In the atmosphere, water exists in three states of aggregation - gaseous (water vapor), liquid (raindrops) and solid (crystals of snow and ice). Compared to the entire mass of water on the planet, there is very little of it in the atmosphere - about 0.001%, but its importance is enormous. Clouds and water vapor absorb and reflect excess solar radiation, and also regulate its entry to Earth. At the same time, they block oncoming thermal radiation coming from the Earth's surface into interplanetary space. The water content in the atmosphere determines the weather and climate of the area. It determines what the temperature will be, whether clouds will form over a given area, whether rain will come from the clouds, whether dew will fall.
Water vapor continuously enters the atmosphere, evaporating from the surface of reservoirs and soil. Plants also secrete it - this process is called transpiration. Water molecules are strongly attracted to each other due to the forces of intermolecular attraction, and the Sun has to spend a lot of energy to separate them and turn them into steam. It takes 537 calories of solar energy to create one gram of water vapor - approx. There is not a single substance whose specific heat of evaporation is greater than that of water. It is estimated that in one minute the Sun evaporates a billion tons of water on Earth.
Water vapor rises into the atmosphere along with rising air currents. As it cools, it condenses, clouds form, and at the same time a huge amount of energy is released, which the water vapor returns to the atmosphere. It is this energy that makes the winds blow, carries hundreds of billions of tons of water in the clouds and moistens the surface of the Earth with rain.
Evaporation consists of water molecules breaking off from the water surface or moist soil, moving into the air and turning into water vapor molecules. In the air they move independently and are carried by the wind, and their place is taken by new evaporated molecules. Simultaneously with evaporation from the surface of soil and reservoirs, the reverse process also occurs - water molecules from the air pass into water or soil. Air in which the number of evaporating water vapor molecules is equal to the number of returning molecules is called saturated, and the process itself is called saturation. The higher the air temperature, the more water vapor it can contain. Thus, 1 m3 of air at a temperature of +20 °C can contain 17 g of water vapor, and at a temperature of -20 °C only 1 g of water vapor.
With the slightest drop in temperature, air saturated with water vapor is no longer able to contain moisture and precipitation falls out of it, for example, fog forms or dew falls - approx.. Water vapor condenses - it passes from a gaseous state to a liquid one. The temperature at which water vapor in the air saturates it and condensation begins is called the dew point.
Air humidity is characterized by several indicators.
AEROPLANKTON
American microbiologist Parker found that the air contains a large amount of organic substances and many microorganisms, including algae, some of which are in an active state. The temporary residence of these organisms can be, for example, cumulus clouds. Acceptable temperature, water, microelements, radiant energy for life processes - all this creates favorable conditions for photosynthesis, metabolism and cell growth. According to Parker, “clouds are living ecological systems” that provide multicellular microorganisms with the ability to live and reproduce.
Absolute air humidity- the amount of water vapor contained in the air, expressed in grams per cubic meter, sometimes also called pressure or density of water vapor. At a temperature of 0 °C, the absolute humidity of saturated air is 4.9 g/m3. In equatorial latitudes, absolute air humidity is about 30 g/m3, and in the polar regions - 0.1 g/m3.
The percentage ratio of the amount of water vapor contained in the air to the amount of water vapor that can be contained in the air at a given temperature is called relative air humidity. It shows the degree of saturation of the air with water vapor - note. If, for example, the relative humidity is 50%, this means that the air contains only half the amount of water vapor that it could hold at a given temperature. In equatorial latitudes and polar regions, relative air humidity is always high. At the equator, with heavy clouds, the air temperature is not too high, and the moisture content in it is significant. In high latitudes, the air moisture content is low, but the temperature is not high, especially in winter. Very low relative humidity is typical for tropical deserts - 50% and below.
The abstract on the discipline “The Study of the Atmosphere” was completed by: student of group EPb-081 Chinyakova A.O.
Checked by: Ph.D., Associate Professor Ryabinina N.O.
State Educational Institution of Higher Professional Education "Volgograd State University"
Volgograd 2010
In the atmosphere, water exists in three states of aggregation - gaseous (water vapor), liquid (raindrops) and solid (crystals of snow and ice). The water content in the atmosphere is relatively small - about 0.001% of its total mass on our planet. Nevertheless, this is an absolutely irreplaceable link in the natural water cycle.
The main source of atmospheric moisture is surface water bodies and moist soil; In addition, moisture enters the atmosphere as a result of evaporation of water by plants, as well as the respiratory processes of living beings. Calculations show that if the entire volume of water vapor in the atmosphere were condensed and distributed evenly over the surface of the globe, it would form a layer of water only 25 mm high. Much more rain falls as a result of the rapid circulation of the total supply of atmospheric moisture.
L. Amberge supplemented this statistical classification with a biogeographic classification.
1. Desert climates, with irregular precipitation: equatorial climates (coast of Peru), tropical (southwest Africa, southern Arabia), with noticeably distinct seasons of precipitation (Sahara, northern California, eastern Turkestan).
2. Climates of non-desert regions: intertropical with or without a dry season, extratropical continental and Mediterranean (with numerous variations), subpolar and polar.
It is very difficult to determine the index of aridity, or dryness, on which a number of authors worked, including E. de Martonne, Thornthwaite, Banyul and Gossen, Amberge.
Clouds and water vapor absorb and reflect excess solar radiation, and also regulate its entry to Earth. At the same time, they block oncoming thermal radiation coming from the Earth's surface into interplanetary space. The water content in the atmosphere determines the weather and climate of the area. It determines what the temperature will be, whether clouds will form over a given area, whether rain will come from the clouds, whether dew will fall. As it cools, it condenses, clouds form, and at the same time a huge amount of energy is released, which the water vapor returns to the atmosphere. It is this energy that makes the winds blow, carries hundreds of billions of tons of water in the clouds and moistens the surface of the Earth with rain. A complete renewal of the composition of water in the atmosphere occurs in 9...10 days.
Evaporation consists of water molecules breaking off from the water surface or moist soil, moving into the air and turning into water vapor molecules. In the air they move independently and are carried by the wind, and their place is taken by new evaporated molecules. Simultaneously with evaporation from the surface of soil and reservoirs, the reverse process also occurs - water molecules from the air pass into water or soil. Thus, atmospheric moisture is the most active link in the water cycle in nature.
The source of energy for the water cycle is solar radiation. The average annual energy is approximately 0.1-0.2 kW/m2, which corresponds to 0.73-1.4 million calories per square meter. This amount of heat can evaporate a layer of water from 1.3 to 2.6 m thick. These figures include all phases of the cycle: evaporation, condensation in the form of clouds, precipitation and all forms of impact on animal and plant life.
The main amount of water vapor is concentrated in the lower layers of the air shell - in the troposphere, at an altitude of up to several thousand meters, and almost the entire mass of clouds is located there. In the stratosphere (about 25 km above the Earth), clouds appear less frequently. They are called mother-of-pearl. Even higher, in the mesopause layers, at a distance of 50...80 km from the Earth, noctilucent clouds are occasionally observed. It is known that they consist of ice crystals and occur when the temperature in the mesopause drops to - 80 oC. Their formation is associated with an interesting phenomenon - pulsation of the atmosphere under the influence of tidal gravitational waves caused by the Moon.
Despite their apparent lightness and airiness, clouds contain a significant amount of water. Air in which the number of evaporating water vapor molecules is equal to the number of returning molecules is called saturated, and the process itself is called saturation. The water content of clouds, that is, the water content of water in 1 m3, ranges from 10 to 0.1 g or less. The higher the air temperature, the more water vapor it can contain. Thus, 1m3 of air at a temperature of +20 °C can contain 17 g of water vapor, and at a temperature of -20 °C only 1 g of water vapor. Since the volumes of clouds are very large (tens of cubic kilometers), even one cloud can contain hundreds of tons of water in the form of drops or ice crystals. These gigantic water masses are continuously transported by air currents over the Earth's surface, causing a redistribution of water and heat on it. Since water has an exceptionally high specific heat capacity, its evaporation from the surface of reservoirs, from the soil, and the transpiration of plants absorb up to 70% of the energy the Earth receives from the Sun. The amount of heat expended on evaporation (latent heat of vaporization) enters the atmosphere along with water vapor and is released there when it condenses and forms clouds. As a result, the temperature of water surfaces and the adjacent air layer noticeably decreases, so near bodies of water in the warm season it is much cooler than in continental areas that receive the same amount of solar energy.
The mass of clouds and water vapor contained in the atmosphere also significantly influence the radiation regime of the planet: with their help, excess solar radiation is absorbed and reflected, and thereby to a certain extent regulates its flow to the Earth. At the same time, clouds screen counter heat flows coming from the Earth's surface, reducing heat loss into interplanetary space. All this makes up the weather-forming function of atmospheric moisture.
Atmospheric precipitation, together with temperature, are the main climatic elements on which the flora and fauna, as well as the economy of the inhabited zones of the globe, depend. Precipitation is extremely uneven throughout the year. In equatorial regions, the largest amount of them falls twice a year - after the autumn and spring equinoxes, in the tropics and monsoon regions - in summer (with almost complete rainlessness in winter), in the subtropics - in winter. In temperate continental zones, maximum precipitation occurs in summer. The importance of precipitation is so great that some authors use only this single element to characterize climate: desert climate is characterized by precipitation of less than 12 cm per year, dry climate - precipitation from 12 to 25 cm, semi-dry - from 25 to 50 cm, moderately humid - from 50 to 100 cm, wet - from 100 to 200 cm and very wet - more than 200 cm.
The distribution of precipitation over the surface of the globe is basically as follows: very heavy precipitation (from 1.5 to 3 m per year) falls between 0 and 20° latitude, where there is one rainy season and one dry season; almost complete absence of precipitation is observed in the desert zone; precipitation of 400 to 800 mm falls between 30° and 40° latitude; there is little precipitation at high latitudes (70°).
Atmospheric moisture, in addition to the transfer of water and heat, also performs other, no less important functions, the essence and significance of which began to be studied quite recently. It turns out that the water contained in the atmosphere is actively involved in the transfer of masses of solids. The wind lifts soil particles into the air, removes foam from sea waves, and carries away tiny droplets of salt water. In addition, salts can enter the air in molecularly dispersed form, due to the so-called physical evaporation from the surface of the ocean. Therefore, the ocean can be considered the main supplier of chlorine, boron and iodine for the atmosphere, rain and river waters.
Thus, rain moisture, being in the cloud, already contains a certain amount of salts. During powerful circulation processes occurring in cloud masses, water and particles of salts, soil, dust, interacting, form solutions of various compositions. According to Academician V.I. Vernadsky, the average salt content of the cloud is about 34 mg/l.
Dozens of chemical elements and various organic compounds are found in raindrops. Leaving the cloud, each drop contains an average of 9.3 * 10-12 mg of salts. On its way to the Earth, in contact with atmospheric air, it absorbs new portions of salts and dust. An ordinary raindrop weighing 50 mg, falling from a height of 1 km, “washes” 16 liters of air, and 1 liter of rainwater takes with it impurities contained in 300 thousand liters of air. As a result, with every liter of rainwater, up to 100 mg of impurities enter the Earth. Of the total amount of dissolved substances carried by rivers from the continents to the ocean, almost half returns back with precipitation. At the same time, for every square kilometer of the earth's surface there are up to 700 kg of nitrogen compounds alone (in terms of pure nitrogen), and this is already a tangible fertilizer for plants.
Sediments of coastal areas contain especially high levels of salts. For example, in England, rain with chlorine concentrations of up to 200 mg/l was recorded, and in Holland - up to 300 mg/l.
It is interesting to note that the function of rain as a carrier of mineral compounds and nutrients cannot be reduced to a simple calculation: so much fertilizer added means such and such an increase in yield. V.E. For many years, Kabaev traced a direct connection between the size of the cotton harvest and the amount of water in precipitation. In 1970, he came to an interesting conclusion: the stimulating effect of rain on crops is apparently caused by the presence of hydrogen peroxide in it. The normal content of H2O2 in precipitation (7...8 mg/l) is sufficient for atmospheric nitrogen to bind into compounds that enrich plant nutrition, the mobility of elements in the soil (primarily phosphorus) improves, and the process of photosynthesis is activated. Having established this function of rain, the scientist considers it possible to artificially deliver hydrogen peroxide to plants by adding it to the water when spraying.
Air humidity is characterized by several indicators:
Absolute air humidity is the amount of water vapor contained in the air, expressed in grams per cubic meter, sometimes also called elasticity or water vapor density. At a temperature of 0 °C, the absolute humidity of saturated air is 4.9 g/m3. In equatorial latitudes, absolute air humidity is about 30 g/m3, and in the polar regions - 0.1 g/m3.
The percentage ratio of the amount of water vapor contained in the air to the amount of water vapor that can be contained in the air at a given temperature is called relative humidity. It shows the degree of saturation of air with water vapor. If, for example, the relative humidity is 50%, this means that the air contains only half the amount of water vapor that it could hold at that temperature. In equatorial latitudes and polar regions, relative air humidity is always high. At the equator, with heavy clouds, the air temperature is not too high, and the moisture content in it is significant. In high latitudes, the air moisture content is low, but the temperature is not high, especially in winter. Very low relative humidity is typical for tropical deserts - 50% and below.
With the slightest drop in temperature, air saturated with water vapor is no longer able to contain moisture and precipitation falls out of it, for example, fog forms or dew falls. At the same time, water vapor condenses - passes from a gaseous state to a liquid one.
Fog is a form of condensation of water vapor in the form of microscopic drops or ice crystals, which, collecting in the ground layer of the atmosphere (sometimes up to several hundred meters), make the air less transparent. The formation of fogs begins with the condensation or sublimation of water vapor on condensation nuclei - liquid or solid particles suspended in the atmosphere.
Fogs of water droplets are observed mainly at air temperatures above −20 °C, but can also occur at temperatures below −40 °C. At temperatures below −20 °C, freezing fogs predominate.
Fogs occur more often in populated areas than far away from them. This is facilitated by the increased content of hydroscopic condensation nuclei (for example, combustion products) in urban air. The highest number of foggy days at sea level - an average of more than 120 per year - is observed on the Canadian island of Newfoundland in the Atlantic Ocean.
According to the method of occurrence, fogs are divided into two types:
Cooling fogs are formed due to the condensation of water vapor when the air is cooled below the dew point.
Evaporation fogs are evaporation from a warmer evaporating surface into cold air over bodies of water and wet land areas.
In addition, fogs differ in the synoptic conditions of formation:
Frontal - formed near atmospheric fronts and moving with them. Air saturation with water vapor occurs due to the evaporation of precipitation falling in the front zone. A certain role in the intensification of fogs ahead of fronts is played by the drop in atmospheric pressure observed here, which creates a slight adiabatic decrease in air temperature.
Intramass - predominate in nature; as a rule, they are cooling fogs, formed in homogeneous air masses. They are usually divided into several types:
Radiation fogs are fogs that appear as a result of radiation cooling of the earth's surface and the mass of moist surface air to the dew point. Typically, radiation fog occurs at night in anticyclone conditions with cloudless weather and a light breeze. Radiation fog often occurs under conditions of temperature inversion, which prevents the rise of the air mass. After sunrise, radiation fogs usually dissipate quickly. However, in the cold season, in stable anticyclones they can persist during the day, sometimes for many days in a row. An extreme form of radiation fog, smog, can occur in industrial areas.
Advective fogs are formed due to the cooling of warm, moist air as it moves over a colder surface of land or water. Their intensity depends on the temperature difference between the air and the underlying surface and on the moisture content of the air. These fogs can develop both over the sea and over land and cover vast areas, in some cases up to hundreds of thousands of km². Advective fogs usually occur in cloudy weather and most often in the warm sectors of cyclones. Advection fogs are more persistent than radiation fogs and often do not dissipate during the day.
Sea fog is advective fog that arises over the sea during the transfer of cold air to warm water. This fog is evaporation fog. Fogs of this type are frequent, for example, in the Arctic, when air flows from the ice cover to the open surface of the sea.
Haze is a very faint fog. In haze, the visibility range is several kilometers. In the practice of meteorological forecasting, the following are considered: haze - visibility more/equal to 1000 m, but less than 10 km, and fog - visibility less than 1000 m. Heavy fog is considered when visibility is less than or equal to 500 m.
Fogs also include the so-called dry fogs (haze, haze), in these fogs the particles are not water, but smoke, soot, dust, and so on. The most common cause of dry fogs is smoke from forest, peat or steppe fires, or steppe loess or sand dust, sometimes lifted and carried by the wind over considerable distances, as well as emissions from industrial enterprises.
The transitional stage between dry and wet fogs is not uncommon - such fogs consist of water particles along with fairly large masses of dust, smoke and soot. These are the so-called dirty urban fogs, which are a consequence of the presence in the air of large cities of a mass of solid particles emitted during combustion by chimneys, and even more so by factory chimneys.
The fog water content indicator is used to characterize fogs; it denotes the total mass of water droplets per unit volume of fog. The water content of fogs usually does not exceed 0.05-0.1 g/m³, but in some dense fogs it can reach 1-1.5 g/m³. In addition to water content, the transparency of fog is affected by the size of the particles that form it. The radius of fog droplets typically ranges from 1 to 60 µm. Most drops have a radius of 5-15 microns at positive air temperatures and 2-5 microns at negative temperatures.
Dew is a type of atmospheric precipitation formed on the surface of the earth, plants, objects, roofs of buildings, cars and other objects.
As the air cools, water vapor condenses on objects near the ground and turns into water droplets. This usually happens at night. In desert regions, dew is an important source of moisture for vegetation. Quite strong cooling of the lower layers of air occurs when, after sunset, the earth's surface quickly cools through thermal radiation. Favorable conditions for this are a clear sky and a surface covering that easily gives off heat, such as grass. Particularly strong dew formation occurs in tropical regions, where the air in the ground layer contains a lot of water vapor and, due to the intense nighttime thermal radiation of the earth, is significantly cooled. At negative temperatures, frost forms.
The temperature at which water vapor in the air saturates it and condensation begins is called the dew point.
1In the article - “What forces hold thousands of tons of water in clouds in the air or Options for the development of physics”, the mechanism for organizing atmospheric air pressure is initially presented in two comparative versions. An analysis was carried out and a choice was made towards a more logical option. The reasons are indicated why until now there is no clear explanation for this natural process. Then, also at the level of interaction of individual molecules and clusters, their interaction is presented at the boundary between the lower air mass and the higher molecular formations in the cloud. The forces and design features that influence the formation of moisture retention at a certain height, as well as the conditions under which its loss begins, have been identified. In the process of searching for the found explanation, other questions are raised, for which there are also non-standard solutions.
molecular interaction
gas pressure
gas elasticity
gravitational forces
cluster formation
1. Sopov Yu.V. Strong and weak interactions, gravity and entropy have one direction of explanation" http://esa-conference.ru/wp-content/uploads/files/pdf/Sopov-YUrij-Vasilevich.pdf.
2. Sopov Yu.V. "Thermal energy. What lies about her and where is the truth? – http://www.sciteclibrary.ru/rus/catalog/pages/13487.html.
3. Dmitriev A.L. and Bulgakova S.A. Negative Temperature Dependence of a Gravity – A Reality. World Academy of Science, Engineering and Technology, Issue 79, July 2013, pp. 1560-1565. http://www.researchgate.net/publication/243678619_An_Experiment_with_the_Balance_to_Find_if_Change_of_Temperature_has_any_Effect_upon_Weight.
4. Dmitriev A.L. Simple Experiment Confirming the Negative Temperature Dependence of Gravity Force, 2012, http://arxiv.org/ftp/arxiv/papers/1201/1201.4461.pdf.
This article primarily touches on the basics of physical knowledge about the structure of gases and at the same time relates to the structure of the microcosm in general. At the level of behavior of specific molecules, the following are presented: the structure of atmospheric air pressure, the principle of moisture retention in clouds and the conditions for their precipitation in the form of rain. The nature of gravity on a single atom of matter is revealed.
Comparison of two options for generating gas pressure
All of us, starting from school, study physics. How clear and correct is it presented in textbooks? Let's ask ourselves the following questions.
How do clouds containing thousands of tons of water stay in the air? Why does a huge amount of water fly over the ground and not fall until a certain moment? It is useless to look for answers to these questions in textbooks that can be considered as really quite clear explanations. At the level of behavior of individual atoms and molecules, they are not represented anywhere. At the same level, there is nowhere a description of the formation of atmospheric air pressure.
In school textbooks, the structure of gases is presented exclusively from the position of molecular kinetic theory (MKT). Other options are not discussed in the textbooks.
For an initial acquaintance with the fact that other options are possible, I propose to compare two schematic options for how atmospheric air pressure can be formed, and then present in a fairly understandable form an explanation of the reasons for moisture hanging in clouds and much more.
In Fig. Figure 1 schematically shows a fragment of an atmospheric pressure device according to MKT. Below, a wavy line depicts the earth's surface.
Rice. 1. Atmospheric air pressure device according to MKT
Small circles represent flying bodies of air atoms (molecules), and the arrows emanating from them indicate the direction in which they can currently move. Gas pressure along the MCT is organized due to the energy of impacts of molecules on a particular surface. In this option, it is problematic to see the participation in the pressure of the energy of those molecules that are located from the surface further than the average statistical distance between the molecules.
In Fig. 2 schematically shows another possible option. The necessary initial data to explain this process are as follows: gas molecules are subject to gravitational forces and at the same time repel each other. The source data for this option will be presented in more detail below. For now, it should be noted that there is nothing unnatural in this option. Modern physics recognizes the repulsive forces of gas molecules and presents absolutely elastic collisions of molecules in an ideal gas as a consequence of the action of precisely these forces.
Rice. 2. Atmospheric air pressure device according to another option
According to this option, the gas molecules located above, relying with their force field on the force fields of the lower ones, organize the total pressure on the molecules located below, and therefore on all surfaces located below. The arrows in this figure show the effect of gravity on each molecule. Since with increasing distance between a molecule of gas (air) and the earth's surface, the forces of gravity weaken, this factor in the figure is reflected by the size of the length of the arrows. More length equals more strength. The arrows clearly show that the pressure force of the upper molecules on the lower ones decreases with height. As a result, the distances between the air molecules themselves increase with distance from the earth's surface. From the above it follows that with increasing height, the entire sum of the attractive forces of those air molecules that are located above them is added to the increased forces of attraction of the lower ones.
Comparing these two options for the atmospheric pressure device, it should be noted that in the second option, both the reasons for the elasticity of gases and the explanation for the rarefaction of air with increasing altitude are quite clearly and logically visible.
For greater comparison, it should be noted that according to MCT, atoms and molecules of a gas constantly move chaotically in space, even if this gas is in equilibrium conditions. It turns out that with the adoption of MCT as a real model, it is tacitly stated that in the gravitational field, without the supply of any energy, eternal flights of particles with mass are possible over the earth! How this can happen in principle is not explained anywhere. But this is nonsense!
Any open vessel is filled with atmospheric air. By pumping out or adding gas to a vessel, we can change its pressure on the walls in a sealed vessel. If the gas pressure is due to the action of repulsive forces, then in such cases the participation of molecules farthest from the wall in the pressure does not raise any questions. But if the pressure of a gas on the walls of sealed vessels is interpreted as the result of impacts of its molecules, then one should once again realize that the direct participation of distant molecules in it cannot be traced. Their participation can only be attributed indirectly. But the indirect participation of physical factors is not reflected in the formulas! At the same time, you should also pay attention to the fact that in practical calculations of gas pressure no one ever uses the kinetic energy of its molecules. Empirically found dependencies, i.e. the formulas that we use in real life show that the pressure of a gas on the walls of vessels constantly involves the participation of absolutely all its atoms and molecules. I would like to emphasize that these formulas apply to any period of time. That is, they are valid for every single moment. We compare this with the following position of MKT - “The movement of molecules in gases is random: the velocities of molecules do not have any preferred direction, but are distributed chaotically in all directions.” Consequently, in accordance with this position, chaotic movement should manifest itself in the uneven impact of molecules on the walls of blood vessels. Moreover, this should manifest itself in uneven gas pressure both over time on one unit surface area, and on different areas at the same time. But such manifestations have not been recorded anywhere.
Many may argue that the validity of MCT has been proven mathematically and practically. The work reveals the obvious incorrectness of the description of the circumstances, which is used in deriving the basic MKT equation. It shows in detail exactly how the circumstances were adjusted to obtain the required result. In addition, this work provides an explanation of the cause of vertical heat flows in gases and liquids at the level of behavior of atoms and molecules, i.e. the process of convection initiation as a whole. The mechanism of uniform distribution of thermal energy in any state of matter is described in detail. That is, what relates to entropy has become explainable at the level of the behavior of specific atoms and molecules. That is, this work additionally presents many inconsistencies between MCT and reality.
Practical evidence of the performance of MCT primarily includes Stern’s experience. In this experiment there is a stove, i.e. a hot surface from which metal ions fly out. That is, in this experiment the equilibrium condition is clearly violated, despite the fact that the result of this experiment is for some reason attributed to conditions with a constant temperature.
Secondly, it measures the speeds at which metal ions flew in a straight line from the surface from which they were rejected to the deposition surface. That is, they have nothing to do with the chaotic movement of molecules along the MCT.
Thirdly, if the dimensions of the cylinders used in the experiment were large enough, it would be discovered that the ions, under the influence of gravity, flew along a curve. But atoms and molecules of gases also have mass. This means that, not having the influence of well-defined forces from below and being subject to gravity, they must eventually fall to the ground.
Fourthly, since the metal ions, having flown out of the hot metal, then flew at the same speed, in fact, in this experiment the speed with which their rejection occurred was measured. And it cannot be ruled out that their flight is a manifestation of the forces of potential energy, i.e. work of repulsive forces.
Summary of Stern's experience.
If we rely on the interpretation of this experiment in textbooks and linking it to MCT, then by analogy we can conclude that if you throw a stone, then after that it should fly forever.
Why such a conclusion is hushed up, but the exact opposite is given out is a separate big conversation. In this case, it is more important to understand that for a qualitative analysis of everything that is discussed in this article and in the materials provided in the links below, the approach of intellectuals with an unbiased opinion is required.
Reference: “According to F.S. For Fitzgerald, an intellectual can only be one who is able to hold two contradictory ideas in his mind.”
Introduction to the input data of the proposed option
To move on to explaining how moisture hangs in clouds, a more expanded understanding of what the theory is that is based on the second version of explanations for the formation of atmospheric air pressure.
It is no secret that thermodynamics was developed based on the theory of caloric. Now caloric is remembered extremely rarely, most often with a complete denial of its existence. It is believed that he did not explain the experiments of Rumfor, etc. I inform you that all the answers to the questions have been found, due to the absence of which the caloric was rejected. BUT the result was not at all what is associated with this term. To put it very briefly, a new approach to the materiality of heat has made it possible to explain many physical processes more simply and clearly, including those that modern physics cannot currently explain.
For example, according to MCT, liquid molecules are in constant chaotic motion among themselves. As the temperature increases, their speed of movement increases. Further, the idea arises that molecules, having increased speeds, scatter over long distances after collisions. Based on this, it should be assumed that this affects the increase in the entire volume of liquid. This approach to explaining the expansion of liquids indicates that the expansion should occur due to an increase in the average distances between its molecules. In other words, as if by increasing the gaps between the molecular bodies. But! Further, from reference books we learn that liquids, while significantly changing their volume when heated, retain the same ability to compress. And this has nothing to do with the increase in distances between its molecules. Since in such cases the resistance to the maximum should increase relatively smoothly, and not with a sharp jump.
And there are quite a lot of such examples when the process occurs contrary to the ICT to raise the question of its fairness. In their articles (for example here) on many processes, criticism of the ICT is presented, and at the same time fairly simple solutions are given on topical issues. Including the structure of atoms and their connections with others, as well as optical phenomena.
Initial data and the essence of the basis of the proposed theory
So, the proposed theory is called “Thermal Energy Theory” (TTE).
In TFC, everything is built on only one basic assumption, that there are elements of heat, i.e. elements of the thermal energy component (ETEC), which, repelling from each other, are attracted to everything else. I classify all other elements to which ETES are attracted as elements of the material component. There can be many of them. Therefore, at this stage I do not give them names and unite them under the general name elements of the material component (elements of MS or simply MS-material component). ETES are very small and are included in even those particles that are currently classified as elementary. It follows from this that the latter are not so elementary. It also follows from this that ETES are part of all known atomic elements (protons, electrons, etc.).
That's all the initial data on which all explanations for TTE are based.
We are all familiar with the example of the presence in nature of both attractive and repulsive forces from the interaction of permanent magnets. That is, there is nothing unrealistic or unusual in the initial assumptions of TTE.
And now the most important thing that has turned the vision around to what is associated with the term caloric. The fact is that during the period of choosing the main model, i.e. when the caloric theory was compared with MCT in terms of their capabilities, no one thought of a very important comparison. After all, if we consider the work of the elements of heat not only in the microcosm, i.e. in the interaction between the elements of atoms and the atoms themselves with each other, then one should remember that a gigantic amount of the same caloric elements is concentrated under the earth’s crust. If between any two molecules there are forces of attraction (ETES of one to MS of the other) and forces of repulsion of their ETES from each other, then these same forces must be present between a single molecule on the surface of the Earth and everything that is at depth.
This means that every molecule, every atom of any substance experiences both attractive and repulsive forces in relation to the Earth. Moreover, in this case, it follows from the TTE that with a change in the ETE in the composition of the molecules of any substance (body), the forces of attraction of their molecules to the Earth must also change. But this is so!
From the above and from the materials in the work (which has not yet been translated into English), it follows that ETES, acting as a binder inside atoms and ensuring connections between atoms, also performs the function that is currently assigned to the Higgs boson. In principle, the mechanism of the appearance and operation of gravity became clear, and at the same time many other unanswered questions disappeared. For example, what conditions ensure that an electron moves around the nucleus of an atom and what energy provides atomic bonds.
Reasons for keeping multi-ton clouds in the air
According to TTE, atoms of different substances, even at the same temperature, contain different amounts of ETES and different ETES/MS ratios. It is this difference that explains both the formation of a meniscus near the water and the glass wall of the glass, and the lack of wetting of the glass with mercury. That is, at the same temperature, both attractive and repulsive forces can appear between atoms of different substances. If there are attractive forces between various atoms of a gas (air) and any other solid particles present in this gas, then this is the basis for the formation of clusters.
When describing atmospheric pressure according to TTE, it was mentioned that air molecules have force fields that repel each other. Let us also recall the popular information that the entire periodic table is floating in the air around us.
Now let’s imagine that air molecules themselves can have different compositions of elements and different shapes. The presence of repulsive forces from each other of molecules (clusters) of different shapes and contents indicates that the overall value of the ETES/MS ratios in their composition is quite large. In other words, the resulting force is generated by the prevalence between them precisely of the forces of repulsion between the ETES of one molecule and the ETES of another. In this case, the constituent elements of a molecule or cluster may have a large difference in the values of the specified ratio. That is, they are attracted to each other because some elements have a high value of this ratio, while others do not.
By the way, the transition of a gas into a liquid, and a liquid into a solid upon cooling, is very easily and simply explained by the fact that a decrease in the amount of ETES in their composition significantly reduces the value of the ETES/MS ratio. As a result, a small amount of ETES in their composition begins to act as a binding component to a greater extent.
Having a complex form of structure of their material frame, molecules, and even more so clusters, have a complex outline of force fields. More precisely, the lines that can be used to represent the same intensity of their fields in the plane will have different curvature around the boundary of the flat section of their frames.
Moreover, since different elements with different compositions and ETES/MS ratios are located on different sides of molecules and clusters, the distance of these lines from the surface of the material frame will be different. In a three-dimensional model, these lines take on the form of complex imaginary surfaces. As the distance from the frame increases, they are smoothed out, but the element of irregularity to a certain extent still remains.
Initially, explaining the principle of moisture retention in clouds, we will consider the process in statics.
Let's imagine that the molecules of air and those formations (clusters) in a cloud that contain a certain number of water molecules have no vertical displacement relative to each other. Let's consider what happens directly at the border of contact between air molecules and cloud clusters.
From the above, it is not difficult to understand that, having a complex form of force fields, air molecules and cloud clusters, operating with repulsion forces from neighboring ones, fix their location and at the same time participate in limiting the location of neighboring ones.
This means that each molecule (cluster) of moisture, in order to go down, needs to push apart all those air molecules that are located under it. I would like to draw your attention to the fact that absolutely all moisture molecules in clouds are endowed with this desire. As a result, the air becomes even more dense under the clouds. And with greater densification, even greater efforts are required to move apart the molecules, fixed in relation to their neighbors by the complexity of the shapes of their energy fields. Many people have probably noticed when flying on an airplane that the clouds from below look flatter than from above. I believe that this factor is born from the fact that the surface of the air under clouds and clouds is, as it were, leveled under the average value of the load.
It turns out that a moisture molecule in a cloud cannot alone push apart the air molecules located directly below it and squeeze further down. This is possible only when the gravity of many molecules (clusters) acquires sufficient pressure on a certain bond between gas molecules to break it. This leads to the fact that the onset of rain from a certain cloud occurs where the force of gravity has exceeded the action of the lateral forces that compress the air in this place. And then the rest of the moisture rushes into the gap formed. Therefore, from the outside we often see how the rain begins to fall in the form of a kind of wedge, and not from the entire cloud at once. And since the wind moving the cloud thickens its back part more, it is most often where the rain begins.
Naturally, with the presence of flows, this process is more complex, but the described principle of delaying the fall of moisture should also work in dynamics.
conclusions
As a result, oddly enough, it turns out that the gravitational forces themselves form the conditions for delaying the fall of moisture from the clouds.
Analyzing what was proposed above, in parallel, one can understand why we, having found a huge number of particles that are part of atoms, still do not have a spatial model of the atom.
There is an opinion in scientific circles that one discrepancy is enough to invalidate a theory, and that experience cannot confirm an existing theory, it can only refute it. Why not use these recommendations in relation to what we are already accustomed to and what we consider unshakable.
Bibliographic link
Sopov Yu.V. WHAT FORCES KEEP THOUSANDS OF TONS OF WATER IN THE AIR IN CLOUDS, OR OPTIONS FOR THE DEVELOPMENT OF PHYSICS // International Journal of Experimental Education. – 2016. – No. 9-2. – pp. 249-254;URL: http://expeducation.ru/ru/article/view?id=10490 (access date: 06/11/2019). We bring to your attention magazines published by the publishing house "Academy of Natural Sciences"
A LETTER RECEIVED TO THE EDITOR
“WHEN IT RAINS, MY FRIEND PUT BUCKETS AND PANS UNDER THE GUTTERS AND COLLECTS THE RAINWATER. SHE WASHES THE LINEN WITH IT AND WASHES HER HAIR. BUT THERE'S A LOT OF TALK ABOUT ACID RAIN NOW, AND I'M NOT SURE MY FRIEND IS DOING THE RIGHT WAY. IS IT POSSIBLE OR NOT TO USE RAINWATER IN THE FARM?
Sincerely, V. G. Smolko, Donetsk region
An employee of the Research Institute of Hygiene named after F. F. Erisman of the Ministry of Health of the RSFSR, Candidate of Biological Sciences Elena Fedorovna GORSHKOVA, answers the reader’s question:
Let's first understand what rainwater is. Its main source is moisture evaporating from the surface of reservoirs and moist soil. The masses of water accumulating in the atmosphere are enormous: one cloud can contain hundreds of tons of water. They continuously move above the surface of the earth, redistributing not only heat and moisture, but also solids - various chemical elements, their salts, dust. An ordinary raindrop weighing 50 milligrams when falling washes 16 liters of air, and one liter of rainwater absorbs impurities contained in 300 thousand liters of air.
Thus, the composition of rainwater depends on the area over which the clouds formed, on air pollution where precipitation falls, on the direction of the wind and other circumstances.
The air, and therefore rainwater, is polluted primarily by transport, industrial and agricultural enterprises. Motor transport “supplies” carbon monoxide, nitrogen and sulfur oxides into the atmosphere, and various industrial enterprises - arsenic, lead, and mercury compounds. In agricultural areas, the air is polluted with ammonia, carbon disulfide, pesticides, and pesticides. And this is not a list of all substances that can return to earth from the atmosphere along with rain.
The largest percentage of industrial emissions are sulfur and nitrogen compounds. When they react with water in the atmosphere, they turn into acids and fall to the ground in the form of so-called acid rain.
The term “acid rain” was introduced about a hundred years ago by the English chemist A. Smith, who identified the relationship between the level of air pollution and the acidity of precipitation. But their harmful consequences began to appear only 10-15 years ago. Today
almost all rain is “acidic” to one degree or another.
If he catches you on the road, open your umbrella or... put on a raincoat. Repeated exposure of the skin to rainwater can cause redness and flaking due to the acids contained in the precipitation.
Acid rain also causes damage to the national economy: it accelerates the corrosion of metal structures, destroys sandstone, limestone, marble, acidifies the waters of rivers and lakes, the soil, which leads to the death of fish and forests.
In modern conditions, rainwater cannot be used for household purposes: you cannot wash your hair with it or wash clothes, as they did before, when the air was not so polluted. Moreover, you cannot drink rainwater, wash dishes with it, or cook food with it.
Interesting facts about water.
The human body contains about 47 liters of water. It turns out that many of our organs contain a surprising amount of water. For example, muscles are 75% water, the liver is 70%, the brain is 79%, and the kidneys are 83%! But this body fluid is not pure water. In fact, it is a saline solution.
Riddles
1. I’ll look out the window; long Antoshka is walking
(Rain)
2.In the yard, in the cold - with mountain, and in the hut - with water
(Snow)
3. An eagle is flying across the blue sky.
Wings spread out
Covered up the sun
(Cloud)
4. It flowed, it was hot and easily under glass
(Ice on the river)
We are so accustomed to calling the planet we live on Earth, a globe, that we don’t even think about whether the person who first came up with this name made a mistake? But it’s really worth thinking about! What kind of globe is this if on its surface there is no more than 30%, and everything else is water: rivers, lakes, seas, oceans, swamps. And if the Earth could be straightened, made flat, like a table, then it would not be visible at all - it would all be hidden by a 150-meter layer of water. The globe... It would be more correct to call it a water globe, not a terrestrial one!
Water pollution.
With such a huge amount of water, people worry about its shortage! Is this legal?
The water of the Pacific Ocean alone will be enough for the needs of mankind for many years!
(Children may argue that the water in the oceans and seas is salty and is not suitable for human needs. Humans need fresh water.)
Is all fresh water safe for human health?
Tell us how people, without thinking, pollute the waters of rivers and lakes, seas and oceans.
The waters of the World Ocean are gradually becoming polluted by human waste. According to the World Environment Organization, humanity produces 20 billion tons of waste, and 85% of it is dumped into waterways.
It’s a shame to admit this, but humanity has long included rivers, seas and oceans in the sewerage system. Wastewater is most often discharged even without preliminary treatment.
The most amazing thing is that cleaning up human waste is not difficult - there are excellent technologies for this. But recycling costs money! Therefore, say, not very rich countries consider the construction of waste processing plants an unaffordable luxury.
Industrial and municipal waste is carried into the oceans mainly by rivers (Explain why) For example, hundreds of millions of tons of zinc, lead, copper, cadmium, mercury, and arsenic end up in the Arctic Ocean. All these poisons are deposited in the tissues of marine life. For example, North Sea cod in one mass sometimes contains up to 0.8 grams of mercury, which was absorbed into it from polluted water. It is estimated that after eating 5-8 of these fish, a person receives as much deadly mercury as is contained in a medical thermometer.
Accidents of oil ships have become a real scourge of the World Ocean. For example, in 1981, an English tanker crashed in the Lithuanian port of Klaipeda. 16,000 tons of fuel oil spilled into the sea. In the area of the disaster, the thickets of special algae decreased 10 times
The main spawning grounds for herring. But it was an “ordinary” accident by world standards!
At the end of World War II, 170 thousand tons of toxic substances were sunk in the Norwegian fjords, and the coordinates of the burial site were... lost. The Norwegian authorities still cannot determine this place, but the poison can break out at any moment!
Water in oceans and seas, rivers and lakes, underground and in soil. On high mountains, in the Arctic, and Antarctica, water is found in the form of snow and ice. This is water in a solid state. Ice can be seen on our rivers and lakes when they freeze in winter. There is a lot in the atmosphere: clouds, fog, steam, rain, snow. Not all the water on Earth is located on the land surface. In the depths of the soil there are underground rivers and lakes
Without water, plants wither and may die. Animals, if deprived of water, quickly die: for example, a well-fed dog can live up to 100 days without food, and at least 10 without water.
Loss of water is more dangerous for the body than starvation: a person can live more than a month without food, but only a few days without water.
A person’s need for water, which he consumes with drinking and food, depending on the climate, is 3-6 liters per day.
WATER - a good friend and helper of a person. It is a convenient road: ships sail across the seas and oceans. Water overcomes drought, revives deserts, and increases the yield of fields and gardens. She obediently rotates turbines at hydroelectric power plants. Mineral spring water has a healing effect.
Rivers and lakes live thanks to their ability to cleanse themselves. So, for example, in 12 days in a river all the water is renewed, and in a lake mollusks and other small creatures pass the entire volume of water through themselves 6-8 times over the course of a year, thereby purifying it. But here, too, there is a limit beyond which a living system loses its ability to self-heal.
Here are some facts about the pollution of very large bodies of water and their consequences.
1. Thermal pollution is typical for large rivers, on the banks of which steelmaking or machine-building machines, heat and power plants are built. These enterprises use cold river water to cool industrial plants. They pour the water, which is fairly heated, almost hot, back into the river. This disrupts the temperature balance of the reservoir, spreads tropical viral diseases, and kills valuable fish such as salmon, trout, and sturgeon. In muddy, green-smelling water, only a few species of fish survive - chub, roach. The Volga (show on map) is one of the rivers susceptible to thermal pollution.
2. About 150 million people live on the shores of the Baltic (show on map). Thousands of industrial enterprises work for their needs. As usual, they dump their waste into the sea. As a result, due to pollution, it is no longer possible to distinguish where there is fresh water and where there is salt water - they have all become poisonous. Baltic fishermen often come across cylinders of poisonous gas in their nets. They have been floating in the sea since the Second World War, many of them are damaged, which means that the deadly gas dissolved in sea water and had a destructive effect on the environment. In the Baltic it is already possible to catch fish with a disfigured ridge, two heads or tails, and tumors on the body.
3. The Mediterranean Sea (show on the map) stretches between Africa and Europe. Until recently, coastal countries saw no end to tourists. Now the situation has changed. Sewage polluted the Mediterranean Sea so much that instead of having a good rest, people here began to suffer from gastrointestinal diseases.
4. Destructive human activity has not spared the Black Sea (show on map). Due to accidents on ships, the share of petroleum products in it in the area of Tuapse (map) and Novorossiysk (map) is 9 times higher than the permissible norm.
Properties of water, Three states of water
Due to its fluidity, water can penetrate everywhere. Indeed, water is found almost everywhere on earth. There is a lot of it in the oceans and seas, less, but also a lot, in lakes, rivers, ponds and swamps. There is water underground too. If you start digging a well, you will find underground water at a depth of 7-12 meters (somewhere less, somewhere more).
Moreover, the entire soil is saturated with water. When digging a hole or digging up a garden, you discover that the soil is wet. It is not for nothing that in fairy tales and poems the earth is often called damp: “mother is the damp earth.”
An ordinary stone contains microscopic amounts of water in its smallest cracks. In living organisms - plants, animals and humans - it contains a lot of water. You may have heard that the human body consists of 8/10 water. Plants are 9/10 water. Water is essential for life. Without it, all living things die. For example, a person can go without food for several months.
Pure water is clear. If the water is not clear, it means that it contains some impurities, for example, silt. But some solids break down into such small particles in water that the resulting mixture remains clear. In this case, the substance is said to have dissolved in water, and the mixture is called a solution. We can say about water that it has a dissolving solution. To purify water (and not only water, but also other liquids) a filter is used. A filter is a device for purifying liquids. Water has no smell or taste. If the water has a taste, it means it contains some impurities.
The water is colorless. You ask: “What about the sea? Isn’t it deep?” The fact is that there is one more property of water: it can, like a mirror, reflect what it is in front of it (or, more precisely, above it). The sea is blue because the sky is reflected in it. Try the experiment at home. Resemble a large bowl or basin with water and try to see the reflection of surrounding objects and your own in it. It is better to look at the surface of the water not from above, but from the side, at an angle. Please note that the reflection does not prevent you from seeing the walls and bottom of the dishes behind it.
Water expands when heated and contracts when cooled. An alcohol thermometer is based on this property. The fact is that some part of the alcohol is water.
Water may evaporate. If water is heated to a temperature of 100 degrees, it boils and quickly turns into steam. But water can evaporate at lower temperatures. For example, if we place a saucer of water on the window of a room, after a few days all the water will disappear. We see that at room temperature water also evaporates, but much longer. Very cold water also evaporates, although it takes even longer. When cooled, water vapor turns back into water.
Water may freeze. If water is cooled to 0 degrees, it quickly turns into ice.
If ice is heated to a temperature above 0 degrees, it will melt, that is, it will turn into water.
So, water in nature can be in three states: liquid, gaseous (steam) and solid (ice). Water can change from one state to another.
- Many fairy tales mention living and dead water. Does this really happen? There are different types of water in nature. Ordinary water consists of oxygen and hydrogen. But if hydrogen is replaced by a heavier substance, deuterium, the result is so-called heavy water. In large doses it is called the death of the body. She can be called dead. Heavy water is an indispensable companion of ordinary water, but there is very little of it in natural water. There is almost 7000 times more potable water in natural water than heavy water, so you can drink it without fear. What kind of water can be called living? I'm melting. It contains less heavy water than water from a river or well. In addition, water formed from melted ice or snow for some time has a structure that is favorable to the life of the body. Animals and plants that receive melt water grow and develop faster than others. But there is one important condition! Melt water must be clean.
In the old days, people were interested in the question: “Where does rain come from?” What do you think?
Maybe there is also a sea, lake or river in the sky? People used to think so. But we know that nothing like that can happen there. Where does the water that pours from the sky come from? Before answering this question, let’s ask ourselves one more. You already know that water evaporates. Why hasn't all the water disappeared from the earth yet? There is one answer to these questions: because there is a water cycle in nature. The water that pours from the sky in the form of rain is the same water that previously evaporated from the earth's surface. You know that water can change from one state to another. It can turn into steam - evaporate or ice - freeze. Ice can become water again - melt. Water vapor, when cooled, turns into water. The ability of water to change from one state to another underlies the water cycle in nature. From the surface of oceans, seas, lakes, rivers and land, water evaporates and rises to the top. Water vapor cools in the air, turns into tiny droplets of water, snowflakes or tiny pieces of ice, collecting in clouds. In the clouds, these tiny droplets, snowflakes and ice flakes combine and fall to the ground in the form of rain, snow and hail. Rainwater, as well as water formed as a result of melting snow and ice, again ends up in rivers, swamps, lakes, seas and oceans. That's why they don't disappear. Water is always moving. First up, from earth to sky, in the form of water vapor, then down, from sky to earth, in the form of rain, snow or hail. And so again up, and again down, and so on for many millions of years.
What happens to water after it returns to earth as precipitation?
If rain fell, for example, over a sea or lake, it simply increased the amount of water in the sea or lake. What if above the ground? Some rainwater evaporates from the surface of the earth, but most of it is absorbed into the ground. What happens to such water? In order to answer this question, we must first know what the top layer of the earth consists of. And it consists of soil, sand and clay. The soil is located near the surface. Below the soil there is usually a layer of sand, and even lower there is a layer of clay.
What happens to rain and melt water absorbed into the ground? They easily seep through soil and sand, but clay holds them back. Water accumulates here and, if there is a slope, flows down. Sooner or later, on her way she will encounter a sharp drop in terrain, for example, a ravine or a deep depression. Groundwater will then appear on the surface of the earth. The place where groundwater naturally flows onto the earth's surface is called a spring or spring. The water flowing from the spring gives rise to a new stream. Streams merge together and form a river. Large, full-flowing rivers have a very modest beginning - small streams running from springs.
Puzzles
He has no arms, he has no legs
I was able to break out of the ground.
He us in the summer in the heat of the moment
Icy water gives water
(Spring)
Where the roots curl
On a forest path
small saucer
Hidden in the grass.
Everyone who passes
He will come, he will bend over -
And again they will gain strength on the road.
(Spring)
The pulse of our land
Pure, pure,
He hurries on his eternal journey,
To save the earth from thirst.
(Spring)
RIVERS
Streams flow from higher places to lower ones. At the same time, they connect with each other, forming a large deep stream. The more streams combine into one, the wider and deeper the resulting stream is. This is how streams form a river. A river is a water stream of significant size. A river differs from a stream in its greater width and depth of water flow. It is impossible to say exactly where the stream ends and the river begins. Sometimes it can be difficult to determine whether in front of us is a wide stream or a narrow river. But when the river becomes deep enough, no doubts arise. The river flows along the bed. A channel is a depression in the earth's surface along which a river moves. The channel is of natural origin and is usually made by the river itself. If you stand facing the direction of the river flow, then on the right there will be the right bank, and on the left – the left bank.
Both the river and the stream have a source. The source is the place where a water flow (river, stream) begins. The source of the stream is the spring from which it flows. What is considered the source of the river? After all, a river is often formed by several streams? In which case they are the source of the river. In some cases, you can tell exactly which spring the river originates from. Then this spring will be called the source of the river.
Each river has its own name (Moscow, Volga, Oka, Yenisei). Sometimes streams may have names. For example, Gremuchiy stream, Kholodny stream, Begunok stream.
It often happens that two rivers join into one. In this case, they say that one river flows into another. The river that flows into it is called a tributary, and the one into which it flows is called the main river. How to determine which of two rivers is a tributary and which is the main one? Usually the tributary is shorter than the main river. It is often narrow. What is the name of the river resulting from the confluence of two rivers? Sometimes it is new, but most often the name of the main river is retained. But the main river can meet a longer river on its way and become a tributary itself. The place where a river flows into another river, lake or sea is called an estuary. The mouth is the end of the river.
A river can be short, only a few tens of kilometers long, or it can stretch up to several thousand kilometers. If a river flows through a flat area, its flow is smooth, calm, and quite slow. In mountainous areas, river flows are turbulent, sometimes very fast.
In order for the river not to disappear, water must flow into it all the time. In both summer and winter, rivers are fed by groundwater coming from springs. These springs are located at its source and throughout the riverbed. In summer, a lot of water enters the rivers due to rain, in spring - due to melting snow.
So, a river is a large water stream flowing in a natural channel and having a source and an mouth. A stream is a small stream of water.
PUZZLES
No matter how you wind, where you wander -
Still he comes to the blue sea.
Even though the road is far,
But don't get lost
(River)
Shakes a little in the breeze
Ribbon in the open.
The narrow tip is in the spring,
And the wide one is in time.
(River)
In winter I hide
I appear in the spring
I have fun in the summer
I go to bed in the fall
(River)
What road do they drive on for six months?
do they go for six months?
(River)
Lakes, ponds, swamps
Do you know what a lake is and what a pond is?
Lakes are large natural depressions on the land surface filled with water. Unlike rivers, lakes have neither a source nor an mouth, and the water in them does not flow anywhere. But this does not mean that the same water will remain in the lakes all the time.
Just like in a river, the water in the lake is constantly changing, one water leaves and another comes to replace it. Only in the river this change happens quickly, and that’s why we notice it. Then we say: “The river flows.” The water in a lake changes more slowly than in a river. We do not notice this change, so it seems to us that the water in the lake is motionless. In fact, some of the water gradually evaporates from the surface, while some is absorbed into the ground. Old water either evaporates from the surface of the lake or is absorbed into the ground. New water is brought by rivers and streams flowing into the lake, as well as rain and melting snow.
Lakes are of natural origin, that is, they were created by nature, not people. There are many natural depressions on the surface of the earth (natural, meaning not dug by people). Some of these depressions are filled with water from rivers, streams and springs, rain and melt water. This is how a river is formed. Lakes can be drained or drainless. Sewage lakes are those from which rivers flow; Rivers do not flow from drainless rivers. In drainage lakes the water is always fresh (unsalted), and in drainage lakes, with rare exceptions, it is salty. The water in a drainage lake is completely replaced within a few decades, and in a drainless lake within 200-300 years.
Lakes are our wealth. It is unacceptable to pollute the water in lakes, dump poorly purified water from factories and factories there, or wash cars in lakes. But, unfortunately, many lakes (as well as other bodies of water) are already polluted with harmful substances. In addition, there may be pathogenic microbes there. Therefore, you should not drink water from reservoirs. (At home on the album sheet there is a poster “Beware of the lake!”.)
It often happens that people dig a fairly large hole and fill it with water. This is how a pond turns out. Sometimes people fill existing natural depressions with water. In this case, you also get a pond. The important thing is that the pond is always created artificially. There is a third way to create a third pond - block the river with a dam. This is called “damming the river.” In this case, the pond is called a dam.
So - lakes are formed naturally, they are created by nature, ponds are created by people artificially.
PUZZLES
In the middle of the field
The mirror lies:
Blue glass,
Green frame
(Lake)
Young children look at him,
Color your own using scarves.
Young birch trees look at him,
Adjusting your hair in front of him.
Both the month and the stars - everything is reflected in it.
What do we call this mirror?
(Pond)
Not water, not land -
You can't sail away on a boat,
You can't get through it with your feet.
(Swamp)
Duckweed on top
And it’s tough to step on.
You won’t pass, you won’t swim -
You'll go around.
And you won’t drink water
With a bluish film.
(Swamp)
Everyone avoids this place.
Here the earth is
It's like dough
There are sedges, hummocks, mosses...
No foot support
(Swamp)
Oceans and seas
There are huge natural depressions filled with water. They are called oceans and seas. Open the physical map of the world. It takes on a blue color - these are all oceans. Oceans are huge expanses of water, very deep. The usual depth of the ocean is several kilometers. There are four oceans in total - several kilometers long. There are four oceans in total - the Pacific, Atlantic, Indian and Arctic. The sea is the part of the ocean that extends into the land, sometimes very far. These are the Mediterranean seas, which protrude less into the land, for example, the Barents and East Siberian seas in the north of our country.
How is the sea different from a lake? Firstly, seas are usually much larger than lakes. True, there are lakes that are larger than some seas. For example, Lake Baikal is larger than the Sea of Marmara, and the African Lake Victoria is larger than the Sea of Azov. Secondly, in the seas the water is always salty, and in the lakes it is usually fresh. Although there are lakes in which the water is salty. The main difference between a sea and a lake is that the sea is connected to the ocean either directly or through other seas. If we sail on a ship, we can always get from any sea to the ocean. Strictly speaking, being at sea, we are already in the ocean, since the sea is always part of the ocean. The lake is in no way connected to the ocean. The shores of the lake are closed. The only opportunity to sail from a lake to the ocean exists if a river flows out of the lake. For example, the Neva River flows from Lake Ladoga and flows into the Baltic Sea. But this does not make Lake Ladoga a sea. Even if a lake is connected to the ocean of a river, it remains a lake. Locate the Mediterranean, Aegean, Adriatic, Ionian, Tyrrhenian, Marmara, Black and Azov seas on the map. The Mediterranean Sea is called because it is connected directly to the Atlantic Ocean through the Strait of Gibraltar. The strait is not a river, it is part of the sea, part of the ocean. If this strait did not exist, the Mediterranean Sea would be considered a lake. The Aegean Sea is connected to the ocean through the Mediterranean Sea. The Adriatic, Ionian, and Tyrrhenian seas are also connected to them. Calculate how many seas you need to sail through to get from the Sea of Azov to the Atlantic Ocean? Our country has the Caspian Sea. It is very large, the water in it is salty, so it was called the sea. However, this is a lake. Yes, yes, in fact, the Caspian Sea is just a lake, because it is not directly connected to any ocean. The Aral Sea is also a lake. They are called that - Lake Caspian Sea, Lake Aral Sea. You may ask why the “sea” is kept in their name? Traditionally. Everyone is so used to these names that they don’t want to change them.
PUZZLES
No one salted, but salty
(sea)
Now blue, now green,
Now meek, now indignant,
Spread over half the earth.
Yachts and ships are friends with him.
And we are with you and him in the summer heat
I don't mind communicating all day long.
(sea)
wide in width,
Deeply deep,
Day and night it hits the shore,
You can't drink water from it,
Because it tastes bad -
And bitter and salty.
(sea)
OCEANS AND SEAS
There are four oceans on Earth. The largest of them is the Pacific Ocean. “Quiet” is just a name. In fact, the Pacific Ocean is often very rough. Why was he called Quiet? They say that when the first European travelers saw him, he was indeed very calm. This ocean occupies more than 1/3 of the earth's surface! He is also the deepest. It contains the so-called Mariana Trench, whose depth is 11,022 meters. The next largest and deepest is the Atlantic Ocean. It is half the size of the Quiet and occupies more than approximately 1/6 of the earth's surface. Its greatest depth is 8742 meters. The third largest and deepest is the Indian Ocean. It occupies about 1/7 of the earth's surface. Its greatest depth is 7209 meters. And finally, the smallest and shallowest ocean is the Arctic Ocean. It is named so because it is located around the North Pole of our planet and most of it is covered with ice. The Arctic Ocean occupies approximately 1/34 of the earth's surface. It is 12 times smaller than the Pacific, 6 times smaller than the Atlantic and 5 times smaller than the Indian Ocean. Its greatest depth is 5527 meters.
Each ocean has several seas. Sea is a part of the oceans that partially or completely (such as the Mediterranean) extends into land. The Pacific Ocean includes 13 seas, the Atlantic – 9, the Indian – 5, and the Arctic – 10 seas.
Glossary of terms
An endorheic lake is a lake from which no river flows. The water in almost all closed lakes is salty.
A swamp is an area with excessively moist soil, but without a continuous surface of water.
Raised bog is a bog covered with a layer of mossphagnum. The vegetation is poor; dwarf pines and lingonberries are occasionally found. Peat from high bogs is an excellent fuel, but a poor fertilizer.
A waterfall is a stream of water rapidly falling from a height.
Flow in - flow in, pour in (about the river).
The main river is a river into which another river (tributary) flows.
Frost is a thin layer of snow that forms on a cooling surface from water vapor.
Source is the place where a water flow (river, stream) begins.
A source (spring, spring) is a place where groundwater comes to the surface.
A key (spring, spring) is a place where groundwater comes to the surface.
The water cycle in nature is the evaporation of water from the surface of the Earth, the transfer of water vapor by winds, the condensation of water vapor and the formation of vapors and the formation of clouds, precipitation (rain, snow, hail) and their flow into rivers, lakes, seas and oceans.
A glacier is an ice cover up to several tens of meters thick.
Forest swamp is one of the types of swamps. Covered with basic or birch forest, a layer of moss and grass.
The sea is a part of the ocean that partially or completely extends into land, a body of water with bitterly salty water. If the sea extends completely into the land, it is connected to the ocean through the strait and other seas.
A lowland swamp is a swamp whose surface is covered with a thick layer of grass. Birch trees and willow bushes are sometimes found here; little moss. Peat from a low-lying bog is a good fertilizer, but a poor fuel (it leaves too much ash and clogs the tanks).
Lake is a natural body of water located in the depressions of the land; fed by underground and surface waters.
The ocean is a huge, very deep space. There are 4 oceans on Earth - Pacific, Atlantic, Indian, Arctic.
A tributary is a river that flows into another river (the main one).
A pond is an artificial (that is, man-made) body of water in a natural or dug depression, as well as a dammed place in a river. (A dammed place in a river is also called a dam).
A river is a water stream of significant size, flowing in a natural channel and having a source and an mouth.
A spring is a place where groundwater comes to the surface
Dew is atmospheric moisture that is deposited during cooling in small water droplets.
A channel is a depression in the earth's surface along which a river moves. The channel has a natural origin, usually made by the river itself.
The stream is a small watery stream.
A drainage lake is a lake from which at least one river flows. The water in such lakes is never salty.
The quagmire is the most dangerous place in the swamp; a place where a swamp sucks in a person or animal that gets there.
Fog is opaque air containing a lot of water vapor.
Estuary – the place where a river flows into a sea, lake or another river.
A filter is a device for purifying liquid.
FOR THE CURIOUS
For the curious
- What property of water do you think mom uses when she washes dishes or does laundry? Water is a universal solvent. It can dissolve many substances.
- What kind of water is called mineral water? Groundwater dissolves salts that are in the ground. Therefore, mineral water is water that contains a solution of mineral salts. Such waters are often medicinal.
- Let's say we have a mixture of sand, salt and sawdust. How to separate them from each other using water? We pour the entire mixture into water, the sawdust floats to the surface, the salt and sand settle. We will remove the sawdust and stir the water until the salt is completely dissolved. Then we pass it through the filter, the sand will settle on it. We will boil the resulting saline solution and keep it there until all the water has evaporated. Since the salt does not evaporate, it will remain at the bottom of the vessel.
- Despite the fact that there is a lot of water on Earth, it is distributed extremely evenly. In Africa and Asia there are vast areas devoid of water - deserts. An entire country – Algeria – lives on imported water. Fresh water is also delivered by ship to some Greek islands. About 3 billion people around the world lack clean drinking water.
- A person consumes 60 tons of water per year just through nutrition. And 300 tons of milk goes to satisfy his other vital needs. Even the extraction of coal and oil cannot be done without water: for 1 ton of coal - 5 tons of water, for 1 ton of oil - 130 tons.
FOR THE CURIOUS
- Rain cools the air and clears it of dust. Therefore, in the summer after rain it is easier to breathe.
- If you open a window in a cold room, white clouds of fog appear in a warm room. What is this? These are tiny droplets of water. A warm room contains a lot of steam. When we open the window, the air in the room will cool and the steam will turn into tiny droplets of water, forming fog. Then we closed the window. The water droplets turned into steam again and the fog disappeared.
- If we bring a dry, cold object into a warm room, droplets of water will appear on it. What kind of miracle? The air contains steam. The steam comes into contact with a cold object, cools down and turns into water droplets.
- Almost all solar energy falling on the earth is spent on evaporating water from the surface of reservoirs: oceans, seas, rivers, lakes. Every year thousands of cubic kilometers of water rise into the atmosphere. Approximately 1/3 of atmospheric water returns as precipitation to the ocean, and 2/3 falls on land.
- If all the water vapor contained in the atmosphere fell to the ground in the form of rain, a layer of water 1 meter thick would form on land. But, fortunately, not all atmospheric water vapor falls on the ground in the form of rain and snow.
- Academician A.P. Karpinsky called water “the most precious fossil.” Where is this fossil stored? Water is everywhere: in reservoirs, on high mountains, at the poles. About 1/5 of the soil is water. At a depth of up to 1 km. More than 4 million square kilometers of water are stored in the earth's crust. And above each square kilometer of the Earth's surface hangs on average about 20 thousand tons of water in the form of steam.
FOR THE CURIOUS
- Hot water flows from some springs. Typically, such sources are found in the vicinity of mountains, especially volcanoes. How is water heated? On the surface of the earth it is difficult to feel the internal heat of our planet. But at a depth of 2-3 thousand meters, the temperature of the rocks reaches 100 degrees. Water at such a depth heats up greatly, expands through cracks and cracks and flows to the surface.
- The moisture contained in the soil is completely renewed in 1 year.
- The average residence time of water in the atmosphere is on average 10 days. However, in different areas it can reach 15 days, and in the central regions of Russia - 7.
FOR THE CURIOUS
- There is a village in Altai - Raspberry Lake. This settlement arose next to a lake, the water of which looks like raspberries. The water has a crimson color because crimson-colored crustaceans live in abundance in it. In the Kuril Islands, on the island of Kumanshir, there is a lake with milky white water due to the presence of hydrochloric and sulfuric acids in it. In Indonesia, at the top of one of the active volcanoes there are three small lakes: one filled with bright red water, another blue, and the third milky white. Red Lake owes its color to the presence of iron in its water. In the other two lakes, hydrochloric and sulfuric acids are dissolved in different concentrations. There is Lake Gokcha in the Caucasus. The water near its shores is yellowish, further away it is blue, and in the middle it is dark blue. Many lakes of the southern Andes play with a variety of colors: sometimes blue and green, sometimes steel and pearl. There is an ink lake in Algeria. The quality of its ink water can be tested even on paper. Two rivers flow into this lake. The water of one of them brings a lot of iron salts. Water contains many substances formed in the soil during the decomposition of plants. These substances mix and produce ink liquid
- On the island of Java there is a lake that blows bubbles. Steam and gases rising from its surface blow bubbles up to one and a half meters wide. They fly into the air like balloons and burst with a loud crash.
- In the USA there is the Great Salt Lake. It's unbearably hot here. In summer, even boating is not fun. Water skiing is also risky: falling can lead to broken bones. After all, the water in this lake consists of ¼ of petrified salt.
- In the Urals, in the Chelyabinsk region, there is Lake Sladkoe. The water here is truly unusual. You can wash clothes in it, and oil stains are washed off even without soap. Studies have shown that a lot of soda is dissolved in the water of the “sweet” lake. It helps with washing and leaves a sweetish aftertaste.
- One frightening, albeit infrequent, phenomenon is observed in the swamps. A column of water 20-30 meters high rises noisily from the depths. It was methane that escaped from under the bottom silt - a swamp gas formed during the decay of plant sediments. Emissions of swamp gas are sometimes accompanied by powerful eruptions of mud. A description of a powerful swamp eruption in Ireland in 1896 has been preserved. The Great New Rathmore Swamp threw out a stream of mud several kilometers long, which flooded everything in its path. One house was flooded with mud along with people. We observed a large eruption in the century before last near Lake Onega. In one of the swampy water meadows, a fountain of mud, silt and sand 4 meters high erupted for several days. And then a spring appeared in this place.
FOR THE CURIOUS
- The word “ocean” comes from the Greek “okeanos” - “a great river flowing around the whole earth.”
- The world ocean is the water shell of the globe, covering most of its surface. The waters of the world's oceans are completely renewed on average every 3 thousand years.
- Sargasso Sea. Not a single navigator has yet managed to land on the shores of this vast, mysterious sea. Christopher Columbus was the first to discover this sea, completely covered with floating algae - sargassum. The shores of this sea are conventionally considered to be the strong currents of the Atlantic Ocean. The Sargasso Sea is rich in animal diversity. In calm weather, small crabs and shrimps scurry around the shaky Sargassum “islands”. Tuna, mackerel, and swordtails are circling above them. This sea also keeps many secrets. Many ships and planes ended up in the Bermuda Triangle, located in this sea.
Do the crossword puzzle.
Water condition
Horizontally:
- In the morning the beads sparkled,
They covered all the grass with themselves.
And we went to look for them during the day -
We search and search, but we won’t find it.
2) Grows upside down.
It grows not in summer, but in winter.
The sun will warm it up a little -
She will cry and die.
3) When all the flowers withered,
We came from above.
We are like silver bees
We sat down on a thorny tree.
Vertically:
3) There’s a mountain in the yard,
and in the hut with water.
5) Does not burn in fire,
does not sink in water.
6) Milk floated over the river,
There was nothing to be seen.
The milk has dissolved -
It became visible far away.
7) The golden bridge spreads out
Seven villages, seven miles.
In addition to lakes and ponds, on the land surface you can find another type of reservoir - a swamp. A swamp is an area with excessively moist soil, but without a continuous surface of water. Swamps usually form in lowlands where clayey soil does not drain water well. Swamps can be very marshy, and walking through a swamp is life-threatening. You can fall into a quagmire - the swampiest place in the swamp. The quagmire sucks in a person or animal that gets there and it is very difficult, and sometimes simply impossible, to get out of it without outside help. Sometimes a bog seems like a flat meadow, absolutely safe. But walking along it can lead to death. Cranberries grow in many swamps. People often go to swamps to buy cranberries. But you can only go on such a hike with a person who knows the area well. In addition, poisonous snakes are often found there. Therefore, you can go there in high boots so that the snake does not bite your leg.
Do the crossword puzzle.
Water condition
Horizontally:
- In the morning the beads sparkled,
They covered all the grass with themselves.
And we went to look for them during the day -
We search and search, but we won’t find it.
2) Grows upside down.
It grows not in summer, but in winter.
The sun will warm it up a little -
She will cry and die.
3) When all the flowers withered,
We came from above.
We are like silver bees
We sat down on a thorny tree.
Vertically:
3) There’s a mountain in the yard,
and in the hut with water.
5) Does not burn in fire,
does not sink in water.
6) Milk floated over the river,
There was nothing to be seen.
The milk has dissolved -
It became visible far away.
7) The golden bridge spreads out
Seven villages, seven miles.
Game “Water Can’t Spill”
Russian has many educated expressions related to water. For example, “like sinking into water” - disappearing without a trace; “like being dropped into water” - having a sad appearance, etc. Remember which expressions correspond to the following values.
1. Remain silent (Take some water into your mouth).
2. This is another way to say, it is unknown what the outcome will be. (Written on water with a pitchfork)
3. Guessed, predicted correctly (Like looking into the water)
4.Take advantage by taking advantage of other people's difficulties. (Catching fish in troubled waters)
5. Confuse others, deliberately create confusion in any issue. (Muddy the waters)
6. Be ready to do any act in the name of affection, idea. (Into fire and water)
7. About complete similarity. (As two drops of water)
8. You won’t get anything, it won’t matter. (Like water off a duck's back)
9. Avoid deserved punishment. (Come out dry from water)
10. Distant relative. (Seventh water on jelly)
11. A lot of unnecessary things. (Much water)
12. Do some useless work. (Drag the water in the mortar)
13.Live from hand to mouth, live in poverty. (Sit on bread and water.)
14.Hide all traces of the unseemly deed. (And ends in water)
15. Much time has come. (A lot of water has passed under the bridge)