Their success depended to a large extent on the external situation: a new war could disrupt the transformation. The Emperor appointed consistent supporters of his course as ambassadors to the largest states of the world. Prince A. M. Gorchakov was appointed head of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs in 1856. In a letter to Alexander II, he defined the main foreign policy goal of the country as follows: “With current situation our state and Europe In general, Russia’s main attention should be persistently directed to the implementation of the cause of our internal development, and all foreign policy should be subordinated to this task.”
Based on this goal, the main directions of foreign policy were identified: breaking out of international isolation and restoring Russia’s role as a great power, repealing the humiliating articles of the Paris Peace Treaty that prohibited having a fleet and military fortifications on the Black Sea. In addition, it was necessary to secure borders with neighboring states in agreements Central Asia and in the Far East. These complex tasks were resolved peacefully, largely thanks to the brilliant diplomatic talent of A. M. Gorchakov.
Alexander Mikhailovich Gorchakov (1798-1883) after graduation in 1817 Tsarskoye Selo Lyceum, where he studied with A.S. Pushkin, entered the diplomatic service. Before the start of the Crimean War at the Vienna Conference of Ambassadors, he made a lot of efforts to keep Austria and a number of other powers from entering the war against Russia.
A. M. Gorchakov was distinguished by his independence of character, high morality, and had extensive connections among politicians foreign states. He enjoyed great confidence from Emperor Alexander II not only in matters of foreign policy, but also in matters of carrying out reforms within the country. For services to the Fatherland, Gorchakov was awarded the highest honors, including the title of His Serene Highness Prince and the highest civilian rank in the Table of Ranks - State Chancellor Russian Empire.
Gorchakov, skillfully using the contradictions between the European powers, achieved the agreements necessary for his state. Being a supporter of a cautious foreign policy, he showed restraint in Central Asian affairs, trying to counteract the aggressive plans of the War Ministry.
European politics
The main efforts of Russian diplomacy were aimed at finding allies in Europe, breaking out of isolation and the collapse of the anti-Russian bloc, which included France, England and Austria. The situation that developed in Europe at that time was to Russia's advantage. Former allies The anti-Russian coalition was torn apart by sharp disagreements, sometimes leading to wars.
Russia's main efforts were aimed at rapprochement with France. In September 1857, Alexander II met with the French Emperor Napoleon III, and in February 1859, an agreement on Franco-Russian cooperation was signed. However, this union did not become long-lasting and durable. And when the war between France and Austria began in April 1859, Russia avoided French help, thereby seriously undermining Franco-Russian relations. But relations between Russia and Austria have improved significantly. With these actions, Gorchakov actually destroyed the anti-Russian alliance and brought Russia out of international isolation.
Polish uprising 1863-1864 and the attempts of England and France to intervene, under the pretext of this uprising, in the internal affairs of Russia caused an acute crisis, which ended in a rapprochement between Russia and Prussia, which allowed the persecution of the Polish rebels on its territory. Subsequently, Russia took a position of benevolent neutrality towards Prussia during its wars against Austria (1866) and France (1870-1871).
Having secured the support of Prussia, Gorchakov launched an attack on the articles of the Paris Peace Treaty of 1856 that were unfavorable for Russia. In October 1870, at the height of the Franco-Prussian War, he declared that Russia no longer considered itself bound by the obligations of the Paris Treaty regarding “neutralization” Black Sea, which were repeatedly violated by other powers. Despite the protests of England, Austria and Turkey, Russia began to create a navy in the Black Sea, restore destroyed ones and build new military fortifications. Thus, this foreign policy task was resolved peacefully.
The defeat of France in the war with Prussia and the subsequent unification of Germany changed the balance of power in Europe. A powerful warlike power emerged on the western borders of Russia. The alliance between Germany and Austria (since 1867 - Austria-Hungary) posed a particular threat. In order to prevent this union and at the same time neutralize England, irritated by Russia’s successes in Central Asia, Gorchakov organized a meeting of the emperors of Russia, Germany and Austria-Hungary in 1873. According to the agreement signed by the three monarchs, they pledged to provide each other with assistance, including military assistance. But when, 2 years after the signing of the agreement, Germany again intended to attack France, Russia, alarmed by the excessive strengthening of the Germans, opposed new war. The “Union of Three Emperors” finally collapsed in 1878.
Thus, Alexander II managed to fulfill the main foreign policy task in the main - European - direction. Russia achieved the repeal of the most humiliating articles of the Treaty of Paris and peacefully restored its former influence. This had a beneficial effect on the implementation of reforms and the end of wars in the Caucasus and Central Asia.
End of the Caucasian War
In an effort to complete the annexation of the Caucasus, the Russian government sent significant forces to fight the mountaineers.
The Commander-in-Chief of the Caucasian Army A.I. Baryatinsky (1856-1860), just like A.P. Ermolov at the beginning of the Caucasian War, began to tighten the blockade ring around the enemy with a strong consolidation of the occupied territories. In April 1859, the “capital” of Shamil, the village of Vedeno, fell. Shamil himself fled to the village of Gunib. On August 25, the village was taken by storm. Shamil surrendered on honorable terms. He, his family and his guards were provided with housing in Kaluga and a salary. The imam's sons were given the opportunity to study at military schools and serve in the Russian army.
In the north-west of the Caucasus, military operations against Russian troops were led by Shamil’s comrade-in-arms Mukhamed-Amin. Here the position of the Russian troops was made easier by the disunity of the Circassian and Abkhaz tribes, as well as a change in the mood of the local population. In November 1859, the main forces of the Circassians surrendered. By April 1864, Russian troops occupied the entire Black Sea coast of Abkhazia. On May 21, 1864, the last center of resistance of the Circassian tribes was suppressed. This day is considered the date of the end of the Caucasian War and the entry of the mountain peoples of the Caucasus into Russia, although individual skirmishes still continued.
The entry of the peoples of the Caucasus into Russia contributed to their economic and cultural development. IN late XIX V. Here a commercial and industrial bourgeoisie appeared, owning oil fields and factories. In the early 90s. The Vladikavkaz railway was built, oil production began to develop rapidly.
Russian Policy in Central Asia
In the early 60s. The voluntary acceptance of Russian citizenship by the Kazakhs was completed. But their lands were still subject to raids from neighboring states: the Bukhara Emirate, the Khiva and Kokand Khanates. Kazakhs were captured and then sold into slavery. To prevent such actions, fortification systems began to be created along the Russian border. However, the raids continued, and the governors-general of the border regions, on their own initiative, made retaliatory campaigns.
These trips, or expeditions as they were called, caused discontent in the Ministry of Foreign Affairs. It did not want to aggravate relations with England, which considered Central Asia an area of its influence. But the War Ministry, trying to restore the authority of the Russian army, shaken after the Crimean War, secretly supported the actions of its military leaders. And Alexander II himself was not averse to expanding his possessions in the east. Central Asia was of not only military, but also economic interest for Russia and as a source of cotton for textile industry, and as a place to sell Russian goods. Therefore, actions to annex Central Asia found wide support in industrial and merchant circles.
In June 1865, Russian troops under the command of General M. G. Chernyaev, taking advantage of the war between Bukhara and Kokand, captured largest city Central Asia Tashkent and a number of other cities. This caused a protest from England, and Alexander II was forced to dismiss Chernyaev for “arbitrariness.” But all the conquered lands were annexed to Russia. The Turkestan Governor-General (Turkestan Territory) was formed here, the head of which was appointed by the tsar General K. P. Kaufman.
To protect these lands from the east, Semirechenskoe was formed in 1867 along the border with China. Cossack army. In response to the “holy war” declared by the Bukhara emir, Russian troops captured Samarkand in May 1868 and forced the emir to admit dependence on Russia in 1873. In the same year, the Khan of Khiva also became dependent. The religious circles of the Kokand Khanate called for a “holy war” against the Russians. In 1875, Russian troops under the command of General M.D. Skobelev, in the course of rapid actions, defeated the Khan’s troops. In February 1876, the Kokand Khanate was abolished, and its territory was included in the Fergana region of the Turkestan Governor-General.
The conquest of Central Asia also took place from the Caspian Sea. In 1869, Russian troops under the command of General N. G. Stoletov landed on its eastern bank and founded the city of Krasnovodsk. Further advance to the east, towards Bukhara, met stubborn resistance from the Turkmen tribes. The Geok-Tepe oasis became a stronghold of resistance for the large Tekin tribe. Repeated attempts by Russian troops to take possession of it failed.
Later, M.D. Skobelev was appointed commander of the Russian troops in western Turkmenistan. For uninterrupted supply of Russian troops, a railway line was built from Krasnovodsk towards Geok-Tepe. On January 12, 1881, after a fierce battle, Russian troops captured Geok-Tepe, and a week later - Ashgabat.
Russia's conquest of Central Asia deprived the peoples who inhabited it of statehood. But at the same time, internecine wars stopped, slavery and the slave trade were eliminated, part of the lands confiscated from the feudal lords who fought against the Russian troops was transferred peasants. Cotton growing and sericulture began to develop quickly, railway construction, and the extraction of oil, coal, and non-ferrous metals began.
On the annexed lands, the Russian government pursued a flexible policy, avoiding disruption of the usual way of life, without interfering in national culture and religious relations.
Far Eastern policy of Russia
Until the middle of the 19th century. Russia had no officially recognized borders with its neighbors in the Far East. Russian pioneers continued to settle in these lands, as well as in Sakhalin and the Kuril Islands. The expeditions of Admiral G. I. Nevelsky on the coast of the Tatar Strait and Sakhalin (1850-1855) and the Governor General were of great not only scientific but also political importance Eastern Siberia N.N. Muravyov, who explored the banks of the Amur (1854-1855). To consolidate, develop and protect lands along the Amur, the Transbaikal Cossack Army was created in 1851, and in 1858 - the Amur Cossack Army.
Untied in the late 50s. England and France's "opium war" against China was not supported by Russia, which caused a favorable response in Beijing. N.N. Muravyov took advantage of this. He invited the Chinese government to sign an agreement on establishing the border between the countries. The presence of settlements of Russian pioneers in the Amur region served as a compelling argument to justify Russia’s rights to these lands. In May 1858, N.N. Muravyov signed the Aigun Treaty with representatives of the Chinese government, according to which the border with China was established along the Amur River until the confluence of the Ussuri River. The Ussuri region between this river and the Pacific Ocean was declared a joint Russian-Chinese possession. In 1860, a new Treaty of Beijing was signed, according to which the Ussuri region was declared the possession of Russia. On June 20, 1860, Russian sailors entered the Golden Horn Bay and founded the port of Vladivostok.
Negotiations to determine the border between Russia and Japan were difficult. According to the agreement concluded in the Japanese city of Shimoda in 1855, at the height of the Crimean War, Kurile Islands were recognized as the territory of Russia, and Sakhalin Island as the joint possession of the two countries. After the signing of the treaty, a significant number of Japanese settlers rushed to Sakhalin. In 1875, to avoid complications with Japan, Russia agreed to sign new agreement. Sakhalin completely went to Russia, and the islands of the Kuril chain went to Japan.
Selling Alaska
By the middle of the 19th century. American entrepreneurs, traders, poachers. Protecting and maintaining this remote territory became increasingly difficult, with costs far outpacing Alaska's income. American possessions have become a burden for the state.
At the same time, the government of Alexander II sought to eliminate possible contradictions and strengthen the friendly relations that have developed between the United States and Russia. The Emperor decided to sell Alaska to the American government for a small sum of $7.2 million for a transaction of this scale.
The sale of Alaska in 1867 showed that the Russian government had underestimated the economic and military importance of its possessions in the Pacific Ocean. It is impossible not to take into account the fact that Russia’s main opponents in Europe - England and France - were at that time on the verge of war with the United States. The sale of Alaska was a demonstration of Russian support for the United States.
The foreign policy of the government of Alexander II was active in almost all its areas. Through diplomatic and military means, the Russian state managed to solve the foreign policy tasks facing it and restore its position as a great power.
Questions and tasks
1. What were the main goals and directions of Russian foreign policy during the reign of Alexander II?
2. Give a description of Russia’s European policy. What were Russia's main achievements in this area?
3. Tell us about Russia’s policy in Central Asia. Can we consider that Russia pursued a colonial policy in this area?
4. How did Russia’s relations with China and Japan develop?
5. What were the features of the annexation of the Far Eastern territories?
Documentation
From the dispatch of the Minister of Foreign Affairs of Russia A. M. Gorchakov to the representatives of Russia at the courts of the powers that signed the Paris Treaty of 1856 October 19, 1870
Repeated violations, which last years treaties considered the basis of European balance were subjected, the imperial cabinet was forced to delve into their significance in relation to the political situation of Russia.
Our august sovereign cannot allow treaties that have been violated in many essential and general articles of his own, remained obligatory on those articles that relate to the direct interests of his empire...
The Emperor, in confidence in the sense of justice of the powers that signed the treaty of 1856, and in their consciousness of their own dignity, commands you to announce:
that he considers it his right and his duty to declare to the Sultan the termination of a separate and additional convention to the aforementioned treaty, defining the number and size of military vessels that both powers allowed themselves to maintain in the Black Sea;
that the Emperor directly notifies the powers that have signed and guaranteed the general treaty, of which this separate convention forms an essential part;
which, in this respect, restores the rights of the Sultan in the same way as it restores his own.
About Russian America
From a letter from Grand Duke Konstantin Nikolaevich to Vice-Chancellor A. M. Gorchakov. March 22, 1857
This sale would be very timely, for one should not deceive oneself and must foresee that the United States, constantly striving to round off its possessions and wanting to dominate inseparably in North America, they will take the aforementioned colonies from us and we will not be able to return them.
From a note by the Minister of State Property of Russia. 1862
The main fishery of the colonies - beaver - is constantly declining. In general, the fur trade is beginning to lose primacy to Canada and England, from where furs began to be obtained in Europe in huge quantities and incomparably cheaper. The whaling industry in the colonies passed into American hands. Fishing barely satisfies the needs of the colonies, despite the extreme abundance of various and good breeds fish in the seas and rivers of the colonies. Nothing has been done regarding agriculture and cattle breeding. The company hardly touches the mineral wealth of the region. All trade relations of the company are weakening and going into decline. Its merchant fleet is the most insignificant, and for its own needs it is forced to charter other people's ships.
Questions for documents
1. What kind of foreign policy? the event is going on speech in the first document?
2. How does Russia justify its refusal to fulfill some of the conditions of the Paris Treaty?
3. What foreign policy conditions allowed Russia to take such a step?
5. What other reasons can you think of? What is your opinion on this step?
Summing up the foreign policy of Alexander II
During the reign of Alexander the Second, quite active work was carried out in all directions aimed at implementing foreign policy. All foreign policy tasks set by Alexander II were completed and Russia again restored its dominance in the world.
And the tasks set by Emperor Alexander II in foreign policy were as follows:
Firstly, the main task remained to find a way out of international isolation and restore Russia’s status as a great power.
But at that time Russia was weak in terms of military power, and even after the Polish uprising of 1863-1864. all European diplomacy was opposed to Russia, therefore this moment this goal was difficult to achieve.
Secondly, Alexander II, in his foreign policy with Europe, sought to achieve a revision of the Treaty of Paris, which prohibited having a fleet and military fortifications on the Black Sea.
With the help of a wise diplomatic approach, Emperor Alexander II and Foreign Minister A.M. Gorchakov managed to achieve positive results in this problem. In 1871, a new treaty was signed, which abolished a number of articles prohibiting having its own fleet. After this, Russia was able to begin strengthening its coast on the Black Sea and keep the required number of military ships on it.
The third task that the Russian ruler set for himself was to strengthen the borders with neighboring states, both Central Asia and the Far East.
In addition to the facts already listed, during the reign of Emperor Alexander II, a victory was won in Caucasian War. Russia's geopolitical space also expanded due to its attack on Central Asia and the subjugation of Turkestan. Thanks to these military actions, internecine wars ceased. Slavery and the slave trade were eliminated in these territories.
The war with Turkey also brought considerable glory to the Russian Empire and, thanks to it, further expanded the territory of the power.
In the middle of the eighteenth century, Russia and China signed the Aigun Treaty on borders along the Amur River, where at first the Ussuri region was jointly owned with China, but a little later it went to Russia.
Having concluded an agreement with Japan, Russia received Sakhalin into its possessions, and Japan - the Kuril Islands.
In an effort to strengthen friendly relations with America, Russia had to sacrifice such territory as Alaska. This acquisition cost America a rather small amount of 7 million 200 thousand dollars.
Danilov A. A. History of Russia, XIX century. 8th grade: textbook. for general education institutions / A. A. Danilov, L. G. Kosulina. - 10th ed. - M.: Education, 2009. - 287 p., l. ill., map.
The main directions of foreign policy: breaking out of international isolation and restoring Russia’s role as a great power, repealing the humiliating articles of the Paris Peace Treaty that prohibited having a fleet and military fortifications on the Black Sea. In addition, it was necessary to secure borders with neighboring states in Central Asia and the Far East through treaties.
The main efforts of Russian diplomacy were aimed at finding allies in Europe, breaking out of isolation and the collapse of the anti-Russian bloc, which included France, England and Austria.
In October 1870, at the height of the Franco-Prussian War, it was stated that Russia no longer considered itself bound by the obligations of the Treaty of Paris regarding the “neutralization” of the Black Sea, which other powers had repeatedly violated. Russia began creating a military fleet in the Black Sea, restoring destroyed ones and building new military fortifications.
In 1873, a meeting took place between the emperors of Russia, Germany and Austria-Hungary. According to the agreement signed by the three monarchs, they pledged to provide each other with assistance, including military assistance.
Thus, Alexander II managed to fulfill the main foreign policy task in the main - European - direction. Russia achieved the repeal of the most humiliating articles of the Treaty of Paris and peacefully restored its former influence.
On May 21, 1864, the last center of resistance of the Circassian tribes was suppressed.
The entry of the peoples of the Caucasus into Russia contributed to their economic and cultural development.
In the early 60s. The voluntary acceptance of Russian citizenship by the Kazakhs was completed.
In June 1865, Russian troops under the command of General M.G. Chernyaev, taking advantage of the war between Bukhara and Kokand, captured the largest city in Central Asia, Tashkent, and a number of other cities almost without losses. The Turkestan Governor General (Turkestan Territory) was formed here.
To protect these lands from the east, the Semirechensk Cossack Army was formed in 1867 along the border with China. In response to the “holy war” declared by the Bukhara emir, Russian troops captured Samarkand in May 1868 and forced the emir to admit dependence on Russia in 1873. In the same year, the Khan of Khiva also became dependent.
Russia's conquest of Central Asia deprived the peoples who inhabited it of statehood. But at the same time, internecine wars stopped, slavery and the slave trade were eliminated, and part of the lands confiscated from the feudal lords who fought against the Russian troops was transferred to the peasants. Cotton growing and sericulture began to develop quickly, railway construction, and the extraction of oil, coal, and non-ferrous metals began.
In the annexed lands, the Russian government pursued a flexible policy, avoiding disruption of the usual way of life, without interfering in national culture and religious relations.
In May 1858, N.N. Muravyov signed the Aigun Treaty with representatives of the Chinese government, according to which the border with China was established along the Amur River until the confluence of the Ussuri River. In 1860, a new Treaty of Beijing was signed, according to which the Ussuri region was declared the possession of Russia.
In 1875, in order to avoid complications with Japan, Russia agreed to sign a new treaty. Sakhalin completely went to Russia, and the islands of the Kuril chain went to Japan.
By the middle of the 19th century. American entrepreneurs, traders, and poachers began to penetrate into Russian America - Alaska. Protecting and maintaining this remote territory became increasingly difficult, with costs far outpacing Alaska's income.
To eliminate possible contradictions and strengthen friendly relations, the emperor decided to sell Alaska to the American government.
The foreign policy of the government of Alexander II was active in almost all its areas. Through diplomatic and military means, the Russian state managed to solve the foreign policy tasks facing it and restore its position as a great power.
MINISTRY OF EDUCATION AND SCIENCE OF THE RUSSIAN FEDERATION
Federal state budget educational institution higher vocational education
Tolyatti State University
Department of History and Philosophy
On the topic: “Foreign policy of Alexander II”
Completed by student gr. ELbz-1231:
Kondulukov Ilya Sergeevich
Checked by: Candidate of Historical Sciences, Associate Professor Bezgina O.A.
Tolyatti 2015
Introduction
After the end of the Crimean War, Alexander II's main attention was focused on carrying out internal reforms. Their success depended to a large extent on the external situation: a new war could disrupt the transformation. The Emperor appointed consistent supporters of his course as ambassadors to the largest states of the world. Prince A. M. Gorchakov was appointed head of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs in 1856. In a letter to Alexander II, he defined the main foreign policy goal of the country as follows: “Given the current situation of our state and Europe in general, Russia’s main attention should be persistently directed to the implementation of the cause of our internal development, and all foreign policy should be subordinated to this task.”
Based on this goal, the main directions of foreign policy were identified: breaking out of international isolation and restoring Russia’s role as a great power, repealing the humiliating articles of the Paris Peace Treaty that prohibited having a fleet and military fortifications on the Black Sea. In addition, it was necessary to secure borders with neighboring states in Central Asia and the Far East through treaties. These complex tasks were entrusted to the diplomatic talent of A. M. Gorchakov.
Alexander Mikhailovich Gorchakov (1798-1883), after graduating from the Tsarskoye Selo Lyceum in 1817, where he studied with A. S. Pushkin, entered the diplomatic service. Before the start of the Crimean War, at the Vienna Conference of Ambassadors, he made a lot of efforts to keep Austria and a number of other powers from entering the war against Russia. A. M. Gorchakov was distinguished by his independence of character, high morality, and had extensive connections among political figures of foreign countries. He enjoyed great confidence from Emperor Alexander II not only in matters of foreign policy, but also in matters of carrying out reforms within the country. For services to the Fatherland, Gorchakov was awarded the highest honors, including the title of His Serene Highness Prince and the highest civilian rank in the Table of Ranks - State Chancellor of the Russian Empire.
Gorchakov, skillfully using the contradictions between the European powers, achieved the agreements necessary for his state. Being a supporter of a cautious foreign policy, he showed restraint in Central Asian affairs, trying to counteract the aggressive plans of the War Ministry.
The reign of Alexander II, so rich in terms of internal reforms, was also marked in terms of foreign policy by a series of military actions, which ultimately again raised the temporarily diminished importance of Russia after the Crimean War and again gave it its rightful position in the host of European powers. As a matter of fact, despite the fact that the matter of internal renewal absorbed almost all the attention of the government, especially in the first half of the reign of Alexander II, the war with external enemies went on almost continuously on the outskirts of the state.
First of all, upon his accession to the throne, Alexander II had to end another war, which he inherited from his previous reign along with the Crimean one. It was a war with the Caucasian highlanders. This struggle, which has been going on for a long time, costing Russia a lot of effort and resources, has not yet produced any decisive results.
Russia's foreign policy under Alexander II was aimed primarily at resolving the eastern question. Defeat in Crimean War undermined Russia's international authority and led to its loss of predominant influence in the Balkans. Neutralization of the Black Sea left the southern maritime boundaries country, hampered the development of the South and hampered the expansion of foreign trade.
The main task of Russian diplomacy was the abolition of the articles of the Paris Treaty. For this, reliable allies were needed. England continued to be Russia's most dangerous adversary due to rivalry in the Transcaucasus and Central Asia. Austria itself tried to gain a foothold in the Balkans.
Türkiye in its policy was guided by England. Prussia was still weak. To the greatest extent, Russia's interests were served by rapprochement with France, which competed with England in the Mediterranean. To strengthen its position in the East, Russia continued to rely on the liberation struggle of Christian peoples against Turkey.
European politics
The main efforts of Russian diplomacy were aimed at finding allies in Europe, breaking out of isolation and the collapse of the anti-Russian bloc, which included France, England and Austria. The situation that developed in Europe at that time was to Russia's advantage. The former allies in the anti-Russian coalition were torn apart by sharp disagreements, sometimes leading to wars.
Russia's main efforts were aimed at rapprochement with France. In September 1857, Alexander II met with the French Emperor Napoleon III, and in February 1859, an agreement on Franco-Russian cooperation was signed. However, this union did not become long-lasting and durable. And when the war between France and Austria began in April 1859, Russia avoided French help, thereby seriously undermining Franco-Russian relations. But relations between Russia and Austria have improved significantly. With these actions, Gorchakov actually destroyed the anti-Russian alliance and brought Russia out of international isolation.
Polish uprising 1863-1864 and the attempts of England and France to intervene, under the pretext of this uprising, in the internal affairs of Russia caused an acute crisis, ending in a rapprochement between Russia and Prussia, which allowed the Polish rebels to be pursued on its territory. Subsequently, Russia took a position of benevolent neutrality towards Prussia during its wars against Austria (1866) and France (1870-1871).
Having secured the support of Prussia, Gorchakov launched an attack on the articles of the Paris Peace Treaty of 1856 that were unfavorable for Russia. In October 1870, at the height of the Franco-Prussian War, he declared that Russia no longer considered itself bound by the obligations of the Paris Treaty regarding “neutralization” Black Sea, which were repeatedly violated by other powers. Despite the protests of England, Austria and Turkey, Russia began to create a navy in the Black Sea, restore destroyed ones and build new military fortifications. Thus, this foreign policy task was resolved peacefully.
The defeat of France in the war with Prussia and the subsequent unification of Germany changed the balance of power in Europe. A powerful warlike power emerged on the western borders of Russia. The alliance between Germany and Austria (since 1867 - Austria-Hungary) posed a particular threat. In order to prevent this union and at the same time neutralize England, irritated by Russia’s successes in Central Asia, Gorchakov organized a meeting of the emperors of Russia, Germany and Austria-Hungary in 1873. According to the agreement signed by the three monarchs, they pledged to provide each other with assistance, including military assistance. But when, 2 years after the signing of the agreement, Germany again intended to attack France, Russia, alarmed by the excessive strengthening of the Germans, opposed a new war. The “Union of Three Emperors” finally collapsed in 1878.
Thus, Alexander II managed to fulfill the main foreign policy task in the main European direction. Russia achieved the repeal of the most humiliating articles of the Treaty of Paris and peacefully restored its former influence. This had a beneficial effect on the implementation of reforms and the end of wars in the Caucasus and Central Asia.
Eastern crisis of the 70s. XIX century
Since 1864, the Porte began to settle Circassians here in Bulgaria, who were evicted from the Caucasus in order to avoid Russian domination. Accustomed to living by robbery and robbery in their homeland, they were called bashi-bazouks, and began to oppress the Bulgarian peasants, forcing them to work for themselves, like serfs. The ancient hatred between Christians and Muslims flared up with renewed vigor. The peasants took up arms. And so, to take revenge for this uprising, Turkey sent thousands of Circassians and other regular troops against Bulgaria. In Batak alone, out of 7,000 inhabitants, 5,000 people were beaten. An investigation undertaken by the French envoy revealed that 20,000 Christians had died within three months. All of Europe was gripped by indignation. But this feeling had the strongest impact in Russia and in all Slavic lands. Russian volunteers from all classes of society flocked to help the rebels; Society's sympathy was expressed through all sorts of voluntary donations. Serbia was unsuccessful due to the numerical superiority of the Turks.
Russian public attention loudly demanded war. Emperor Alexander II, due to his characteristic peacefulness, wanted to avoid it and reach an agreement through diplomatic negotiations. But neither the Constantinople Conference (November 11, 1876) nor the London Protocol led to any results. Türkiye refused to fulfill even the mildest demands, counting on the support of England. War became inevitable. On April 12, 1877, Russian troops stationed near Chisinau were given the order to enter Turkey. On the same day, the Caucasian troops, of which Prince Mikhail Nikolaevich was appointed commander-in-chief, entered the borders of Asian Turkey. The Eastern War of 1877-1878 began, covering the Russian soldier with such loud, unfading glory of valor.
(24) April 1877, Russia declared war on Turkey: after the parade of troops in Chisinau, at a solemn prayer service, Bishop of Chisinau and Khotyn Pavel (Lebedev) read the Manifesto of Alexander II on the declaration of war on Turkey.
Only a war in one campaign made it possible for Russia to avoid European intervention. According to reports from a military agent in England, London needed 13-14 weeks to prepare an expeditionary army of 50-60 thousand people, and another 8-10 weeks to prepare the Constantinople position. In addition, the army had to be transported by sea, skirting Europe. In none of the Russian-Turkish wars The time factor did not play such a significant role. Türkiye pinned its hopes on a successful defense.
The war plan against Turkey was drawn up back in October 1876 by General N. N. Obruchev. By March 1877, the project was corrected by the Emperor himself, the Minister of War, the Commander-in-Chief, Grand Duke Nikolai Nikolaevich the Elder, his assistant to the staff General A. A. Nepokoichitsky, and the assistant chief of staff Major General K. V. Levitsky. In May 1877, Russian troops entered the territory of Romania.
The troops of Romania, which acted on the side of Russia, began to act actively only in August.
During the ensuing hostilities, the Russian army managed, using the passivity of the Turks, to successfully cross the Danube, capture the Shipka Pass and, after a five-month siege, force the best Turkish army of Osman Pasha to capitulate in Plevna. The subsequent raid through the Balkans, during which the Russian army defeated the last Turkish units blocking the road to Constantinople, led to the Ottoman Empire's withdrawal from the war. At the Berlin Congress held in the summer of 1878, the Berlin Treaty was signed, which recorded the return to Russia of the southern part of Bessarabia and the annexation of Kars, Ardahan and Batum. The statehood of Bulgaria (conquered by the Ottoman Empire in 1396) was restored as the vassal Principality of Bulgaria; The territories of Serbia, Montenegro and Romania increased, and Turkish Bosnia and Herzegovina was occupied by Austria-Hungary.
The Treaty of San Stefano on February 19, 1878, in addition to its direct goal - the liberation of the Balkan Slavs, brought Russia brilliant results. The intervention of Europe, which jealously followed Russia's successes, with the Treaty of Berlin significantly narrowed the size of the occupied territory, but they still remain very significant. Russia acquired the Danube part of Bessarabia and the Turkish regions bordering Transcaucasia with the fortresses of Kars, Agdagan and Batum, converted into a free port.
Expansion of Russia's geopolitical space and annexation of Central Asia
In the early 60s. The voluntary acceptance of Russian citizenship by the Kazakhs was completed. But their lands were still subject to raids from neighboring states: the Bukhara Emirate, the Khiva and Kokand Khanates. Kazakhs were captured and then sold into slavery. To prevent such actions, fortification systems began to be created along the Russian border. However, the raids continued, and the governors-general of the border regions, on their own initiative, made retaliatory campaigns.
These trips, or expeditions as they were called, caused discontent in the Ministry of Foreign Affairs. It did not want to aggravate relations with England, which considered Central Asia an area of its influence. But the War Ministry, trying to restore the authority of the Russian army, shaken after the Crimean War, secretly supported the actions of its military leaders. And Alexander II himself was not averse to expanding his possessions in the east. Central Asia was of not only military but also economic interest for Russia, both as a source of cotton for the textile industry and as a place to sell Russian goods. Therefore, actions to annex Central Asia found wide support in industrial and merchant circles.
In June 1865, Russian troops under the command of General M.G. Chernyaev, taking advantage of the war between Bukhara and Kokand, captured the largest city in Central Asia, Tashkent, and a number of other cities almost without losses. This caused a protest from England, and Alexander II was forced to dismiss Chernyaev for “arbitrariness.” But all the conquered lands were annexed to Russia. The Turkestan Governor-General (Turkestan Territory) was formed here, the head of which was appointed by the tsar General K. P. Kaufman.
The arrogant behavior of the Bukhara emir, who demanded the cleansing of the conquered Kokand territory by Russia and confiscated the property of Russian merchants living in Bukhara, as well as the insult to the Russian mission sent for negotiations to Bukhara, led to the final break. On May 20, 1866, General Romanovsky with a 2,000-strong detachment inflicted the first crushing defeat on the Bukharans. However, small Bukhara detachments continued constant raids and attacks on Russian troops. In 1868, General Kaufman captured the famous city of Central Asia, Samarkand. According to the peace treaty of June 23, 1868, the Bukhara Khanate was supposed to cede border territories to Russia and become a vassal of the Russian government, which, in turn, supported it during times of unrest and unrest.
Since 1855, the Kyrgyz and Kazakh tribes subordinate to the Khanate began to transfer to Russian citizenship, unable to tolerate the arbitrariness and lawlessness of the Kokand governors. This led to armed conflicts between the Khanate and Russian troops , for example, in 1850, an expedition was undertaken across the Ili River, with the goal of destroying the Touchubek fortification, which served as a stronghold for K. gangs, but it was only possible to capture it in 1851, and in 1854, the Vernoye fortification was built on the Almaty River (see .) and the entire Trans-Ili region became part of Russia. In order to protect the Kazakhs, Russian subjects, the Orenburg military governor Obruchev built the Raimskoye (later Aral) fortification in 1847, near the mouth of the Syr Darya, and proposed to occupy Ak-Mosque. In 1852, on the initiative of the new Orenburg governor Perovsky, Colonel Blaramberg, with a detachment of 500 people, destroyed two K. fortresses Kumysh-Kurgan and Chim-Kurgan and stormed Ak-Mosque, but was repulsed. In 1853, Perovsky personally with a detachment of 2,767 people, with 12 guns, moved to Ak-Mosque, where there were 300 Kokands with 3 guns, and took it by storm on July 27; Ak-Mosque was soon renamed Fort Perovsky. In the same 1853, the Kokands twice tried to recapture Ak-Mosque, but on August 24, military foreman Borodin, with 275 people with 3 guns, scattered 7,000 Kokands at Kum-suat, and on December 14, Major Shkup, with 550 people with 4 guns, defeated on the left bank of the Syr there were 13,000 Kokands who had 17 copper guns. After this, a number of fortifications were erected along the lower Syr (Kazalinsk, Karamakchi, and from 1861 Dzhyulek). In 1860, the West Siberian authorities equipped, under the command of Colonel Zimmerman, a small detachment that destroyed the K. fortifications of Pishpek and Tokmak. The Kokand people declared a holy war (gazavat) and in October 1860 concentrated, numbering 20,000 people, at the fortification of Uzun-Agach (56 versts from Verny), where they were defeated by Colonel Kolpakovsky (3 companies, 4 hundreds and 4 guns), who then took and Pishpek, resumed by the Kokands, where this time a Russian garrison was left; At the same time, the small fortresses of Tokmak and Kostek were also occupied by the Russians. By constructing a chain of fortifications from the side of Orenburg along the lower reaches of the Syr Darya, and from the side of western Siberia along the Alatau, the Russian border was gradually closed, but at that time a huge space of about 650 miles remained unoccupied and served as a gate for the invasion of the Kokand people into the Kazakh steppes. In 1864, it was decided that two detachments, one from Orenburg, the other from western Siberia, would go towards each other, the Orenburg one - up the Syr Darya to the city of Turkestan, and the West Siberian one - along the Kyrgyz ridge. The West Siberian detachment, 2500 people, under the command of Colonel Chernyaev, left Verny, June 5, 1864. took the Aulie-ata fortress by storm, and the Orenburg, 1200 people, under the command of Colonel Verevkin, moved from Fort Perovsky to the city of Turkestan, which was taken by trench work on June 12. Leaving a garrison in Aulie-ata, Chernyaev, at the head of 1,298 people, moved to Chimkent and, attracting an Orenburg detachment, took it by storm on July 20. Then an assault was launched on Tashkent (114 versts from Chimkent), but it was repulsed. In 1865, from the newly occupied region, with the annexation of the territory of the former Syrdarya line, the Turkestan region was formed, of which Chernyaev was appointed military governor. Rumors that the Bukhara emir was going to capture Tashkent prompted Chernyaev to occupy on April 29 the small K. fortification of Niaz-bek, which dominated the waters of Tashkent, and then he and a detachment of 1951 people, with 12 guns, camped 8 versts from Tashkent, where, under the command of Alim-kul, up to 30,000 Kokandans were concentrated, with 50 guns. On May 9, Alim-kul made a sortie, during which he was mortally wounded. His death gave the defense of Tashkent an unfavorable turn: the struggle of parties in the city intensified, and the energy in defending the fortress walls weakened. Chernyaev decided to take advantage of this and after a three-day assault (May 15-17), he took Tashkent, losing 25 people killed and 117 wounded; The losses of the Kokand people were very significant. In 1866, Khojent was also occupied. At the same time, Yakub Beg, the former ruler of Tashkent, fled to Kashgar, which became temporarily independent from China.
Cut off from Bukhara, Khudoyar Khan accepted (1868) the trade agreement proposed to him by Adjutant General von Kaufmann, by virtue of which Russians in the K. Khanate and Kokands in Russian possessions acquired the right of free stay and travel, establishment of caravanserais, maintenance trading agencies (caravan bashi), duties could be levied in the amount of no more than 2 ½ % of the cost of the product. A commercial agreement with Russia in 1868 actually made Kokand a dependent state on it.
Population dissatisfaction internal politics Khudayar led to an uprising (1873-1876). In 1875, the Kipchak Abdurakhman-Avtobachi (son of the Muslim Kul executed by Khudoyar) became the head of those dissatisfied with Khudoyar, and all opponents of the Russians and the clergy joined him. Khudoyar fled and his eldest son Nasr-Eddin was proclaimed khan. At the same time, a holy war was declared, and numerous bands of Kipchak invaded Russian borders and occupied the upper reaches of Zeravshan and the outskirts of Khojent. Abdurakhman-Avtobachi, having gathered up to 10 thousand people, made the center of his operations K. the fortification of Makhram on the left bank of the Syr Darya (44 versts from Khojent), but on August 22, 1875, General Kaufman (with a detachment of 16 companies, 8 hundreds and 20 guns ) took this fortress and completely defeated the Kokand people, who lost more than 2 thousand killed; Damage on the Russian side was limited to 5 killed and 8 wounded. On August 29, he occupied Kokand without firing a shot, on September 8, Margelan; on September 22, an agreement was concluded with Nasr-Eddin, by virtue of which he recognized himself as a servant of the Russian Tsar and pledged to pay an annual tribute of 500 thousand rubles. and ceded all the lands north of Naryn; Of the latter, the Namangan department was formed.
But as soon as the Russians left, an uprising broke out in the Khanate. Abdurakhman-Avtobachi, who fled to Uzgent, deposed Nasr-Eddin, who fled to Khojent, and proclaimed the impostor Pulat-bek khan. The unrest was also reflected in the Namangan department. Its chief, the later famous Skobelev, suppressed the uprising that took place in Tyurya-Kurgan Batyr-Tyurey, but the residents of Namangan, taking advantage of his absence, attacked the Russian garrison, for which the returning Skobelev subjected the city to severe bombardment.
Then Skobelev, with a detachment of 2800 people, moved to Andijan, which he stormed on January 8, and on January 10 the Andijan residents expressed their submission. On January 28, 1876, Abdurakhman surrendered to prisoners of war and was exiled to Yekaterinoslavl, and the captured Pulat-bek was hanged in Margelan. Nasr-Eddin returned to his capital, but due to the difficulty of his position, he decided to win over to his side a party hostile to Russia and the fanatical clergy. As a result, Skobelev hastened to occupy Kokand, where he captured 62 guns and huge reserves of ammunition (February 8), and on February 19, the Highest decree was issued to annex the entire territory of the Khanate and form the Fergana region from it.
In the summer of 1876, Skobelev undertook an expedition to Alai and forced the leader of the Kirghiz, Abdul-bek, to flee to the Kashgar possessions, after which the Kirghiz were finally brought to submission.
The lands of the Kokand Khanate entered the Fergana region of Russian Turkestan.
By the 70s. XIX century The Russian Empire conquered the two largest states in Central Asia - the Bukhara and Kokand Khanates. Significant territories of these states were annexed. The last independent state in Central Asia remained the Khanate of Khiva. It was surrounded on all sides Russian territories and the territories of the Russian vassal Bukhara Khanate.
The conquest of the Khiva Khanate was carried out with the help of four detachments that set out at the end of February and beginning of March 1873 from Tashkent (General Kaufman), Orenburg (General Veryovkin), Mangyshlak (Colonel Lomakin) and Krasnovodsk (Colonel Markozov) (2-5 thousand people each) with a total number of 12-13 thousand people and 56 guns, 4600 horses and 20 thousand camels. The command of all detachments was entrusted to the Turkestan Governor-General, General Kaufman K.P.
Having set out on February 26 from the Emba post, the Orenburg detachment of General Veryovkin headed through the steppes covered with deep snow to Khiva. The hike was in highest degree difficult: started in the harsh winter, it ended in scorching heat in the sands. During the journey, skirmishes with the enemy occurred almost every day and the Khiva cities of Khojeyli, Mangit and others were taken. On May 14, the vanguard of the Orenburg detachment linked up with the Mangyshlak detachment of Colonel Lomakin. On May 26, the united Orenburg and Mangyshlak detachments approached Khiva from the north, and on May 28, both detachments settled in a position opposite the Shakhabad Gate of Khiva; On May 28, the united detachments stormed the gate, General Verevkin was wounded in the head during the assault, and command passed to Colonel Saranchov. On May 29, the Turkestan detachment of Adjutant General Kaufman approached Khiva from the southeast and entered Khiva with south side, a truce was declared and the Khivans capitulated. However, due to the anarchy that prevailed in the city, the northern part of the city did not know about the capitulation and did not open the gates, which caused an assault on the northern part of the wall. Mikhail Skobelev with two companies stormed the Shakhabat Gate, was the first to get inside the fortress, and although he was attacked by the enemy, he held the gate and rampart behind him. The assault was stopped by order of General K.P. Kaufman, who at that time was peacefully entering the city with opposite side.
The Krasnovodsk detachment of Colonel Markozov was forced to return to Krasnovodsk due to lack of water and did not take part in the capture of Khiva.
To protect these lands from the east, the Semirechensk Cossack Army was formed in 1867 along the border with China. In response to the “holy war” declared by the Bukhara emir, Russian troops captured Samarkand in May 1868 and forced the emir to admit dependence on Russia in 1873. In the same year, the Khan of Khiva also became dependent. The religious circles of the Kokand Khanate called for a “holy war” against the Russians. In 1875, Russian troops under the command of General M.D. Skobelev, in the course of rapid actions, defeated the Khan’s troops. In February 1876, the Kokand Khanate was abolished, and its territory was included in the Fergana region of the Turkestan Governor-General.
The conquest of Central Asia also took place from the Caspian Sea. In 1869, Russian troops under the command of General N. G. Stoletov landed on its eastern bank and founded the city of Krasnovodsk. Further advance to the east, towards Bukhara, met stubborn resistance from the Turkmen tribes. The Geok-Tepe oasis became a stronghold of resistance for the large Tekin tribe. Repeated attempts by Russian troops to take possession of it failed.
Later, M.D. Skobelev was appointed commander of the Russian troops in western Turkmenistan. For uninterrupted supply of Russian troops, a railway line was built from Krasnovodsk towards Geok-Tepe. On January 12, 1881, after a fierce battle, Russian troops captured Geok-Tepe, and a week later - Ashgabat.
Russia's conquest of Central Asia deprived the peoples who inhabited it of statehood. But at the same time, internecine wars stopped, slavery and the slave trade were eliminated, and part of the lands confiscated from the feudal lords who fought against the Russian troops was transferred to the peasants. Cotton growing and sericulture began to develop quickly, railway construction, and the extraction of oil, coal, and non-ferrous metals began.
In the annexed lands, the Russian government pursued a flexible policy, avoiding disruption of the usual way of life, without interfering in national culture and religious relations.
Far Eastern politics
Until the middle of the 19th century. Russia had no officially recognized borders with its neighbors in the Far East. Russian pioneers continued to settle in these lands, as well as in Sakhalin and the Kuril Islands. The expeditions of Admiral G. I. Nevelsky to the coast of the Tatar Strait and Sakhalin (1850-1855) and the Governor-General of Eastern Siberia N. N. Muravyov, who explored the shores of the Amur (1854-1855), were of great not only scientific but also political significance. To consolidate, develop and protect lands along the Amur, the Transbaikal Cossack Army was created in 1851, and in 1858 - the Amur Cossack Army.
Untied in the late 50s. England and France's "opium war" against China was not supported by Russia, which caused a favorable response in Beijing. N.N. Muravyov took advantage of this. He invited the Chinese government to sign an agreement on establishing the border between the countries. The presence of settlements of Russian pioneers in the Amur region served as a compelling argument to justify Russia’s rights to these lands. In May 1858, N.N. Muravyov signed the Aigun Treaty with representatives of the Chinese government, according to which the border with China was established along the Amur River until the confluence of the Ussuri River. The Ussuri region between this river and the Pacific Ocean was declared a joint Russian-Chinese possession. In 1860, a new Treaty of Beijing was signed, according to which the Ussuri region was declared the possession of Russia. On June 20, 1860, Russian sailors entered the Golden Horn Bay and founded the port of Vladivostok.
Negotiations to determine the border between Russia and Japan were difficult. According to the agreement concluded in the Japanese city of Shimoda in 1855, at the height of the Crimean War, the Kuril Islands were recognized as the territory of Russia, and Sakhalin Island as the joint possession of the two countries. After the signing of the treaty, a significant number of Japanese settlers rushed to Sakhalin. In 1875, in order to avoid complications with Japan, Russia agreed to sign a new treaty. Sakhalin completely went to Russia, and the islands of the Kuril chain went to Japan.
April (May 7), 1875 in St. Petersburg, Alexander Mikhailovich Gorchakov from Russia and Enomoto Takeaki from Japan signed an agreement on the exchange of territories (St. Petersburg Treaty).
According to this treatise, the ownership of the Russian Empire in exchange for 18 Kuril Islands (Shumshu, Alaid, Paramushir, Makanrushi, Onekotan, Kharimkotan, Ekarma, Shiashkotan, Mussir, Raikoke, Matua, Rastua, the islands of Sredneva and Ushisir, Ketoi, Simusir, Broughton, the islands of Cherpoy and Brat Cherpoev, Urup) the island of Sakhalin was completely transferred.
(22) August 1875 in Tokyo, an additional article was adopted to the treaty regulating the rights of residents remaining in the ceded territories.
The Russo-Japanese Treaty of 1875 evoked mixed reactions in both countries. Many in Japan condemned him, believing that the Japanese government had exchanged an important political and economic importance Sakhalin to the “small ridge of pebbles” as they imagined the Kuril Islands. Others simply stated that Japan had exchanged "one part of its territory for another." Similar assessments were heard from the Russian side: many believed that both territories belonged to Russia by right of discoverer. The 1875 Treaty did not become the final act of territorial demarcation between Russia and Japan and could not prevent further conflicts between the two countries.
By the middle of the 19th century. American entrepreneurs, traders, and poachers began to penetrate into Russian America - Alaska. Protecting and maintaining this remote territory became increasingly difficult, with costs far outpacing Alaska's income. American possessions have become a burden for the state.
At the same time, the government of Alexander II sought to eliminate possible contradictions and strengthen the friendly relations that had developed between the United States and Russia. The Emperor decided to sell Alaska to the American government for a small sum of $7.2 million for a transaction of this scale.
The sale of Alaska in 1867 showed that the Russian government had underestimated the economic and military importance of its possessions in the Pacific Ocean. It is impossible not to take into account the fact that Russia’s main opponents in Europe - England and France - were at that time on the verge of war with the United States. The sale of Alaska was a demonstration of Russian support for the United States.
Conclusion
During the reign of Alexander II, Russia acquired significant areas of land in the Far East and Central Asia. Taking advantage of the difficult situation of China, to which France and England declared war in 1857, the Governor-General of Eastern Siberia Muravyov-Amursky occupied the Amur region (on the left bank of the Amur), and according to the Aigun Treaty (1858) it was ceded by China to Russia ; in 1860, according to an agreement concluded by gr. Ignatiev in Beijing, the Ussuri region (Primorsky region) was also annexed to Russia; In the newly acquired region, a number of Russian cities soon arose - Blagoveshchensk, Khabarovsk, Nikolaevsk, Vladivostok, and a wide field opened up for the future agricultural colonization of Russian "settlers". In exchange for the Kuril Islands from Japan it was acquired South part O. Sakhalin. But deserted northwestern part The American mainland, the Alaska Peninsula, was sold in 1867 to the United States (for $7 million, with many Americans believing it was not worth it).
In the 60s and 70s. Russian possessions were widely spread in Central Asia. Before the Russian conquest, there were three Muslim khanates - Kokand (on the right bank of the Syr Darya River), Bukhara (between the Syr Darya and Amu Darya rivers) and Khiva (on the left bank of the Amu Darya River). Russian possessions in Southern Siberia and the Steppe region (between the Caspian and Aral seas) often experienced raids and robberies by the Turkmens, who sometimes also captured Russian trade caravans. Border misunderstandings and clashes led to the fact that in 1860 the Kokand Khanate declared a “holy war” against Russia; Generals Verevkin and Chernyaev, who commanded the Russian troops, took the most important cities of the Kokand Khanate, Turkestan and Tashkent, and in 1866 the conquered regions were annexed to Russia, forming the Turkestan Governor-General; in 1867, General Kaufman, an energetic military administrator who successfully pursued the further conquest and pacification of the region, was appointed governor-general of Turkestan. As a result of the wars of 1868-1876. the entire Kokand Khanate was annexed to Russia, and Khiva and Bukhara lost part of their possessions and recognized the Russian protectorate over themselves. In order to ensure the safety of the new Russian possessions from attacks by native tribes roaming in the area south of the river. Amu Darya, detachments of Russian troops advanced further to the south, to the borders of Persia and Afghanistan; in 1881, General Skobelev took the Tekin fortress of Geok-Tepe, and in 1884, Russian troops occupied Merv. The approach of Russian possessions close to the borders of Afghanistan, beyond which British India was located, caused great alarm in England. British diplomacy and English public opinion demanded a stop to Russian advance in Central Asia and hotly attacked this manifestation of “Russian imperialism.”
In the Caucasus, under Alexander II, half a century of struggle with the highlanders ended. After a long heroic resistance to the Russian conquerors in the mountains of Dagestan, the leader of the Caucasian Muslim mountaineers Shamil was forced to surrender to the Russian commander-in-chief, Prince Baryatinsky (in 1859, in the village of Gunib). This completed the conquest of the Caucasus. In 1864, the conquest of the Western Caucasus was also completed. The entire Caucasus was divided into administrative districts of the Russian type and subordinated to the management of the Russian administration.
Territorial acquisitions in the Caucasus, Central Asia and the Far East completed the political unification of the vast Eurasian Plain. The multinational state, called the All-Russian Empire, covered the space from the Vistula and Baltic Sea to the shores Pacific Ocean and from the shores of the Arctic Ocean to the borders of Persia and Afghanistan. The peoples who inhabited this space were connected not only by political, but also by economic and cultural ties.
If in the government’s relations with “foreigners” “biases” of nationalism and chauvinism sometimes appeared, then the Russian people as a whole and its best representatives in literature never suffered from the disease of national conceit and did not consider their neighbors as “inferior races.” Back in the 17th century. The Orthodox church authorities in Siberia complained to the secular authorities that Russian settlers in Siberia were becoming too quickly, easily and closely related to the natives, and this ability and desire to establish good neighborly relations with other peoples living under the same roof remained characteristic feature and the Russian people and the Russian intelligentsia, multinational in their ethnic origin, but united in their spirit - the spirit of broad tolerance and lack of chauvinism.
Khanate of Khiva crisis uprising
List of sources and literature used
1. Arefieva A.A. Story Russian state- M., 2003
Vorontsova E.N. History Reader - St. Petersburg: Peter, 2005
Zakharova L.G. Alexander II. 1855-1881 // Romanovs. Historical portraits. - M., 1997
Zakharova L.G. The Great Reforms of the 1860s and 1870s: a turning point Russian history? // National history, 2005 - №4
Klyuchevsky V.O. History of Russia: a complete course of lectures, vol. 2 - Minsk: Harvest, 2003
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The main directions of the foreign policy of Alexander II:
After the Crimean War Alexander II placed the main emphasis on domestic policy, this goal determined the movement and in foreign policy: exit from Russia’s isolation and restoration of the greatness of the Russian state on the world political arena. The talented diplomat A.M. Gorchakov played a huge role in restoring Russia’s role.
Initially, it was necessary to break the anti-Russian coalition from France, England and Austria. This bloc was already filled with internal disagreements, which was to Russia's advantage. A rapprochement with France was planned, but when France went to war with Austria, Russia avoided obligations, which served as a reason for a rapprochement with Austria.
Ultimately, Russia announced that the terms of the Paris Treaty regarding the impossibility of keeping the Russian fleet in the Black Sea were no longer supported. Despite protests from England, Austria and Turkey, Russia began to rebuild its navy and fortifications.
On May 21, 1864, the last center of resistance of the Caucasian peoples was suppressed and they finally became part of Russia. The war in the Caucasus ended successfully for Russia.
Kazakhs voluntarily accepted Russian citizenship. Gradually, Russian troops took more and more campaigns in Asia to capture new territories. Officially this was England's area of influence, but Russia had an economic interest in owning areas rich in cotton.
In the 60-80s of the 19th century, Tashkent was conquered, then Samarkand, and soon Ashgabat, despite stubborn resistance local residents. Although these peoples lost their independence, Russia eliminated internecine wars and slavery in these territories. Were laid railways, cotton growing and mining began to develop rapidly. At the same time, Russian policy was very flexible in relation to local culture and religion.
In the Russian Far East, an agreement was signed with China on establishing borders. For this, a convenient case was chosen when Russia did not support the war of England and France against China. The Russians had already created settlements in the Amur region, which made it possible to draw the border along these settlements.
It was more difficult to establish borders with Japan, but in the end, Sakhalin Island completely went to Russia, and the Kuril Islands to Japan.
In the mid-19th century, Americans (poachers, traders, entrepreneurs) began to enter Alaska. The costs of maintaining the remote territory began to exceed income, and Russia sought to establish friendly relations with America, so Alexander II sold Alaska to America for the paltry sum of $7.2 million. This was a serious underestimation of possessions, which turned out to be rich in gold and oil, and, moreover, in the end, could give serious political weight to Russia in Western countries.
Alexander II is one of the most prominent Russian monarchs. Alexander Nikolaevich was popularly nicknamed Alexander the Liberator.
People really have a reason to call Alexander II that way. The emperor carried out a number of important life reforms. The course of his policy was distinguished by a liberal tint.
Alexander II initiated many liberal initiatives in Russia. The paradox of his historical personality is that the monarch, who gave the people unprecedented freedom before the village, was killed by revolutionaries.
They say that the draft constitution and convocation State Duma, literally was on the emperor’s desk, but his sudden death put an end to many of his endeavors.
Alexander II was born in April 1818. He was also the son of Alexandra Feodorovna. Alexander Nikolaevich was purposefully prepared for accession to the throne.
The future Emperor received a very decent education. The prince's teachers were the smartest people of its time.
Among the teachers were Zhukovsky, Merder, Kankrin, Brunov. As you can see, science was taught to the future emperor by the ministers of the Russian Empire themselves.
Alexander Nikolaevich was a gifted man, he had equal abilities, he was a good-natured and sympathetic person.
Alexander Nikolaevich was well acquainted with the structure of affairs in the Russian Empire, as he actively worked for public service. In 1834 he became a member of the Senate, a year later he began working in the Holy Synod.
In 1841 he became a member state council. In 1842 he began working on the Committee of Ministers. Alexander traveled a lot around Russia, so the poet was well acquainted with the state of affairs in the Russian Empire. During the Crimean War, he was the commander of all armed forces of St. Petersburg.
Domestic policy of Alexander II
Domestic policy was aimed at modernizing the country. Alexander II was largely pushed towards a policy of reform, the results of which were disappointing. In the period from 1860 to 1870, the Zemstvo reform was carried out, Judicial reform and military reform.
History considers the most important achievement of the reign of Alexander II (1861). The significance of the reforms carried out over the decade is difficult to underestimate.
The reforms created the opportunity for the rapid development of bourgeois relations and rapid industrialization. New industrial regions are being formed, both heavy and light industry are developing, and wage labor is becoming widespread.
Foreign policy of Alexander II
Foreign policy had two distinct directions. The first is the restoration of Russia's shaky authority in Europe after the defeat in the Crimean War. The second is expanding the boundaries by Far East and Central Asia.
During his reign, Gorchakov showed himself excellently. He was a talented diplomat, thanks to whose skills Russia was able to break the Franco-Anglo-Austrian alliance.
Thanks to France's defeat in the war with Prussia, Russia abandoned the article of the Paris Peace Treaty prohibiting it from having a navy on the Black Sea. Russia also fought with Turkey, and military talent shone on the battlefields of this war.
Attempts were made on Alexander II more than once. The revolutionaries longed to kill the Russian monarch and they nevertheless succeeded. More than once, by the will of fate, he remained alive and well. Unfortunately, on March 1, 1881, Narodnaya Volya members threw a bomb at the carriage of Alexander II. The emperor died from his wounds.
Alexander II forever inscribed his name in Russia and entered Russian history as an undeniably positive personality. Not without sin, of course, but which historical figure, or even ordinary people, can be called ideal?
They were timely and gave a powerful impetus to the development of Russia. The Emperor could have done more for Russia, but fate decreed otherwise.