In 60 BC. happened in the political life of Rome an important event- an alliance of the three most influential political figures was formed: Pompey, Caesar and Crassus. It was an informal agreement between representatives of the three most influential socio-political forces - the army, the populares and the horsemen. Essentially, it meant the unification of all anti-Senate groups. Despite the fact that from a formal point of view this triumvirate was not institutionalized in legislation, in political practice it became in fact a second government, existing together with the official government controlled by the Senate.
The motives for creating such a union are covered in sources and historiography in sufficient detail. It is obvious that in 60 BC. A situation arose in which three influential leaders - Pompey, Caesar and Crassus, against the backdrop of dissatisfaction with the actions of the Senate, saw each other as a source of mutually beneficial support. According to information from Dio Cassius, Pompey was dissatisfied that after the victorious campaign the Senate refused to reward his veterans with land plots and recommend him for the consulate the next year. In the same year, Julius Caesar returned from the province of Further Spain, having served there as governor after leaving the praetorship in Rome. Caesar also began to seek consulate, but met opposition from the senators (Dio., XXXVII, 54.2). Crassus, who represented the interests of the equestrian class, was dissatisfied with the Senate law on the investigation of judges suspected of bribery. In addition, he hoped to become a leading political figure due to the authority of Pompey and Caesar. “Crassus imagined,” says the same Cassius, “that his origin and wealth should place him above everyone else” (Ibid., 56.4). The creation of the triumvirate is believed to have been initiated by Julius Caesar. He managed to reconcile Pompey and Crassus, who were at war with each other, and unite them with friendship, “putting the power of both at the service of himself” (Plut., Caes., 13). Caesar was convinced that he could never become powerful without them, and, according to Dio Cassius, “he was not afraid of their strengthening if they, united, became even more powerful.” Pompey, according to the same Cassius, was afraid of the increasing influence of Crassus and Caesar and “did not want to be crushed by them” (Dio., XXXVII, 56.3).
It is still controversial whether Caesar even then had dictatorial plans. Plutarch claims that Caesar’s whole idea with the triumvirate was nothing more than “a coup d’état carried out unnoticed by everyone” (Plut., Caes., 13). Cassius Dio is more reserved in his assessments. In his opinion, Pompey, Caesar and Cassius came to an agreement only “to organize the republic as they pleased” (Dio., XXXVII, 57). In historiography, in general, an opinion has been established regarding the exclusively tactical goals of the triumvirs. They were more concerned about stabilizing their own position at the moment and implementing relevant bills in the interests of their many supporters, rather than about seizing power. The triumvirs proposed new ways to solve pressing social problems. At the same time, each of them also had his own interests: “Pompey sought approval of the orders he made in the East and rewards for his veterans, Caesar dreamed of a consulate in 59 BC and the implementation of a number of measures in favor of the plebs, and Crassus wanted to satisfy the interests of the horsemen and gain control of the eastern provinces" Mashkin N.A. History of ancient Rome. Ed. 3rd. M., 1956. P. 78. .
Despite the fact that Caesar was perhaps the least influential political leader among the members of the triumvirate, in a short time he managed to become a key figure in the “alliance of three.” The triumvirs agreed to hold Caesar to the consulate so that he, as consul, could realize the interests of all members of the triumvirate. In 59 BC. With the support of Pompey's veterans, the horsemen of Crassus and the city plebs, Caesar was elected consul. The Senate protege Marcus Bibulus became the second consul.
Having received consular powers, Caesar proposed several bills to the people's assembly. First, he put forward a plan to provide land plots to 20 thousand Pompey's veterans and land-poor citizens with three or more children. Secondly, a law was put forward to approve all orders of Pompey in the East. Thirdly, in favor of the supporters of Crassus, a reduction of the tax amount from the province of Asia was provided for by one third. In addition, Caesar demanded the adoption of a law that increased penalties for extortion of provincial governors - proteges of the Senate A.V. Zarshchikov. Caesar and the Caesarians: the role of personal grouping in the political struggle // Diss. for the job application uch. Art. k.i. N., Saratov, 2003. P. 85. . According to some authoritative historians, in particular R. Carson, it was the law on extortion that became one of the most important monuments of Caesar’s state activities, “for more than 500 years, serving as a guiding thread for Roman magistrates in the provinces” Carson R.A.G. "Caesar and the Monarchy", Greece and Rome. Vol. 4, No. 1 (Mar., 1957). P. 47. .
Almost all ancient sources report the use of forceful methods by Caesar and his colleagues in the triumvirate when implementing legislative initiatives. For example, the authors well describe the events that accompanied the adoption of the agrarian law in favor of the soldiers of Pompey. Despite the fact that the second consul, Bibulus, spoke out against this law, the senators did not agree to put it to a vote, and the tribunes of the people imposed a “veto” (ban), Caesar cynically ignored all legal opposition. He went to the Forum and turned to the people for support, “placing Pompey next to him on one side, and Crassus on the other” (Plut., Caes., 14). As a result, succumbing to forceful pressure, the senators were forced to agree to the adoption of the law, and Caesar’s fellow consulate Marcus Bibulus was so intimidated by the triumvirs that “until the end of his consulate he did not leave the house and only expressed his protest in edicts.” Mishulin A.V. History of Ancient Rome. Course of general history. Ancient history. M., 1946. P. 223. . If you believe Suetonius, many “jokingly then began to talk not about the consulate of Caesar and Bibulus, but about the consulate of Julius and Caesar” (Suet., Iul., 20.2). Caesar also used other informal methods of struggle against his political opponents. Thus, he intimidated with false accusations the sanator Lucius Lacullus, who objected to him too sharply, and also “hired an informer against the entire hostile party (optimates) as a whole” Mashkin N.A. History of ancient Rome. Ed. 3rd. M., 1956. P. 83. .
Caesar did not forget about his own interests. According to a draft law introduced in 59 BC. In the Senate, a supporter of Caesar - the tribune Publius Vatinius, Caesar was asked to transfer the provinces of Cisalpine Gaul and Illyria to the administration for a five-year period with the right to recruit an army of up to three legions (10 thousand people) and wage war with neighboring tribes. In addition, Caesar was to receive the right to appoint legates of praetor rank at his own discretion, without the consent of the Senate. After the law was successfully discussed in the people's assembly, the Senate, under pressure from Pompey and Crassus, had to give Caesar also Narbonne Gaul with the right to recruit one additional legion Utchenko S.L. Julius Caesar. M., 1976. P. 101.
In March 58 BC. AD Caesar arrived in Gaul, where he was expected to receive a loyal army, gain fame, wealth and the opportunity to interfere in the political life of Rome. The interests of Caesar and the entire triumvirate in Italy and Rome were protected by Pompey and Crassus.
Thus, having received the consulate, Caesar fulfilled his obligations towards his fellow triumvirs, satisfied the demands of a significant part of the Roman citizens, weakened the influence of the Senate and at the same time took care of the implementation of his own vanity plans. As a result, the triumvirate grew stronger and from a secret agreement turned into a clear and significant factor in the political life of Rome. To further strengthen the “alliance of three,” informal agreements were sealed by family ties. Caesar's daughter Julia was given in marriage to Pompey, despite the fact that she was already betrothed to Servilius Caepio. Caesar himself married Calputnia, the daughter of one of Caesar’s prominent supporters, Calpurius Piso (Ibid., 21).
By the mid-50s. I century BC. The political situation in Rome noticeably worsened, which led to a weakening of the influence of the triumvirate on the political life of Rome. Before Caesar left for Gaul, where he waged grueling wars against the Gallic tribes for several years, the allies maintained agreement among themselves and quite successfully controlled the situation. However, after Caesar’s departure to Gaul, Pompey and Crassus, due to constant quarrels with each other, were unable to consistently represent the interests of the triumvirate Mashkin N.A. History of ancient Rome. Ed. 3rd. M., 1956. P. 91. This led to the activation of other political camps, in particular supporters of the popularist Clodius Pulcher, who was elected in 58 BC. people's tribune. Clodius began to speak out both against the policies of the Senate oligarchy and against the triumvirs. Being a good orator, a decisive and daring leader, he passed a number of laws in favor of the plebs despite the opposition of the Senate, as well as Pompey and Crassus. As a result, colleges of citizens were created in the quarters of Rome, which turned into political clubs of the plebs; resolutions were implemented to abolish all payments for bread; the competencies of censors in compiling senatorial lists are limited; The procedures for holding public meetings have been significantly simplified. Wanting to strike a blow at the Senate, Clodius managed to discredit and expel one of the most authoritative leaders of the optimate camp - Marcus Tullius Cicero. In his political struggle, Clodius began to rely on the masses armed with clubs, consisting of the urban plebs, freedmen and even slaves. In contrast to the formations of Clodius, the senators created similar detachments, headed by the tribune of the people in 57 BC. Milo. Violent street brawls between political opponents began to strike fear among ordinary residents of Rome. “Often those gathered dispersed only after,” notes Plutarch, “the speaker’s platform was desecrated with corpses and stained with blood” (Plut., Caes., 28). In this situation, the influence of the power of the triumvirs noticeably weakened, and political power became fragmented. According to T. Mommsen, in Rome in the 50s BC. There were essentially three governments in operation: the formally ruling Senate, the informal triumvirate, and the semi-criminal groups of Clodius and Milona Mommsen T. History of Rome. T. 2. St. Petersburg, 1994. P. 334. .
In 56 BC. The triumvirs, on the initiative of Caesar, attempted to restore their political authority and order in the state. In the city of Lucca, bordering Cisalpine Gaul, they made the most important state decisions that the Senate and popular comitia had to carry out. Caesar's stay in Gaul with unlimited powers was extended for five years. Pompey and Crassus received the consulate in 55 BC. After the end of their consular powers, Pompey received control of the Spanish provinces, and Crassus received Syria, which was considered the most important province in the East. As a result, the triumvirs could control the political situation throughout almost the entire territory of the Roman state. According to R. Carson, it was this decision of the triumvirs that was the prologue to the establishment of the future dictatorship of Caesar, since it was “the will of the triumvirs that largely determined the directions of the activities of the Senate, the People’s Assembly and the magistrates” Carson R. A. G. “Caesar and the Monarchy,” Greece and Rome. Vol. 4, No. 1 (Mar., 1957). P. 46. .
Despite the fact that the three leaders were able to advance their decisions in the Senate and Comitia, in the second half of the 50s. their union ceased to exist as an influential factor in Roman politics. This was due to a number of circumstances. Firstly, Crassus, after his consular duties and departure for Syria, was in 53 BC. killed by the Parthian wars. Thus, the triumvirate automatically became the Pompey-Caesar duumvirate. Secondly, in the face of the political chaos that engulfed Rome in 52 BC. The Senate was forced to make a proposal to Pompey to accept supreme power to restore order. The situation in Rome was indeed very serious. According to Plutarch, at that time “the state was plunging into the abyss of anarchy, like a ship rushing without control” (Ibid., 28). “And many have already said openly,” Plutarch also notes, “that the state cannot be healed by anything other than autocracy” (Ibid). In this crisis situation, Pompey, as “the most authoritative, was elected “consul without a colleague” (Suet., Iul., 26), which actually meant granting him dictatorial power. Having carried out a number of decisive measures, Pompey became the most powerful man in Rome. In these conditions, he no longer needed the support of Caesar. On the contrary, trying to maintain primacy, he was now interested in weakening his former ally, who had meanwhile acquired greater military strength and influence thanks to the successful conduct of wars in Gaul. Thirdly, the claim to political primacy was and Caesar himself. During his ten-year stay in Gaul, he became a very powerful and wealthy military leader, whose authority among the soldiers was extremely high. Caesar, “doubled the salary of his legionaries for eternity, gave them bread without measure and count, and sometimes gave it to each soldier for a slave from among the captives" (Ibid., 26.3). At the same time, from afar, he tried to influence the political life of Rome. They sent gold and other loot there, which was used to bribe officials, organize feasts and gladiatorial fights for the people. Using funds from the mining, Caesar also began to build the Forum, and “the land under it alone cost more than a hundred million” (Ibid., 26.2). Caesar was aware of his strength and did not want to have a rival in the person of the influential Pompey. “His glory had already equaled the glory of Pompey’s victories,” writes Plutarch, “and now he took advantage of all the occasions that Pompey himself and the conditions of the time, and the decline of civil life in Rome gave him” (Plut., Caes., 28). Thus, the triumvirate finally disintegrated, and open conflict was brewing between Pompey and Caesar.
Thus, the period of the triumvirate brought significant political and military conquests to Caesar. From the moment the “alliance of three” was concluded, Caesar played a leading role in it, despite the lack of authority in comparison with his colleagues in the agreement. He is elected consul and successfully implements the plans of the triumvirs, aimed at fighting the Senate, satisfying the interests of supporters and his own political ambitions. Relying on the support of Pompey and Crassus, Caesar achieved the transfer to his control of Cisalpine and Narbonne Gaul, as well as Illyria.
Of the three leaders who united, it was Caesar who gained perhaps the most significant political dividends from the triumvirate. Waging wars in distant Gaul, he was able to become a famous commander and influential politician, who had enormous support from the army and equally huge material resources, with the help of which many political problems of Rome were solved. Over time, however, the triumvirate exhausted its capabilities. After the death of Crassus and due to the sharply worsened political situation in Rome, the idea of fighting the Senate lost its relevance. The contradictions between Pompey and Caesar, who claimed sole political leadership, came to the fore.
The military-political confrontation that arose between Pompey and Caesar unfolded against the backdrop of growing chaos in the Roman state. After two years of social upheaval, in August 50 BC. Cicero wrote: “Unfortunately, I do not foresee peace this year either, and the closer the discord that is inevitable comes (meaning the clash between Pompey and Caesar), the more clearly this danger is visible.” Cicero Marcus Tullius. Letters // Reader on the history of ancient Rome. // Edited by V.I. Kuzishchina. M., 1987. P. 152. . The formal reason for the open clash of the former triumvirs was the refusal of Pompey and the Senate to give Caesar the opportunity in absentia, without resigning as proconsul in Gaul, to stand as a candidate for the consular elections in Rome in 49 BC. AD According to the Senate resolution, Caesar had to resign his command, disband all his troops and return to Rome as an honest man. However, Caesar feared “that he could not be unharmed if he parted with the army” Cicero Marcus Tullius. Letters. Right there. P. 152. . For their part, they were offered compromise options. For example, he agreed to disband his troops, but only “if Pompey did the same” (Ibid., 30).
The irreconcilable position of the Senate and Pompey forced Caesar to begin military operations, which relatively quickly took on the character of a civil war. Almost all layers of Roman society, as well as numerous peoples in the provinces, were drawn into it. On the eve of the emerging armed struggle, Cicero perspicaciously noted: “In these discords, as I foresee, on the side of Gnaeus Pompey will be the Senate and those who carry out the trial; those who live with fear and without hope will join Caesar.” Cicero Marcus Tullius. Letters. Right there. P. 153. . This assessment made by Cicero is not accidental. While the Senate aristocracy defended its own interests, Caesar's program reflected a wider range of social interests. It provided for the establishment of unlimited power similar to the Hellenistic monarchy, where the interests of not only one class (for example, the Senate), but all Roman citizens and the population of the Roman provinces would be expressed. This is probably why Caesar was able to attract quite a lot of people to his side soon after he crossed the Rubicon River and entered Italy. March 1, 49 BC, i.e. just two months after Caesar’s legions marched on Rome, Cicero noted: “People from the municipalities talk to me a lot, the villagers talk a lot; they care about nothing at all except the fields, except the estates, except their money. And this is how things turn out. : the one in whom they were previously confident, they fear (Pompey), but they love the one they feared (Caesar)." Cicero Marcus Tullius. Letters. Right there. P. 154. .
The rapid advance of Caesar's army deep into Italy caused a mass exodus of the population. “A stampede began everywhere in fear and tears,” notes Appian (App., B.C., II, 35). Soon Rome was filled with a stream of refugees from surrounding cities and villages. In a state of chaos, the authorities were unable to maintain order either by persuasion or orders. Succumbing to general panic, Pompey and most of the senators fled from Rome. According to ancient authors, on the way to Rome, Caesar tried everywhere to show his loyalty and humane treatment, thanks to which mass panic stopped, and, having occupied Rome, Caesar found it “in a calmer state than he expected” (Plut., Caes., 35 ). Even his political opponent Cicero praised Caesar's actions. In one of his letters to a certain Titus Pomponius, he writes: “What kind of a person appeared in the state, how active, how vigilant, how prepared. I swear, if he does not execute anyone and does not take anything from anyone, then those who are extremely I was afraid they would love him extremely." Cicero Marcus Tullius. Letters. Right there. . At the same time, having taken possession of Rome, Caesar made it clear to the remaining senators and officials that from now on “everything will come only from him” (App., B.C., II, 107). So, contrary to the law, he seized the rich state treasury, and the people's tribune Metellus, who was going to prevent this arbitrariness, declared: “If you are dissatisfied with my actions, then go away. And you and all my enemies whom I captured here - you are all completely in my power" (Plut., Caes., 35). According to Cicero, Caesar did not carry out reprisals only because he “considered gentleness pleasing to the people.” Cicero Marcus Tullius. Letters. Right there. .
While Pompey, who had fled from Rome, was gathering his troops in Greece, Caesar defeated his main forces in Spain, consisting of eight legions. There, as in Italy, he showed mercy to the vanquished and enlisted many of Pompey's captured legionnaires into his ranks. After returning from Spain, Caesar became dictator. This extraordinary position of six months was, as we have said above, a traditional part of the Roman system of government. Not used since the Hannibal Wars, in the 1st century. BC. she was resuscitated by Sulla. Caesar's dictatorship was not something out of the ordinary. Just like Sulla, Caesar formalized his position of power through the Senate appointment of Billows R. A. Julius Caesar. The Colossus of Rome. L. - N. Y., Routledge, 2009. P. 239.
However, 11 days after taking office, he resigned his dictatorial powers, declared himself consul and moved against Pompey in Greece. 6 June 48 BC In the north of Greece, in Vessaly, a decisive battle took place between the opponents, during which the Pompeians were defeated, and Pompey himself fled to Egypt, where Mommsen T. was treacherously killed. History of Rome.T. 2. St. Petersburg, 1994.S. 347. .
Thus, the physical elimination of a dangerous and influential competitor, Caesar’s military strength and authority, his flexible policy towards all segments of the population, as well as the ineffectiveness of republican institutions of power during a period of crisis for the state were the main prerequisites for the establishment of Caesar’s dictatorship.
Victory in the civil war brought Caesar control of the Roman state. If back in the fall of 48 BC. Caesar received dictatorial powers from the consul Servilius Isauricus for a period of one year, in the spring of 47 BC. - for 10 years in a row, then in 44 BC. he had already received the powers of a permanent dictator. This was a radical departure from the Roman tradition, which regarded dictatorship "as an extraordinary magistracy of strictly limited duration" Billows R. A. Julius Caesar. The Colossus of Rome. L. - N. Y., Routledge, 2009. P. 241.
Introduced, for example, in case of restoration of order in the state. Moreover, the legitimacy of Caesar's power rested more on recognition of his authority than on fear of force. Need for a dominant leader to control political system was recognized in Rome in the years preceding the civil war. Even Cicero, who was a zealous supporter of republican government, recognized the need for the state "a kind of trustee who could use the generally recognized auctoritate to maintain order" Cicero Marcus Tullius. Dialogues: About the state. About the laws // Reader on the history of ancient Rome. // Edited by V.I. Kuzishchina. M., 1987. P. 208. . Thus, the elevation of Caesar to the rank of dictator was, in essence, a recognition of the need for a dominant trustee who would prevent violence, arbitrariness and corruption in Roman society.
Caesar's monocracy was complemented by other state powers. He received the lifelong competence of the people's tribune and censor with the right to review the lists of senators and observe morals. In addition, the Senate and the people gave him the power of recommendation. As a dictator, Caesar could recommend his candidates for magisterial positions (consuls, praetors, aediles). True, “with the exception of applicants for the consulate, half of the candidates were elected at the request of the people, and half by appointment of Caesar” (Suet., Iul., 41.2).
The Senate, which was previously the highest state body of power, became essentially an advisory body under the dictator Caesar, who filled it with more than half of his proteges. At the same time, using the right of censor, Caesar increased the number of senators from 600 to 900 people. The other highest body of the republican constitution, the people's assembly, has practically ceased to act as an independent institution. The gatherings at the Forum consisted mainly of Caesar's clients or his friends, who approved the dictator's candidacies during the election of magistrates. The executive authorities were reorganized in accordance with Caesar's wishes. As the volume of government affairs increased markedly, the dictator increased the number of traditional magistrates. Under Caesar, they began to elect 16 praetors instead of eight, six aediles instead of four, and 40 quaestors instead of 24. If Caesar’s candidates proposed for occupying these posts also required the formal consent of the people, then lower-ranking officials (legates, prefects, procurators) were appointed personally dictator. Especially many of these officials were sent to the provinces to manage state property, finances and control the collection of taxes Billows R. A. Julius Caesar. The Colossus of Rome. L. - N. Y., Routledge, 2009. P. 244-245.
In addition to the land plots, “Caesar paid his veterans 24 thousand sesterces from the booty” (Suet., Iul., 38). Thus, the adaptation of the soldiers to peaceful life went smoothly and the demands of the legionnaires were satisfied.
When resolving the debt issue, Caesar also chose a compromise path, which, if possible, did not infringe on the interests of any of the parties. He refused full cassation of debts, which could destabilize ownership relations. Debts were reduced by deducting the interest paid from the principal amount of the debt, and the remainder could be paid in equal installments over three years. The loan interest was reduced to 6% per year. For violating this regulation, the moneylender was severely punished. Caesar also canceled rent arrears in Rome and Italy, and “he exempted those who paid for housing in Rome up to 2 thousand sesterces and in Italy up to 500 thousand from payment for a year” (Ibid., 38.2) .
The issue of distributing free bread to the Roman plebs was also relevant. Since 58 BC. free grain distributions were established, the list of recipients of this alms swelled to 300 thousand people. Caesar made a thorough revision of this list and reduced the number of recipients to 150 thousand people, significantly reducing the burden on the treasury and grain suppliers, “and so that new unrest could not arise when updating the lists, he decided that every year the praetor, by lot, would replace the deceased recipients with new ones from among those not included in the lists" (Ibid., 41.3). To please the people, Caesar practiced periodic generous distributions Money and products from our own stocks. So, in memory of his deceased daughter Julia, he “distributed to the people ten measures of grain and the same number of pounds of butter, and 300 sesterces in money.” Caesar's generosity was especially impressive after successful military campaigns. For example, “after the Spanish triumph, he organized an incredibly rich feast and distribution of meat” (Ibid., 38). The dictator did not forget about the people’s craving for all kinds of spectacles and performances. During the Caesarian era, the sphere of entertainment acquired a very wide scope: “Gladiator battles and theatrical performances were organized in all quarters of the city and in all languages, and circus races, and athletic competitions, and sea battles” (Ibid., 39).
The main direction of Caesar's provincial policy was the massive granting of Roman citizenship rights to the local nobility. For the first time in Roman history, the right of a Roman citizen was granted to an entire province - Cisalpine Gaul. In Transalpine Gaul, some cities and communities were awarded Roman citizenship. Actually, measures to expand citizenship rights were linked to solving the problem of increasing the birth rate of Roman citizens. Since from 130 BC. The birth rate was steadily falling; measures to stimulate it were required. Caesar instituted a financial rewards program that encouraged people to have three or more children. To control emigration and support the population of Italy, a rule was established that “no citizen over 20 and under 40 years of age, not in military service, can leave Italy for more than three years.” Other original measures were also implemented in this direction (Ibid., 41.3). In particular, “Caesar granted Roman citizenship to all those who practiced medicine in Rome, and to all teachers of the noble arts” Cicero Marcus Tullius. Letters // Ibid. M., 1987. P. 155. .
The dictatorship of Caesar was perceived very painfully in the circles of the Senate aristocracy. A case is widely described in the literature when senators, who appeared in full force to present the most respectable decrees to Caesar, “were severely offended by the fact that the dictator received them sitting down” (Plut., Caes., 60). The Roman nobility had a deeply rooted belief in the justice of only the collegial system of oligarchic government. Caesar's autocratic regime, although recognized as temporarily necessary, was categorically unacceptable in the long term. Monarchist sentiments were also rejected by the people. So, for example, during one of the holidays, the attempts of Anthony, one of Caesar’s comrades, to crown the statue of the dictator with the royal crown Carson R. A. G. “Caesar and the Monarchy” were met with exclamations of disapproval from the crowd. Greece and Rome. Vol. 4, No. 1 (Mar., 1957). P. 52. . However, with the beginning of the establishment of the dictatorship, the Senate and the people “themselves handed Caesar powers beyond all measure: permanent consulate, lifelong dictatorship, care of morals, then the name of the emperor, the nickname of the father of the fatherland, a statue among the royal statues, an exalted place in the theater.” (Suet., Iul., 76). In a certain sense, Roman citizens were in a state of divided desires. On the one hand, they needed a strong dictatorial power capable of ensuring stability in society, on the other hand, they remained staunch supporters of the republican form of government, based on collegiality and the rotation of all officials. Caesar successfully solved the most pressing socio-economic problems, strengthened institutions government controlled and restored social order, but “his omnipotence, to which there was no end in sight, caused increasing fears” (Plut., Caes., 60).
It was on this basis that a conspiracy against Caesar matured among the senators, at the center of which were Cassius Longinus, Decimus Brutus and Marcus Brutus. It is noteworthy that Marcus Brutus justified the murder of Caesar by saying that he “had become a tyrant, and the duty of all honest men is to kill the tyrant” Billows R. A. Julius Caesar. The Colossus of Rome. L. - N. Y., Routledge, 2009. P. 250.
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