that negate each other, and is revealed when summed up large quantity data at relatively long stages of historical development. During each negation, the phenomenon passes not only into another qualitative state, but also into its opposite.
The fundamental law of social dynamics (also known as the law of progress) is, therefore, that every upsurge, every impulse of the spirit evokes - by virtue of universal consensus - a corresponding response in everyone without exception. public areas- art, politics, industry. And everywhere the spirit plays a leading role, forming the power center of social evolution. Despite the fact that, having (therefore) his task - to moderate them, and not to command them, he needs the impulses delivered by desires, passions and feelings.
Meanwhile, the concept of social dynamics reflects a certain and very significant aspect of social development as a whole. From the totality of diverse changes in historical reality, the concept of social dynamics absorbs and concentrates its attention on one side - the direction of social changes, their trajectory. In this regard, we can distinguish cyclical, linear and spiral types of social dynamics.
A reflection of the cyclical type of social dynamics are theories of the historical cycle that are well known to the reader, extremely diverse in the material used by the authors, the form of presentation, methods of argumentation, and the vision of world-historical prospects. If for Vico fundamental principle advocates the unity of world history, then Danilevsky, on the contrary, proceeds from the denial of this unity and considers the history of society as a set of different cultural and historical types, each of which ceases to exist after going through a certain life cycle.
If the concept of the type of social dynamics reflects the trajectory, the direction of historical movement at one stage or another (or at several stages combined), then the concepts of evolution and revolution reflect the nature of these changes.
Intensive interaction with other cultures acts as a factor of social dynamics and, therefore, a stimulus for stratification processes. In this case, society develops objective criteria for assessing its movement, receiving additional incentives for the development of normative scales of statuses and positions.
Comte's doctrine of social dynamics contains an evolutionary model of society, built using concepts drawn from the history of religion. This is the doctrine of the progress of society, which passes through three stages corresponding to periods human life- childhood, adolescence and adulthood. The first stage is theological, at this stage a person tries in vain to achieve unconditional knowledge of the inner essence of phenomena and the reasons for their occurrence. The explanation is based on the principle of analogy: things and active forces are endowed with human properties, for example, will. At this stage, religious consciousness is represented by three types: fetishistic, polytheistic and monotheistic. The last type already marks the decomposition of theological thinking and the transition to speculative speculation, which dominates the philosophical or metaphysical stage. The dominance of abstract concepts sets in, deities give way to essences, personified abstractions. On third and last stage In this history of the spirit, as a principle of general human development, man no longer strives to know the final causes, but, by observing phenomena, to establish natural connections between them.
In the doctrine of social dynamics, Comte characterizes the development of society as natural and progressive.
Social genetics (or social dynamics): 1) determines historical trends or lines of development that are found outside the time-repeated development of both all social life and its individual aspects or institutions and 2) explains deviations and deviations from these trends.
The second part of sociology - social dynamics should be, according to Comte, general theory natural progress of humanity, studying the causes and patterns of social change, because the historical development of society is associated with the processes of evolution and progress, and the most powerful factor determining progress was the human mind.
Historical process
Basic Concepts: historical process, types of social dynamics, factors of social change, subjects of the historical process.
Terms: philosophy of history, evolution, revolution, reform, masses, historical figure.
Historical process- this is a consistent series of successive events in which the activities of many generations of people were manifested. The historical process is universal; it covers all manifestations of human life from obtaining “daily bread” to studying planetary phenomena.
The real world is populated by people, their communities, therefore the reflection of the historical process should be, according to N. Karamzin’s definition, “a mirror of the existence and activity of peoples.” The basis, the “living fabric” of the historical process is made up of events, that is, certain past or passing phenomena, facts of social life. This entire endless series of events in their unique appearance inherent in each of them is studied by historical science.
“In determining the tasks and directions of our activities, each of us must be at least a little historian in order to become a conscious and conscientious citizen.”
V. O. Klyuchevsky
There is another branch of social science that studies the historical process , philosophy of history. Some questions of the philosophy of history (the meaning and direction of social development) were reflected in the previous paragraph, others (problems of progress) will be revealed in the next. This section examines the types of social dynamics, factors and driving forces of historical development.
Philosophy of history is a field of philosophy that studies the internal logic of the development of society, general nature historical process, its most general laws. The philosophy of history strives to pose and solve a specific problem of the meaning and direction of social development.
Types of social dynamics. The historical process is society in dynamics, that is, in movement, change, development. The last three words are not synonyms.
In everyday activities, established social relations retain their qualitative characteristics; society as a whole does not change its character. This manifestation of the process can be called the functioning society.
Social change- this is the transition of certain social objects from one state to another, the emergence of new properties, functions, relationships in them, i.e. modifications in social organization, social institutions, social structure patterns of behavior established in society.
Changes that lead to deep, qualitative shifts in society, transformations of social connections, the transition of the entire social system to a new state are called social development.
Social dynamics- process changes social system. Social dynamics includes the possibilities of simple reproduction (zero changes) of the social system; but it directly manifests itself in such interconnected aspects of the historical process as linear (progress And regression), cyclical And spiral movement society. Various aspects of the historical movement are reflected in the concept types of social dynamics.
Types of Social Dynamics- a concept that captures certain characteristics of the process of social change. The following types are distinguished.
1) Linear motion as an ascending or descending line of social development. This type is associated with the concepts of progress and regression, which will be discussed in the following lessons.
2) Cyclic movement combines the processes of emergence, flourishing and collapse of social systems that have a certain length in time, after which they cease to exist. (You were introduced to this type of social dynamics in previous lessons.)
3) Spiral movement is associated with the recognition that the course of history can return a particular society to a previously passed state, but characteristic not of the immediately preceding stage, but of an earlier one. At the same time, the features characteristic of a long-gone state seem to be returning, but at a higher level of social development, at a new qualitative level. It is believed that the spiral type is found when reviewing long periods of the historical process, with a large-scale approach to history.
To explain the idea of spiral motion, let's look at an example. You probably remember from your history course that a common form of manufacturing was dispersed manufacturing. Industrial development led to the concentration of workers on large factories. And in the conditions of the information society, there is a return to working from home: an increasing number of workers perform their duties on personal computers without leaving home.
In science there were supporters of recognizing one or another of the named options for historical development. But there is a point of view according to which linear, cyclical, and spiral processes appear in history. They appear not as parallel or replacing each other, but as interconnected aspects of an integral historical process.
Social change can occur in various forms. You are familiar with the words “evolution” and “revolution”. Let's clarify their meaning.
Evolution- gradual, continuous changes, transforming one into another without jumps or breaks. Evolution is contrasted with the concept of “revolution,” which characterizes abrupt, qualitative changes.
Social revolution- a radical qualitative revolution in the entire social structure of society: deep, fundamental changes covering the economy, politics, and the spiritual sphere. In contrast to evolution, a revolution is characterized by a rapid, spasmodic transition to a qualitatively new state of society, a rapid transformation of the basic structures of the social system.
As a rule, a revolution leads to the replacement of an old social system with a new one. The transition to a new system can be carried out both in relatively peaceful forms and in violent ones. Their ratio depends on specific historical conditions. Revolutions were often accompanied by destructive and cruel actions and bloody sacrifices. There are different assessments of revolutions. Some scientists and politicians point out their negative features and dangers associated both with the use of violence against a person and with the violent rupture of the very “fabric” of social life - public relations. Others call revolutions “locomotives of history.” (Based on knowledge from your history course, determine your assessment of this form of social change.)
When considering the forms of social change, we should remember the role of reforms. You came across the concept of “reform” in your history course.
Social reform- 1) a type of evolutionary changes that do not change the fundamentals of the system; reorganization of any aspect of social life (institutions, institutions, orders, etc.) while maintaining the existing social system; - 2) deep reforms, which, in terms of their scale and consequences, can lead to a radical renewal of society, avoiding shocks associated with spontaneous manifestations of violence inherent in social revolutions.
Reforms are usually carried out “from above”, by the ruling forces.
Factors of social change. The word “factor” means the cause, the driving force of the historical process, determining its character or individual features. There are various classifications of factors affecting the development of society. One of them highlights natural, technological and spiritual factors.
Factors of social change– causes, driving forces of the historical process, determining its content. These types of reasons include natural, technological And spiritual phenomena.
French educator of the 18th century. C. Montesquieu, who considered natural factors to be decisive, believed that climatic conditions determine the individual characteristics of a person, his character and inclinations. In countries with fertile soil, the spirit of dependence is easier to establish, since people engaged in agriculture have no time to think about freedom. And in countries with cold climates, people think more about their freedom than about the harvest. From such reasoning, conclusions were drawn about the nature political power, laws, trade, etc.
Other thinkers explained the movement of society as a spiritual factor: “Ideas rule the world.” Some of them believed that these were the ideas of critically thinking individuals who created ideal projects for social order. And the German philosopher G. Hegel wrote that history is ruled by “world reason.”
Another point of view was that human activity could be scientifically explained by studying the role of material factors. The importance of material production in the development of society was substantiated by K. Marx. He drew attention to the fact that before engaging in philosophy, politics, art, people must eat, drink, dress, have a home, and therefore produce all this. Changes in production, according to Marx, entail changes in other areas of life. The development of society is ultimately determined by the material and economic interests of people.
Many scientists today believe that it is possible to find the determining factor in the movement of society by isolating it from others. In the conditions of the scientific and technological revolution of the 20th century. They recognized technique and technology as such a factor. They associated the transition of society to a new quality with the “computer revolution”, the development of information technologies, the consequences of which are manifested in economics, politics, and culture.
The views presented above are opposed by the position of scientists who deny the possibility of explaining historical changes by any one factor. They explore the interaction of a variety of causes and conditions of development. For example, the German scientist M. Weber argued that the spiritual factor plays no less a role than the economic one, and that important historical changes took place under the influence of both.
These factors have an active influence on people's activities. Everyone who carries out this activity is subjects of the historical process: individuals, various social communities, their organizations, great personalities. There is another point of view: without denying that history is the result of the activities of individuals and their communities, a number of scientists believe that only those who are aware of their place in society, are guided by socially significant goals and participate in the struggle rise to the level of the subject of the historical process for their implementation.
Subjects of the historical process– 1) everyone who carries out social activity, individuals, various social communities, their organizations, great personalities; – 2) only those who are aware of their place in society, are guided by socially significant goals and consciously participate in the struggle for their implementation
The role of the people in the historical process. This role is interpreted by scientists in different ways. Marxist philosophy asserts that the masses, which include primarily the working people, are the creators of history and play a decisive role in the creation of material and spiritual values, in various fields ah socio-political life, in defense of the homeland.
Some researchers, characterizing the role of the masses, prioritize the composition of social forces striving to improve social relations. They believe that the concept of “people” has different content in different historical eras, that the formula “the people are the creator of history” means a broad community that unites only those layers and classes that are interested in the progressive development of society. With the help of the concept of “people,” in their opinion, the progressive forces of society are separated from the reactionary ones. The people are, first of all, the working people; they always constitute the bulk of the people. At the same time, the concept of “people” also covers those layers that, not being workers, at a given stage of historical development express the interests of the forward movement. As an example, they usually cite the bourgeoisie, which in the 17th-19th centuries. led anti-feudal revolutions.
The Russian historian V. O. Klyuchevsky (1841 -1911) did not saturate the concept of “people” with social content, but put ethnic and ethical content into it. “The people,” wrote V. O. Klyuchevsky, “are characterized by ethnographic and moral connections, a consciousness of spiritual unity, brought up common life and cumulative activity, community of historical destinies and interests.” Those historical eras are especially significant, noted V. O. Klyuchevsky, “in the affairs of which the entire people took part and thanks to this they felt whole, doing a common cause.”
Statements that glorify the people are opposed by other judgments of thinkers. A. I. Herzen (1812-1870) wrote that the people are conservative by instinct, “they cling to the life that depresses them, to the narrow frames in which they are included... The further the people are from the movement of history, the more persistent they are clings to what has been learned, to what is familiar. He even understands new things only in old clothes... Experience has shown that it is easier for peoples to bear the violent burden of slavery than the gift of excessive freedom.”
The Russian philosopher N.A. Berdyaev (1874-1948) believed that the people may not have democratic convictions: “The people may not have a democratic way of thinking at all, may not be at all democratically inclined... If the will of the people is subordinated to evil elements, then it is the enslaved and enslaving will.”
Some works emphasize the difference between the concepts of “people” and “mass”. The German scientist K. Jaspers (1883-1969) noted that the masses should be distinguished from the people. The people are structured, aware of themselves in the principles of life, in their thinking, traditions. The mass, on the contrary, is not structured, does not have self-awareness, it is devoid of any distinctive properties, traditions, soil - it is empty. “People in the mass,” wrote K. Jaspers, “can easily lose their heads, indulge in the intoxicating opportunity to become simply different, to follow the pied piper who will plunge them into the abysses of hell. Conditions may arise in which the reckless masses will interact with the tyrants who manipulate them."
For the normal functioning of the people, the presence of special layers called elites is also important. This is a relatively small number of people occupying leading positions in the political, economic, and cultural life of society, the most qualified specialists. These people are supposed to have an intellectual and moral superiority over the masses, a supreme sense of responsibility. According to a number of philosophers, elites play a special role in the management of society and in the development of culture.
Popular masses(as a subject of the historical process) is a polysemantic concept that acquires one or another meaning depending on the characteristics included in the concept of “people” when considering its historical role.
1) In the Marxist understanding, to the masses These include, first of all, workers who are the “true creators of history” and play a decisive role in the creation of material and spiritual values. At the same time, the concept of “people” also covers those layers that, not being workers, at a given stage of historical development express the interests of the forward movement.
2) In the ethno-ethical interpretation, “the people” are characterized as an organic ethnic community, welded together by moral ties, consciousness of spiritual unity and a common historical destiny, capable of acting as a single force realizing its special purpose in history (for example, V.O. Klyuchevsky).
3) A conservative understanding of the historical role of the “people” makes the masses the bearer of protective social “instincts”, an impersonal force reproducing archaic orders, an opponent of freedom (for example, A.I. Herzen) or gives it the features of a passive, devoid of any ideas « building material“history, equally suitable for the implementation of good undertakings and evil intentions (N.A. Berdyaev).
4) In concepts that distinguish between the concepts of “people” and “mass”, the “people” are structured, aware of themselves in their life principles, in their thinking, traditions; “the mass,” on the contrary, is not structured, does not have self-awareness, it is devoid of any distinctive properties, traditions, or soil (K. Jaspers).
5) Elitist concepts, interpreting the “people” as a passive, low-quality “mass”, deprived of a creative role in history, oppose the masses historically active elite.
Social groups and public associations. Every individual belongs to some community. Speaking about participants in the historical process, we turn to such communities as social groups. The English philosopher T. Hobbes wrote: “By a group of people I mean a certain number of people united by a common interest or common cause" Interests may differ in their focus (state, political, economic, spiritual); can be real, imaginary; can be progressive or regressive , or conservative character. They are the basis for uniting people and mobilize them for common actions.
Historically, stable and long-existing groups of people are formed. You are familiar with the classes (slaves - slave owners, feudal lords - peasants, etc.); tribes, nationalities, nations; estates; groups distinguished by religion (Protestants, Catholics, etc.), age (youth, elderly people, etc.), professional (miners, teachers, etc.), territorial (residents of a particular region) characteristics. Common interests each of the groups is determined by the position of its members in production, social, religious life, etc. At different periods of history, we see certain groups as active participants in events. (Remember the slave uprisings, the struggle of the “third estate” against the monarchy, national liberation movements, religious wars and other facts indicating the active role of various groups society in historical events.)
To protect their interests, social groups create public associations, which include the most active members of the group. Under public associations are understood as formations of citizens based on voluntary participation, community of views and interests, self-government, pursuing the goals of joint realization of their rights and interests. (Remember medieval guilds, political clubs during the period French Revolution.) In modern times, trade unions of hired workers arose. Their task is to protect the economic interests of workers. Entrepreneurial organizations are also being formed to coordinate the actions of entrepreneurs. Agricultural organizations also emerged to express the interests of landowners. We should not forget about such an influential organization as the church. To fight for power in modern times, political parties are created.
Historical figures. At the beginning of the paragraph, the universality of the historical process was noted. Because it covers all manifestations human activity, the circle of historical figures includes figures from various spheres of public life: politicians and scientists, artists and religious leaders, military leaders and builders - all those who left their individual imprint on the course of history. Historians and philosophers use various words to evaluate the role of a particular person in history: historical figure, great man, hero. Reflecting the notable contribution of a particular figure to history, these assessments; at the same time, they depend on the worldview and political views of the researcher and are largely subjective. “The concept of “great” is a relative concept,” wrote the Russian philosopher G. V. Plekhanov.
The activity of a historical figure can be assessed taking into account the characteristics of the period when this person lived, his moral choice, and the morality of his actions. The assessment can be negative or positive, but most often it is multi-valued, taking into account positive and negative sides this activity. The concept of “great personality”, as a rule, characterizes the activities of people who have become the personification of radical progressive changes. " great person“, - wrote G. V. Plekhanov, “is great because he has characteristics that make him most capable of serving the great social needs of his time... A great man is precisely a beginner, because he sees further than others and wants stronger than others. He decides scientific problems, put on the queue by the previous course of mental development of society; it indicates new social needs created by the previous development of social relations; he takes upon himself the initiative to satisfy these needs.”
“A great man is judged only by his main deeds, and not by his mistakes.”
Related information.
If there are no changes in society, then it dies and begins to stagnate (rot). Society is a living dynamic system, subject to the influence of both internal and external forces. The structural elements of society (social groups, social institutions, communities) enter into various complex interactions. This constant interaction naturally leads to changes in society, which can occur both at the micro level, i.e. are caused by the influence of the role of an individual, changes in the status of this individual, and at the macro level.
Social change, as noted by sociologists A.A. Radugin and KA. Radugin, this is the transition of social systems, communities, institutions and organizations from one state to another. P
The concept of “social change” is general in nature and can be specified by the concept of “development”, which in a narrow sense means “an irreversible change in objects”, which implies a transition from simple to complex, from lower to higher. This is a movement of society that is not associated with any changes, but with deep ones that change the structure of society, leading to the emergence of new social relations, institutions, norms and values. However, in everyday speech, as a rule, the concept of “development” is used as a synonym for the concept of “change”. And in this case, we can say that the concept of “development” is used not in a narrow, but in a in a broad sense.
Social changes occurring in society may include population growth, changes in relations between social groups, electoral system, in personal rights, etc. Changes may relate to the field of inventions, to the rules of the Russian language, moral standards, etc.
Social changes vary not only in scale, but also in depth. From the totality of social changes, the following types can be distinguished: cyclic, linear, nonlinear.
Cyclic type
Sociology focuses on repeating cyclical processes. In social life, cyclical processes are as widespread as in nature. As is known, there are astronomical cycles (day, night, seasons), biological cycles (birth, childhood, adolescence, maturity, old age, death). There are also cycles in Everyday life(weekends and weekdays), etc. Political, economic, social cycles: political crises are replaced by political stability, economic prosperity is followed by decline, an increase in the level of well-being of the population alternates with its decline, etc. In other words, social life is like a cycle. Each of the processes in society replaces another. Each of the processes exhausts its potential. Socio-historical development goes in a circle, which allows us to talk about its certain reversibility.
Cyclicality means repeating past trends, but with some new variations. Each of the cyclic processes has similarities between the repeating states of the system and the number of repetitions in the cycle. The duration of the cycle can be short or long. Cycles differ in the number of phases, rhythm, acceleration or deceleration of intervals. Cyclic processes contribute to the reproduction of the social system, the reproduction of its functions (production of material goods, their distribution, regulation of people’s behavior, etc.), the reproduction of social communities (ethnicities, nations, classes, strata), the reproduction of sustainable forms of activity (scientific, industrial, artistic and etc.), social roles (doctor, lawyer, educator, military man). Cyclicity gives rhythm to social processes and is a way of existence and preservation of society. It is very important to know that each new cycle is not an absolute repetition of the previous one. Reproduction of society does not mean complete substantive identity of the phases of the cycle, the beginning and end of the cycle.
Therefore, cyclical changes are not in pure form circular processes. Therefore, Eurocentric ideas about absolute stagnation in the 17th century are incorrect. XVIII centuries eastern countries, such as China, whose history for a long time was a typical example of cyclical development that rejected cultural and technical innovations. Yet today's dynamic China largely reproduces traditional relations.
Modern sociologists consider it possible to identify forms of cyclical changes. Such forms of cyclic processes are called pendulum-type changes, wave movements, and spiral movements. Movements, or changes, like a pendulum, are considered the simplest form of a cyclic process. An example of such a movement is the investment social policy, when funds for the development of the social sphere of society either increase or, on the contrary, decrease, that is, return to the original amount. An illustration of wave processes in society is, say, the cycle of technical innovations, which reaches its wave peak and again declines, as if fading.
The spiral type is the most complex shape cyclical changes. Spiral dynamics are defined according to the now classic formula - “a return to the supposedly old, a repetition of the old on a different level.” It is a process of change in which renewal and obsolescence are only partial. Each cycle of a changing phenomenon (process) seems to deny the previous one, turning into its opposite, into a different quality and at the same time, as it were, returning to its previous state. But this return to the old is carried out at a new level, with the discovery of new properties. The spiral model is an image of social continuity. Spiral processes are realized in society, both ascending and descending. This means that the spiraling cycle of change cannot be understood only as progressive, upward. There are also downward spiral processes that indicate dysfunction in society, its death and decline. An example of a spiral process is the relationship of man to nature. In primitive times, nature was perceived by man as a blind dominant force. From modern times to the 20th century, thanks to scientific and technological progress, man acquired new technological capabilities and considered himself its conqueror and ruler. And only now did he realize his organic connection with nature and the need for a humane attitude towards it.
In addition to cyclical changes occurring within the framework of a qualitatively single social system, sociologists and cultural scientists especially highlight cyclic changes occurring in the cyclic dynamics of sociocultural systems. Therefore, it is appropriate, in addition to the system-functional cycle, which has been discussed so far, to talk about the historical cycle. The historical cycle, highlighted by such thinkers as D. Vico, N. Danilevsky and others, reflects the unity of the process of emergence, flourishing and collapse of sociocultural systems, emphasizing a certain period of life of society. The concepts of these cultural scientists strive to show the unity of world theory, its repeatability, the conjugation of ascending and descending lines, or they consider history as a set of different cultural and historical types that have their own life span (cycle).
Linear type
The linear type of social change considers the entire history of mankind as a single and, most importantly, directed process. The linear type of social dynamics arose as a result of the influence of biblical historiosophy, the Judeo-Christian tradition and turned into public consciousness into the idea of evolutionism, into the idea of progress. Linear progress is directed towards the future and is perceived as moving forward in time and space.
The peculiarity of linear dynamics is that each stage of social progress, each stage of movement acts as a moment of genetic continuation of the previous stage. Linear processes partially absorb the properties of previous ones, enrich and develop them.
The most striking expression of linear ideas are the ideas of social evolutionism. The theories of social evolutionism, despite all their diversity, represent a desire to comprehend the historical process as a single line, as part of the overall diverse linear cosmic evolution, which incorporates the complex evolutionary processes of the Earth and the entire planetary system.
There are known classical theories of social evolution by G. Spencer, E. Durheim, F. Tennis, as well as modern theories formulated by R. Aron, W. Rostow, D. Bell, Z. Brzezinski, A. Toffler and others. Let us focus on the main provisions , put forward by these theorists, bearing in mind that previous topics have already discussed their concepts.
The evolutionary process, from the point of view of G. Spencer, consists in the complication of the forms of social life. Social life as it is influenced by various external conditions becomes more complex, heterogeneity increases in the subsystems that make up society. Thus, society differentiates, and this rate of differentiation accelerates as complexity increases. Differentiation means the division of functions between parts of society, its subsystems, and the development of specialization. Evolutionary changes increase the harmony of social processes and promote the integration of the parts that make up society. Thus, the main idea of Spencer's social evolutionism is the idea of differentiation and integration. Society is developing in the direction from simple, traditional, to differentiated, complex, rational, and increasingly integrated. E. Durkheim saw the process of evolution as a movement from a society with an undeveloped division of labor, a segmental structure and mechanical solidarity of its members to a society with a developed division of labor, a complex structure and organic solidarity. Mechanical solidarity, according to E. Durkheim, exists in traditional societies, where the collective absorbs the individual, where there are common norms of behavior and values. Thus, solidarity between individuals is determined by the uniformity of social life in each segment of society, the undeveloped division of labor, which is why he called it mechanical. Organic solidarity, on the contrary, is due to the developed division of labor, which puts individuals in close dependence on each other, the weakening of prohibitions and an increase in the degree of individual freedom of individuals. The transition from mechanical to organic solidarity is the evolution of society, the source of which lies in the deepening division of labor and social differentiation.
F. Tönnies presented in his book “Community and Society” two types of society - a peasant, village community (in German - “Gemeinschaft”) and an industrial, urban society (“Gesellschaft”). Thus, the process of evolution is directed from traditional society to modern society. Tennis identified five main features that distinguish these societies, which can be called types of relationships. A peasant, village community assumes that in it the behavior of individuals and their roles are determined by community principles, traditions, religious values, and limited (underdeveloped) specialization. The main unit of this society is the family, the community. In urban society, everything happens the other way around. Here, social roles and individual behavior are determined by the desire for personal gain, submission to formal laws, performance of specialized formal roles, and secular values. The main unit of urban society is corporate and associative forms of uniting people.
R. Aron and W. Rostow are the authors of the theory of industrial society, which is replacing the backward agrarian, “traditional society” with a predominant subsistence economy and a class hierarchy. Industrial society is characterized not only by developed specialization of labor and a management system, but also by mechanization and automation, the development of the scientific and technological revolution, and the mass production of goods for the general public.
In the second half of the 20th century, the theories of “post-industrial society,” which is also called the “information society,” became widely known and further developed. The entire development of human society, from the point of view of the authors of these concepts, goes through three stages: pre-industrial (agrarian), industrial and post-industrial. In a post-industrial society, knowledge, intelligence, information, creative activity, embodied in man.
It must be said that linear dynamics presupposes not only progress, not only movement forward into the future, but also regression, that is, it is perceived as a descending line in changes in society. However, regression should not be understood as a simple repetition in reverse order of already completed stages. An absolute repetition of the past is impossible in new, changed conditions, therefore it is more correct to talk about the asymmetry of linear processes. Linear progress and regression replace each other in the historical process. History is never completely reversible.
Sociologists also distinguish types of social change. Special meaning have innovative changes that turn into a factor in social development.
These include various discoveries and inventions. Humanity knows many discoveries that have changed its fate and the appearance of the planet (the wheel, the alphabet, the steam engine, the automobile, the doctrine of conditioned and unconditioned reflexes, the periodic table, electoral democracy, etc.).
Often innovations turn out to be incompatible with the existing culture, and then a lot of time passes before the innovation is accepted by society. And yet it happens that innovation is rejected by society. For example, in Russian society such values of liberal democracy as economic individualism, inviolability of private property, etc. cause distrust. If technical, material inventions can be tested and verified quickly enough, then social innovations prove their feasibility for a long time. Therefore, social innovations, for example, even necessary laws, you have to overcome resistance, and sometimes even protest social groups before these laws prove their effectiveness.
What are the causes of social change? With some degree of convention, we can distinguish two main approaches that respond to this very complex issue. The source of social change, from the point of view of most sociologists, is located within society itself, that is, it lies in the interaction of its structures, spheres, groups, etc. Social conflict plays a decisive role in the change and development of society. At the same time, Marxists identified the conflict between opposing classes, parties, and ideologies as the basis of social change. All social history in Marxism appears as the history of the struggle of the oppressed classes and the oppressors. Social contradictions in the Marxist concept there is a source of development.
Non-Marxist modern theory conflict in the person of L. Coser, R. Dahrendorf, L. Gumplowicz, E. Giddens and others also considers conflict as a natural phenomenon, as a way of movement and development of society. Conflict is an integral feature of social life. The task of society is to learn to resolve conflicts, to regulate them rationally, and not to suppress them. The conservation of the conflict will inevitably lead to high voltage in society and ultimately - to an explosion of socio-political activity and the destruction of the social system.
The difference between the Marxist and non-Marxist schools of conflict lies in the interpretation of the content of the conflict. For example, the German sociologist R. Dahrendorf believes that the basis of modern social conflict is the relationship of dominance and subordination, which permeates all spheres of society. Such relationships are present in the family, in the student body, in the army, etc. These relationships always, in any society, meet natural resistance. So, if Marxism considers the basis of the conflict to be inequality in relation to the means of production, inequality in the sphere of property relations, then R. Dahrendorf transfers the conflict to another ground - to the sphere of managing people. The Polish-Austrian sociologist L. Gumplowicz explains the conflict from the point of view of social Darwinism and social psychology, since he views it as an expression of human passions: envy, aggression, dissatisfaction, as a merciless struggle.
A different approach in sociology is associated with such a direction as functionalism. Functionalists do not deny the need for social changes in society, including deep ones. But they assume that such changes should not upset the “fluid balance” of the social system. Functionalists prefer to talk more about the equilibrium of society than about conflicts in it. Society must reduce the likelihood of conflict. It is for this “conflictlessness” that representatives of the conflictological movement criticize functionalists.
Nonlinear type
In the 20th century, theory linear changes is subject to criticism. Reality has proven that there are no eternal linear patterns, universal stages of evolution that would apply to the entire world community, to any societies or groups. The linear type of change is just one of many possible ones. For a linear trend to continue permanently, the status quo is required. In other words, it is necessary that the changing object (in this case society) is not exposed to external forces, or this impact must be neutralized in such a way that the social system continues to remain in an equilibrium, balanced state.
However, society is constantly changing, exposed to environment. New types of interactions, new structures and norms emerge. One and the same structural formation is simultaneously involved, as a rule, in many processes. Therefore, we need to be aware of changes in structures and processes occurring simultaneously. Consecutive changes of states and movement of structural elements continuously disrupt the balance of the system. The main subject of social change is man, the people who create the social system and destroy it. It has already been said that people living in society occupy a certain place in social space. This place is determined by status and role, which presupposes that the individual has a set of rights and responsibilities. But the behavior of individuals is much more complex and diverse than the existing structure of roles and statuses.
The interaction of roles and statuses that individuals have occurs in a nonlinear manner. The role of each individual is implemented according to a nonlinear principle. Modern synergetics, which studies the stochastic (random) nature of processes, has had a great influence on the development of the humanities, and especially on sociology and philosophy. Sociology emphasizes that society can change in the most unexpected, unpredictable ways. This happens when the social system cannot restore its balance with the help of previous mechanisms, and the revolutionary or innovative activity of the masses strives to free itself from all systemic and structural restrictions. Then a situation arises when society faces the problem of choosing its new state. This branching, or bifurcation, is called “bifurcation.” It is very important to say that bifurcation means a violation of the logic of previous development, and it cannot be predicted. Society is a system that develops and changes not only due to cause-and-effect relationships and relationships. A society experiencing bifurcation is a chaotic system in which random deviations(fluctuations) replace the previous order.
Thus, the transition of society from one state to another is not always deterministic, and the direction of movement can be unpredictable. The historical process is a fan of possible alternatives, it is a multivariate social development, the source of which is the energy embodied in people's behavior.
The Decembrists faced the need to choose. They might not come out Senate Square(December 12, 1825). There was an alternative to concluding a peace treaty between the USSR and Nazi Germany. During the election campaign, citizens have several options, each of which opens its own path to the future.
The term “social dynamics” is interpreted ambiguously both in our and in foreign literature. O. Comte, who introduced this term into scientific circulation, meant by it unidirectional progressive processes of social development, excluding leaps and breaks. In modern Western sociology, the development of the problem of social dynamics is associated with the name of P. Sorokin, who believed that “like the physiology of the human body, which studies the basic physiological processes that are repeated in human organisms, “social physiology” or dynamics concentrates its attention on the basic social processes that repeat V life story all social groups." So, in the first case, under social dynamics linear processes are understood, in the second - cyclic. In our literature, the concept of “social dynamics” until recently was denied the status of a scientific category. Moreover, in special reference publications it was emphasized that this term retained its meaning only in studies of history and sociology3.
Meanwhile, the concept of “social dynamics” reflects a certain and very significant aspect of social development as a whole. From the totality of diverse changes in historical reality, the concept of “social dynamics” absorbs and concentrates its attention on one side - the direction of social changes, their trajectory. In this regard, we can distinguish cyclical, linear and spiral types of social dynamics.
In social life, cyclical processes are widespread, having their own logic of development and specific forms implementation. They cannot be reduced to random and short-term phenomena in the forward movement of society, to partial “deviations” from the main ascending line, as is often presented within the framework of a purely progressivist approach to the interpretation of social development.
Two classes of cyclical changes can be distinguished: systemic-functional and historical.
The system-functional cycle reflects social changes within the framework of one qualitative state, and the final result of a series of changes becomes the starting point of a new series of similar changes. As a result of the resolution of emerging contradictions within the framework of a given quality, there is a repeated alternation of ups and downs, a repetition of the same phases of the functioning of the social system. It should be emphasized that the reproduction of social quality in an unchanged form does not mean complete substantive identity of the beginning and end of the cycle, and, thus, system-functional cycles are actually quasi-cyclical, quasi-circular processes.
The development of society within the framework of social-functional cycles indicates its relatively stable state: naturally formed social communities (ethnic groups, classes, strata), stable forms of activity of social subjects, their traditional roles in society, political, social and other institutions are reproduced. Thus, self-regulation of society is carried out. A social system that is out of balance returns after a certain time to its original state - a kind of pendulum movement occurs. The cycle is a way of existence and preservation of society, and this is especially clearly revealed in societies that are relatively closed compared to outside world.
The geographical location of a society may have a certain influence on isolation, but the activity of its internal immune systems, which prevent the penetration of innovations, is of decisive importance. Artificial restriction of contacts with the outside world is carried out by various means (political, religious, ideological, etc.), but at the same time a single the main objective-- preservation of the social system in its current form through the sustainable reproduction of traditional relationships and connections. Such societies, of course, change, although in general their development is hampered and they do not move to the next stage for a more or less long time. Examples of such development include classical nomadic societies, some archaic agricultural communities, as well as eastern civilizations, often called “traditional.”
When comparing the dynamics of two societies (one with a predominance of linear processes, and the other with a predominance of cyclical ones), ideas about absolute stagnation often arise in socio-philosophical literature. A striking example of such ideas are the Eurocentric views that formed in the 18th-19th centuries. IN Western countries At this time, a linear process of development of capitalist relations was observed. Comparing it with eastern societies, in particular China, many thinkers (I.G. Herder, A.I. Herzen, N.Ya. Danilevsky, N.G. Chernyshevsky) defined the latter as stagnant societies. Meanwhile, the history of China, where feudal relations dominated for almost two millennia, is typical example cyclical development, conditioned, on the one hand, by geopolitical isolation and, on the other, by high internal stability and regulation. Political centralization, a strict hierarchical structure of power, regulation of economic life, the socio-economic ethics of Confucianism, which rejected and suppressed cultural, ideological and technical innovations - all this was a prerequisite for increased stability Chinese society. Even numerous movements of the popular masses contributed to the stabilization and ordering of society, because they freed it from certain obvious vices. And only in the second half of the 19th century. cyclical processes began to show a tendency to transform into linear regression. This trend manifested itself in the form of increasing paralysis of power, a decline in the living standards of the majority of the population, and declassification. And yet, the loss by society of certain results achieved earlier occurred while maintaining and reproducing, in the main features, traditional relations and forms of activity.
The historical cycle is the unity of the processes of genesis, flourishing and collapse of social systems and reflects the real fact that society, like any material formation, has a certain life span, after which it ceases to exist. Of course, the disappearance of a social organism does not occur completely without a trace: in each individual case, a certain connection with it of the formations that arose in its place is preserved. This was the case in the territory of the former Roman Empire, where a number of independent states arose, which in the Renaissance and Modern times enriched many of the inherited achievements of Roman culture. But in this case it is legitimate to talk about the historical cycles of newly formed states.
Recently, more and more attention has begun to be paid to the development of the question of a possible megacycle in the evolution of the Earth as a planetary system, in which a change from an ascending line to a descending one is not excluded. This problem, first posed (albeit in an abstract form) by Charles Fourier, is becoming increasingly relevant today due to the sharp increase in contradictions on a global scale1.
A reflection of the cyclical type of social dynamics are well-known to the reader theories of the historical cycle, extremely diverse in the material used by the authors, the form of presentation, methods of argumentation, and the vision of world-historical prospects. Let us compare, for example, the concepts of D. Vico and N. Ya. Danilevsky. If for Vico the fundamental principle is the unity of world history, then Danilevsky, on the contrary, proceeds from the denial of this unity and considers the history of society as a set of different cultural and historical types, each of which ceases to exist after going through a certain life cycle.
Unfortunately, the analysis of these theories in the recent past suffered from significant simplification and one-sidedness! Firstly, these theories were strictly opposed to the idea of social progress, although a more careful study of the issue reveals that throughout the development social philosophy circulation theory in various options included this idea, and this is quite logical, because the cycle is the combination of ascending and descending branches of development. Secondly, the emergence of cyclical theories was somewhat directly correlated in the literature with the political sympathies and antipathies of their authors, as well as the moral and psychological atmosphere of the corresponding time. Undoubtedly, these factors leave a certain imprint on any creativity, but the main thing must not be missed: theories of cyclism reflect certain aspects of objective social dynamics and their appearance at different historical stages indicates the essential nature of these aspects. Thirdly, the metaphysical nature of these concepts was somewhat exaggerated; it was forgotten that, within certain limits, the metaphysical approach is legitimate and even necessary.
Extremely great place historical reality is occupied by linear processes. At the same time, the essence of the linear type of social dynamics is not exhausted by linear progress - another historical form of its implementation is linear regression, as a descending line in the development of society, when the process of narrowing occurs functionality social system, ultimately leading to dead-end situations in social development. Linear progress and linear regression represent a contradictory unity of opposites, one of which at a certain stage plays a dominant role.
Considering the relationship between linear progress and linear regression, let us pay attention to the following circumstance. Their understanding as multidirectional vectors of historical development often leads to a significant shift in this emphasis over time. And if linear progress is considered directed towards the future, then linear regression is perceived almost as a backward movement, even in time, as a kind of “progress in reverse.” In reality, linear regression should not be interpreted as a simple repetition in reverse order of previously completed stages and phases. At a new temporary stage of social development, there are different conditions, a different social environment, and therefore a repetition of the old is possible only primarily in relation to form, although, of course, to a certain extent this also applies to content. Old social institutions cannot be revived in their original appearance, because in new historical conditions they turn out to be unable to fulfill their former functions. In this regard, it is legitimate to talk about the asymmetrical orientation of linear progress and linear regression.
A distinctive feature of linear dynamics is its cumulative nature, expressed in the fact that each new phenomenon is not a mechanical addition to the old, but its genetic continuation. During the implementation of linear processes, irreversible states arise that do not completely deny the previous ones, but partially absorb their properties, enrich them, thereby complicating the entire process as a whole. This situation is very successfully illustrated by V.G. Revunenkov when analyzing the development of the French Revolution at the end of the 18th century. Characterizing the period of linear progress in the history of this revolution, V.G. Revunenkov emphasizes that “ main feature The ascending line of the revolution was that at each subsequent stage more and more radical groups of the bourgeoisie came to power, the influence of the popular masses on the course of events grew more and more, and the tasks of bourgeois-democratic transformations of the country were solved more and more consistently”1. At the same time, the stage of linear regression as “the descending line of the revolution did not represent a retreat towards the feudal past; on the contrary, it meant the strengthening and further development of social orders based on private capitalist property and the wage labor system”2. In other words, the descending phase of the revolution realized one of the possibilities genetically inherent in the ascending phase. Linear regression did not consist in a total rejection of the achievements of the first phase, but in a shift in emphasis: bourgeois democracy was replaced by bourgeois authoritarianism, protecting the interests primarily of large owners.
The implementation of a linear type of social dynamics is associated with such a historical phenomenon as the multivariance of social development. It manifests itself to the greatest extent in critical situations, when society faces the problem of historical choice. During these periods, compared to periods of stable functioning, there is a much wider range of possibilities, the diversity of which can be reduced to three main options: conservation of the existing state, forward and downward movement. The last two options are realized in the form of linear trends, and behind each of them there are material and ideological carriers - different classes and social strata, which fight among themselves to direct these trends according to their interests.
Clarification of the limits of the linear dynamics of society is of great theoretical and practical importance. In a broad sense, these limits are limited to the period of quantitative changes between two successive qualitative states of society. In general historical terms, linear progress and linear regression replace each other when the potential for growth on its own basis is exhausted. The nature of the interaction of society with natural and natural resources has a certain influence on the limits of linear dynamics. historical environment. At the same time, the limits of linear progress of society can be expanded by overcoming the historical lag by assimilating the social experience of countries ahead.
A large-scale, panoramic approach to the study of social reality makes it possible to detect in it a spiral type of dynamics, which reflects the direction of processes covering various qualitative states of society. Let us immediately emphasize: in social life, spiraling appears not as the only one, but as one of the relatively independent types of social changes. Such a remark is extremely important, given that in our philosophical literature the opinion of development as occurring exclusively in a spiral has been firmly established.
The spiral type of social dynamics reflects a set of genetically related processes that negate each other, and is revealed when summing up a large amount of data at relatively long stages of historical development. During each negation, the phenomenon passes not only into another qualitative state, but also into its opposite. In the course of subsequent negations, the phenomenon again turns into its opposite and at the same time, as it were, returns to its original state, but this return to the supposedly old is carried out at a new level, with the discovery of new properties. In terms of socio-ontology, this thesis can be illustrated by the example of a spiral associated with the denial of primitive public private property, which today, in turn, is denied by the processes of socialization and socialization. In terms of social and epistemological, we can refer to the following revolution: ancient dialectics - the centuries-old dominance of metaphysics in philosophy and natural science - a return to dialectics. It is quite clear that in both cases we are faced with only an ostensible return, taking place at a qualitatively new level.
Let's try to graphically depict the now familiar three types of social dynamics in Fig. 1
Taoism Confucianism philosophy legalism
Even a cursory analysis of these images reveals that the spiral is a synthesis of a cycle (circle) and a line.
The spiral as a graphic image, a geometric model acts as an analogue of the term “social continuity”, which reflects the dialectical unity of discontinuity and continuity, relative identity and difference, genetic connection successive processes. When a spiral is defined by the formula “return to the supposedly old, repetition of the old on a different level,” then we're talking about, in essence, is about a process of development in which renewal and obsolescence are only partial.
It would be simplistic to interpret the spiral direction as unambiguously progressive, ascending. As part of the development of the social system, downward spiral processes are also realized, which are also natural and make it possible to understand the reasons for the decomposition of a given society. Spiral processes of both directions also take place in the development of culture. So, at the beginning of the 17th century. In the European consciousness, thanks to the intensive growth of scientific and technical knowledge and their implementation in production, the psychology of man as a conqueror of nature began to take shape, which over the next two centuries became a distinctive feature of European humanism. A utilitarian attitude towards nature contributed to the economic and cultural progress of Europe and, in general, provided it with a significant breakthrough compared to other regions. But the 19th and especially the 20th centuries. with their dehumanization of production, environmental crises, etc. showed with sufficient clarity that a certain limit has been reached for the progress of European culture in its traditional forms. Awareness of this fact, on the one hand, entailed a crisis in the former psychology of the “lord of nature,” which was reflected in the widespread dissemination of anti-scientist and anti-technicist sentiments.
In social reality, cyclical, linear and spiral processes appear not as parallel or following each other at certain intervals, but as interconnected, interdependent and interpenetrating moments of the same thing. holistic process development. In other words, the dialectics of social development is such that it simultaneously contains cyclicality, linearity, and spiraling in the diversity of its historical forms of manifestation. Turning, for example, to any transition period, we find within its framework the action of various alternative trends, including those that, in retrospective analysis, qualify as “zigzags.” In reality, these trends represent multidirectional linear processes, reflecting society’s painful search for optimal ways of further development. During this same period, there are both the beginnings of the future society and the remnants of the past, i.e. elements of spiral dynamics of both directions. This situation characterized the period from 1917 to the mid-30s in Russian history, which was replete with various linear processes: “war communism”, new economic policy, “the great turning point”. At the same time, society maintained “ birthmarks» of the past system and the embryos of the future administrative-command system appeared. In general, during the transition period, a cyclical type of social dynamics prevailed in the form of a system-functional cycle, caused by a fierce struggle of opposites (“who will win?”) in economics, politics, and public consciousness.
is a consistent series of successive events in which the activities of many generations of people were manifested. The historical process is universal; it covers all manifestations of human life from obtaining “daily bread” to studying planetary phenomena.
The real world is populated by people, their communities, therefore the reflection of the historical process should be, according to N. Karamzin’s definition, “a mirror of the existence and activity of peoples.” The basis, the “living tissue” of the historical process is events, that is, certain past or passing phenomena, facts of social life. He studies this entire endless series of events in their unique appearance inherent in each of them. historical science.
There is another branch of social science that studies the historical process - philosophy of history. It seeks to reveal the general nature of the historical process, the most general laws, the most significant relationships in history. This is an area of philosophy that studies the internal logic of the development of society, cleared of zigzags and accidents. Some questions of the philosophy of history (the meaning and direction of social development) were reflected in the previous paragraph, others (problems of progress) will be revealed in the next. This section examines the types of social dynamics, factors and driving forces of historical development.
TYPES OF SOCIAL DYNAMICS
The historical process is society in dynamics, that is, in movement, change, development. The last three words are not synonyms. In any society, people carry out a variety of activities and perform their tasks. government bodies, various institutions and associations: in other words, society lives and moves. In everyday activities, established social relations retain their qualitative characteristics; society as a whole does not change its character. This manifestation of the process can be called functioning society.
Social changes - This is the transition of certain social objects from one state to another, the appearance of new properties, functions, relationships in them, i.e. modifications in social organization, social structure, patterns of behavior established in society.
Changes that lead to deep, qualitative changes in society, transformations of social connections, and the transition of the entire social system to a new state are called social development.
Philosophers and sociologists consider various types of social dynamics. The most common type is considered linear motion as an ascending or descending line of social development. This type is associated with the concepts of progress and regression, which will be discussed in the following lessons. Cyclic type combines the processes of emergence, flourishing and collapse of social systems that have a certain length in time, after which they cease to exist. You were introduced to this type of social dynamics in previous classes. Third, spiral type is associated with the recognition that the course of history can return a particular society to a previously passed state, but characteristic not of the immediately preceding stage, but of an earlier one. At the same time, the features characteristic of a long-gone state seem to be returning, but at a higher level of social development, at a new qualitative level. It is believed that the spiral type is found when reviewing long periods of the historical process, with a large-scale approach to history. Let's look at an example. You probably remember from your history course that a common form of manufacturing was dispersed manufacturing. Industrial development led to the concentration of workers in large factories. And in the conditions of the information society, there is a return to working from home: an increasing number of workers perform their duties on personal computers without leaving home.
In science there were supporters of recognizing one or another of the named options for historical development. But there is a point of view according to which linear, cyclical, and spiral processes appear in history. They appear not as parallel or replacing each other, but as interconnected aspects of an integral historical process.
Social change can occur in different forms. You are familiar with the words “evolution” and “revolution”. Let us clarify their philosophical meaning.
Evolution is gradual, continuous changes, transforming one into another without jumps or breaks. Evolution is contrasted with the concept of “revolution,” which characterizes abrupt, qualitative changes.
A social revolution is a radical qualitative revolution in the entire social structure of society: deep, radical changes covering the economy, politics, and spiritual sphere. In contrast to evolution, a revolution is characterized by a rapid, spasmodic transition to a qualitatively new state of society, a rapid transformation of the basic structures of the social system. As a rule, a revolution leads to the replacement of an old social system with a new one. The transition to a new system can be carried out both in relatively peaceful forms and in violent ones. Their ratio depends on specific historical conditions. Revolutions were often accompanied by destructive and cruel actions and bloody sacrifices. There are different assessments of revolutions. Some scientists and politicians point out their negative features and dangers associated both with the use of violence against a person and with the violent rupture of the very “fabric” of social life - social relations. Others call revolutions “locomotives of history.” (Based on knowledge from your history course, determine your assessment of this form of social change.)
When considering the forms of social change, we should remember the role of reforms. You came across the concept of “reform” in your history course. Most often, social reform refers to the reconstruction of any aspect of social life (institutions, institutions, orders, etc.) while maintaining the existing social system. This is a type of evolutionary change that does not change the fundamentals of the system. Reforms are usually carried out “from above”, by the ruling forces. The scale and depth of reforms characterize the dynamics inherent in society.
At the same time modern science recognizes the possibility of implementing a system of deep reforms that could become an alternative to revolution, prevent it or replace it. Such reforms, revolutionary in their scope and consequences, can lead to a radical renewal of society, avoiding the shocks associated with spontaneous manifestations of violence inherent in social revolutions.
It should be recognized that reform and revolution treat an already advanced disease, while constant and early prevention is necessary. This kind of prevention includes INNOVATION and MODERNIZATION processes. Agree, it is not so radical and sensitive for society.
The process of modernization can be illustrated by examples of the gradual transition from feudalism to capitalism in England as a result of industrial revolution. Implementation steam engine, the replacement of manual labor with machine production occurred without control and intervention of the state, very slowly and gradually, without radically breaking the usual way of life. Society managed to adapt to the gradual changes of capitalism.