National policy of Alexander I. Foreign policy of Alexander I - briefly

Domestic policy of Alexander I. (1801 - 1825)
At the beginning of his reign, Alexander I tried to carry out a number of reforms that were supposed to stabilize the economic and political situation in the country. In his reform activities, he relied on the so-called. A secret committee that included statesmen moderate liberal sentiments (Stroganov, Kochubey, Czartoryski, Novosiltsev).
The most serious reforms were in the sphere of the political system. In 1802, new central government bodies appeared - ministries, which, together with local institutions introduced provincial reform 1775, formed a single, strictly centralized bureaucratic system management of Russia. In the same year, the Senate's place in this system was determined as a supervisory body - again, purely bureaucratic - over compliance with the rule of law. Such transformations made it easier for the autocratic authorities to govern the country, but did not introduce anything fundamentally new into the state system. In the socio-economic sphere, Alexander I made several timid attempts to soften serfdom. By the decree of 1803 on free cultivators, the landowner was given the opportunity to free his peasants with land for a ransom. It was assumed that thanks to this decree a new class of personally free peasants would arise; the landowners will receive funds to reorganize their economy in a new, bourgeois way. However, the landowners were not interested in this possibility - the decree, which was non-binding, had practically no consequences.
After the Peace of Tilsit (1807), the tsar again raised the question of reforms. In 1808 - 1809 M. M. Speransky, the closest collaborator of Alexander I, developed the “Plan of State Transformation”, according to which, in parallel with the administrative-bureaucratic management system implementing the policy of the center, it was planned to create a system of elected bodies local government- a kind of pyramid of volost, district (county) and provincial councils. This pyramid was to be crowned by the State Duma, the country's highest legislative body. Speransky's plan, which provided for the introduction of a constitutional system in Russia, aroused sharp criticism from senior dignitaries and the capital's nobility. Due to the opposition of conservative dignitaries, it was possible to establish only the State Council - the prototype upper house Duma (1810). Despite the fact that the project was created in accordance with the instructions of the king himself, it was never implemented. Speransky was sent into exile in 1812.
The Patriotic War and foreign campaigns distracted Alexander I from internal political problems for a long time. During these years, the king experiences a serious spiritual crisis, becomes a mystic and, in fact, refuses to solve pressing problems. The last decade of his reign went down in history as Arakcheevism - after the name of the Tsar’s main confidant A. A. Arakcheev, a strong-willed, energetic and merciless person. This time is characterized by the desire to establish bureaucratic order in all spheres of Russian life. Its most striking signs were the pogroms of young Russian universities - Kazan, Kharkov, St. Petersburg, from which professors objectionable to the government were expelled, and military settlements - an attempt to make part of the army self-sustaining, planting it on the ground, combining a soldier and a farmer in one person. This experiment was extremely unsuccessful and caused powerful uprisings of military settlers, which were mercilessly suppressed by the government.

Born on December 23, 1777. From early childhood, he began to live with his grandmother, who wanted to raise him to be a good sovereign. After Catherine's death, Paul ascended the throne. The future emperor had many positive character traits. Alexander was dissatisfied with his father's rule and conspired against Paul. On March 11, 1801, the Tsar was killed, and Alexander began to rule. Upon ascending the throne, Alexander 1st promised to follow the political course of Catherine 2nd.

1st stage of transformation

The beginning of the reign of Alexander 1st was marked by reforms; he wanted to change the political system of Russia, create a constitution that guaranteed rights and freedom to everyone. But Alexander had many opponents. On April 5, 1801, the Permanent Council was created, whose members could challenge the tsar's decrees. Alexander wanted to free the peasants, but many opposed this. Nevertheless, on February 20, 1803, a decree on free cultivators was issued. This is how the category of free peasants appeared in Russia for the first time.

Alexander carried out an education reform, the essence of which was to create state system, the head of which was the Ministry of Public Education. In addition, it was carried out administrative reform(reform of the highest authorities) - 8 ministries were established: foreign affairs, internal affairs, finance, military ground forces, naval forces, justice, commerce and public education. The new governing bodies had sole power. Each separate department was controlled by a minister, each minister was subordinate to the Senate.

2nd stage of reforms

Alexander introduced M.M. into his circle. Speransky, who was entrusted with the development of a new government reform. According to Speransky's project, it is necessary to create a constitutional monarchy in Russia, in which the power of the sovereign would be limited to a bicameral parliamentary body. The implementation of this plan began in 1809. By the summer of 1811, the transformation of the ministries was completed. But due to foreign policy In Russia (tensed relations with France), Speransky’s reforms were perceived as anti-state, and in March 1812 he was dismissed.

The threat from France was looming. June 12, 1812 began. After the expulsion of Napoleon's troops, the authority of Alexander I strengthened.

Post-war reforms

In 1817-1818 People close to the emperor were engaged in the gradual elimination of serfdom. By the end of 1820, a draft of the State Charter of the Russian Empire was prepared, approved by Alexander, but it was not possible to introduce it.

A feature of the internal policy of Alexander I was the introduction of a police regime and the creation of military settlements, which later became known as “Arakcheevism.” Such measures caused discontent among the broad masses of the population. In 1817, the Ministry of Spiritual Affairs and Public Education was created, headed by A.N. Golitsyn. In 1822, Emperor Alexander I banned secret societies in Russia, including Freemasonry.

The reign of Alexander I (1801 - 1825).

On the night of March 12, 1801, as a result of the last palace coup in Russian history, Emperor Paul I was killed by a group of conspirators. His son Alexander became the new emperor. In order to strengthen his personal authority, immediately after ascending the throne, Alexander eliminated the most hated laws for the nobility, introduced by Paul. He returned to the system of noble elections, declared an amnesty, returned the officers dismissed by Paul from the army, allowed free entry and exit from Russia, and the import of foreign books. These events, which created Alexander’s popularity among the nobility, could not shake the foundations of the state. The main directions of the government’s internal political activities were: reforms to reorganize the state apparatus, the peasant issue, the sphere of education and education. Since Russian society was divided into supporters and opponents of transformative processes, this time was characterized by a struggle between two social movements: conservative-protective (striving to preserve the existing order) and liberal (which pinned hopes on carrying out reforms and softening the regime of the tsar’s personal power). The reign of Alexander I (taking into account the predominance of one or another trend) can be divided into two stages. The first stage, (1801 - 1812), the time when liberal tendencies predominated in government policy; second, (1815 - 1825) - a change in the political aspirations of tsarism towards conservatism, the tsar's departure from power towards religiosity and mysticism. During this period, the all-powerful favorite of the tsar, A. Arakcheev, actually began to rule the country.

In the first years of the reign of Alexander I, a number of changes were made in the sphere of top management. In 1801, the Indispensable (permanent) Council (an advisory body under the Tsar) was created. The composition of the council was appointed by the emperor himself from among the highest officials. However, ideas for transformation were mainly discussed in the so-called Secret Committee (1801 - 1803). It included representatives of the highest nobility - Count P. Stroganov, Count V. Kochubey, Polish Prince A Czartoryski, Count N. Novosiltsev. The committee was preparing a program for the liberation of peasants from serfdom and reform of the state system.

Peasant question. The most difficult issue for Russia was the peasant question. Serfdom hampered the development of the country, but the nobility unanimously advocated its preservation. The decree of February 12, 1801, allowed merchants, burghers, and state peasants to acquire and sell land. He abolished the monopoly of the state and the nobility on the ownership of real estate, commoners received the right to buy uninhabited lands, thereby opening up some opportunities for the development of bourgeois relations within the feudal system. The most significant was the decree “On Free Plowmen” (1803). The practical results of this decree were insignificant (only 47 thousand peasants were able to buy their freedom by the end of the reign of Alexander I). The main reason was not only the reluctance of the landowners to release their peasants, but also the inability of the peasants to pay the appointed ransom. A series of decrees (1804-1805) limited serfdom in Latvia and Estonia (Livonia and Estland provinces); decrees of 1809 - abolished the right of landowners to exile their peasants to Siberia for minor offenses; allowed peasants, with the consent of the landowners, to engage in trade, take out bills and contracts.

Reorganization reforms government structure included: ministerial and Senate reform. In 1802, a decree on the rights of the Senate was issued. The Senate was declared the supreme body of the empire, possessing the highest administrative, judicial and supervisory powers. In 1802, a Manifesto was issued on the replacement of Peter's colleges with ministries. The ministerial reform began (1802-1811), which became the most important in the region government controlled. The introduction of the first ministries (military, naval, finance, public education, foreign and internal affairs, justice, commerce, the imperial court and appanages) completed the process of clearly delineating the functions of executive authorities and replaced collegiality in management with autocracy. This led to further centralization of the state apparatus, to rapid growth a layer of bureaucrats - officials who were entirely dependent on the mercy of the king. The subordination of ministers to the emperor contributed to the strengthening of absolutism. Thus, the introduction of ministries was carried out in the interests of autocratic power. A Committee of Ministers was established to coordinate the activities of ministries. Ministers were introduced into the Senate. The functions, structure, principles of organization and the general order of affairs in the ministries were clearly delineated. Both representatives of the older generation and “young friends” of the tsar were appointed to ministerial positions, which expressed political unity noble circles. The Cabinet of Ministers coordinated the activities of ministries and discussed common problems.

New projects for public administration reforms were presented by a major statesman - the liberal M. M. Speransky, who from 1807 became the tsar's chief adviser on all matters of administration and legislation. In 1808, the tsar entrusted him with the leadership of the commission for drafting laws. In 1809, M. M. Speransky presented Alexander with a project of state reforms, which provided for a phased transition to a constitutional monarchy (“Introduction to the Code of State Laws”). He proposed creating an elected State Duma with the right to discuss legislative projects, introducing elected courts and creating a State Council (as a link between the emperor and central and local government bodies). Despite the fact that Speransky did not touch upon social problems and did not touch upon the foundations of the serfdom, his project had progressive significance, as it contributed to the beginning of the constitutional process in Russia and the rapprochement of its state system with Western European political systems. However, this was not destined to come true. All of feudal Russia opposed liberal reforms. The Tsar, who approved M. Speransky’s plan, did not dare to implement it. The only result of the planned reforms was the establishment of the State Council (in 1810), which was given advisory functions in the development of the most important laws. On March 17, 1812, Speransky was dismissed from service, accused of treason and exiled to Nizhny Novgorod under police supervision. Thus, the emperor completed attempts at global reforms. After the Patriotic War of 1812, due to the strengthening of the reactionary tendency in the policies of Alexander I, the question of further reforms in the field of public administration was not raised.

The internal political course of the Russian autocracy of this period is associated with European reaction. After the end of the War of 1812 and the military campaigns of 1813 -1814. the situation in the country worsened. The state administrative apparatus was disorganized, finances were disrupted, and monetary circulation was disrupted. Under these conditions, the policy of the autocracy acquired a more conservative character.

The Emperor has not yet abandoned attempts to resolve the peasant issue and implement constitutional ideas. The event has ended peasant reform in the Baltic States, which began in 1804-1805. Thus, in 1816, a decree was issued on the liberation of peasants in Estonia (without land). Having received personal freedom, the peasants found themselves completely dependent on the landowners. In 1817-1819 Peasants from Estonia and Latvia (Courland and Livonia) were freed under the same conditions. In 1818-1819 projects for the liberation of the peasants of Russia were developed (with maximum respect for the interests of the landowners). An influential dignitary, the Tsar's right hand, Count A. A. Arakcheev (Minister of War from 1808-1810, from 1810 - Director of the Department of Military Affairs of the State Council, who from 1815 controlled the activities of the Committee of Ministers) proposed a project for the liberation of peasants from serfdom dependence, by purchasing them from landowners with subsequent allocation of land at the expense of the treasury. Minister of Finance D. A. Guryev considered it necessary to free the peasants on a contractual basis with the landowners, and to introduce various forms of ownership gradually. Both projects were approved by the tsar, but were not implemented.

In May 1815, the Kingdom of Poland, annexed to Russia, was granted a constitution (one of the most liberal constitutions of that time). This was the first step towards introducing constitutional government in Russia. Since 1819, on behalf of the emperor, work was carried out to create a draft of the future Russian constitution (the authors of the project were N. N. Novosiltsev and P. A. Vyazemsky). Within a year, the document was completed (“State Charter for Russia”), but never saw the light of day.

Since the beginning of the 20s. Alexander I finally parted with reformist liberal ideas, work on projects was curtailed, interest in state affairs was lost. Among the dignitaries surrounding him, the figure of A. A. Arakcheev, who became the de facto ruler of the country, stood out. It was Arakcheev who made a decisive contribution to the ongoing bureaucratization of public administration. The dominance of office and paperwork, the desire for petty supervision and regulation - these are the most important components political system created by him. The most ugly manifestation of the established regime were the so-called military settlements.

Policy in the field of education and culture

At the beginning of the 19th century, Russia noticeably lagged behind the West in the field of education, enlightenment and literacy of the population. In 1801-1812 liberal ideas that prevailed in the government also affected the sphere of education. In 1803, a new regulation was issued on the structure of educational institutions. The education system was based on the principles of classlessness of educational institutions, free education at its lower levels, continuity curricula. The lowest level were one-year parish schools, the second were district schools, the third were gymnasiums in provincial cities, and the highest were universities. Since 1804, new universities began to open. They trained personnel for the civil service, teachers for gymnasiums and medical specialists. Privileged middle people also appeared educational establishments- lyceums (one of them was Tsarskoye Selo Lyceum, created in 1811). In 1804 the first censorship charter was issued. It said that censorship was being introduced “not to restrict the freedom to think and write, but solely to take decent measures against its abuse.” After Patriotic War In 1812, due to the strengthening of conservative tendencies, government policy changed. The Ministry of Public Education has turned, in the words of N.M. Karamzin, into a “ministry of obfuscation.” In 1816, it was headed by the chief prosecutor of the Synod, A. N. Golitsyn, who, in the fight against progressive ideas, put forward the creed of the Holy Alliance - “gospel, religion, mysticism.” Education began to be built on the basis of the Holy Scriptures, higher educational institutions in which sedition was discovered were closed, strict censorship was introduced, it was forbidden to publish information about trials in newspapers, or to touch upon issues of the country’s domestic and foreign policy. The reaction in the country intensified.

The foreign policy of Alexander I contributed to the solution of the most important state tasks: it made it possible to ensure the protection of state borders, expand the territory of the country through new acquisitions, and increase the international prestige of the empire.

In Russian foreign policy 1801-1825. A number of stages can be distinguished:

1801-1812 (before the Patriotic War with Napoleon);

Patriotic War of 1812

1813 -1815 (the time of the foreign campaigns of the Russian army, the completion of the defeat of Napoleonic France). The main directions of Russian foreign policy in the first quarter of the 19th century. became: EASTERN - the purpose of which was to strengthen positions in the Transcaucasus, the Black Sea and the Balkans, and Western (European) - which implied the active participation of Russia in European affairs and anti-Napoleonic coalitions.

Western direction.

Russia's activity in this direction was dictated by the international situation that developed in Europe as a result of the confrontation between the two leading capitalist powers - England and France. Almost all foreign policy issues were resolved taking into account the increased superiority of France, which laid claim to political and economic dominance in Europe. In 1801-1812 Russia pursued a policy of maneuvering between France and England, becoming a kind of arbiter in European affairs. In 1801, allied treaties between Russia and these powers were signed, which made it possible to temporarily smooth out the confrontation that had arisen. The peace in Europe established since 1802 was extremely short-lived. In May 1803, Napoleon declared war on England, and in 1804 he proclaimed himself French emperor and began to lay claim not only to European but also world domination. Russia abandoned neutrality and became an active member of anti-French coalitions (1805-1807). In April 1805, a third coalition was formed. It included: England, Russia, Austria, Sweden, the Kingdom of Naples. At the Battle of Austerlitz (December 1805), the allies were defeated French army. The coalition fell apart.

In 1806, a new, fourth coalition was created (England, Prussia, Sweden, Russia), but it did not last long. Napoleon took Berlin, Prussia capitulated. The Russian army lost the battle of Friedland (territory in East Prussia, now the Kaliningrad region). In June 1807, this union also fell apart. France and Russia signed the Treaty of Tilsit, under the terms of which Russia agreed to the creation of the Grand Duchy of Warsaw under the protectorate of France. This territory later became a springboard for France’s attack on Russia. In addition, Russia was forced to join the continental blockade of England (which was not economically beneficial for it). Russia's reluctance to comply with the conditions of the continental blockade was a few years later one of the reasons for the Patriotic War of 1812. The conclusion of peace with France allowed Russia to intensify its actions in the eastern and northern directions. Simultaneously with the peace treaty, an alliance between Russia and France was signed. Russia entered the war with England, but did not take part in military actions against it. She was busy resolving the eastern question.

Eastern direction.

Russia's active actions in the Middle East, on the one hand, were stimulated by the increased attention of Western European powers to this region, on the other hand, they were determined by the desire of the authorities to develop the south of Russia and the desire to secure the southern borders. In addition, the peoples of Transcaucasia were subjected to constant, devastating raids by the Ottoman Empire and Iran and sought to obtain a reliable ally in Russia. Back in 1801-1804, Eastern and Western Georgia (Mengria, Guria and Imereti) became part of Russia. The administration of these territories began to be carried out by the royal governor. The expansion of Russia's possessions in Transcaucasia led to a clash with Iran and Turkey.

The Russian-Iranian War (1804-1813) began after Russia rejected Persia's ultimatum to withdraw Russian troops from Transcaucasia. The Treaty of Gulistan (1813), which ended the war, gave Russia the right to maintain a navy in the Caspian Sea. The lands of several Transcaucasian provinces and khanates were transferred to it. These events led to the end of the first stage of the annexation of the Caucasus to Russia.

The Russian-Turkish War (1806-1812) was caused by Turkey's desire to return its former possessions in the Northern Black Sea region and the Caucasus. In 1807, the Russian squadron (under the command of D.I. Senyavin) defeated the Ottoman fleet. In 1811, the main forces of the Ottoman army on the Danube were defeated (Commander of the Danube Army - M.I. Kutuzov). In May 1812, the Peace of Bucharest was signed. Moldova went to Russia, which received the status of the Bessarabia region, Serbia was granted autonomy, West Side Moldova for the river The Prut remained with Turkey (the Principality of Moldavia). In 1813 Turkish troops invaded Serbia. Türkiye demanded the withdrawal of Russian troops from Georgia, Mingrelia, and Abkhazia. In 1816, under pressure from Russia, the Turkish-Serbian Peace Treaty was concluded, according to which Turkey recognized the independence of Serbia. In 1822, Turkey again violated the Russian-Turkish agreement: it sent troops into Moldova and Wallachia, and closed the Black Sea straits to Russian merchant ships. England and France supported the Ottoman Empire. In February - April 1825, at the St. Petersburg Conference with the participation of Austria, Prussia, France and Russia, Russia proposed to grant autonomy to Greece, but was refused and began to prepare for a new war with Turkey, without relying on resolving the Greek issue through diplomatic means.

Northern direction.

In 1808-1809 The Russian-Swedish war took place. Russia sought to establish control over the Gulf of Finland and the Gulf of Bothnia and strengthen the security of St. Petersburg. In 1808, Russian troops entered the territory of Finland (commander M.B. Barclay de Tolly). In September 1809 The Treaty of Friedrichsham was signed. Finland went to Russia. The Russian emperor received the title of Grand Duke of Finland. Russian-Swedish trade was restored. Thus, in 1801-1812, Russia was unable to achieve success in the West (in the fight against France), but won a number of victories in other foreign policy areas and expanded its territory through new acquisitions.

The foreign policy of Alexander I contributed to the solution of the most important state tasks: it made it possible to ensure the protection of state borders and expand the territory of the country to new territories, and increased the international prestige of the empire.

Patriotic War of 1812

The Patriotic War of 1812 should be highlighted as a special stage in Russia's foreign policy activities. The war was caused by worsening relations between Russia and France. The main reasons for the war were: Russia's participation in the continental blockade of England (by 1812, Russia practically ceased to comply with the terms of the blockade); French hegemony in Europe as the main source of military danger. Nature of the war: On the part of France, the war was unjust and aggressive in nature. For the Russian people, it became liberating and led to the participation of the broad masses, receiving the name Patriotic.

In the battle near the river. Berezina (November 14-16, 1812), Napoleon's army was defeated. On December 25, 1812, Alexander issued a Manifesto ending the war. Russia managed to defend its independence. Society felt the need for change even more acutely. The victory strengthened the authority of Russia and marked the beginning of the liberation of the peoples of Central and Western Europe from Napoleon. France was dealt a blow from which it could not recover.

Foreign campaigns of the Russian army (1813 - 14). On January 1 (13), the Russian army under the command of M.I. Kutuzov crossed the river. Neman and entered the Duchy of Warsaw in order to consolidate the victory. Russia's allies at the end of the fight against Napoleon were: Prussia. Austria and Sweden. On October 4-6 (16-18), 1813, a battle called the “Battle of the Nations” took place near Leipzig. This battle was the culmination of the military campaign of 1813. The Allies won the battle and the war moved to France. On March 18 (30), 1814, the capital of France, Paris, capitulated. March 25 (April 4), 1814 - Napoleon abdicated the throne.

First quarter of the 19th century became the period of formation of the revolutionary movement and its ideology in Russia. The first Russian revolutionaries were the Decembrists.

Their worldview was formed under the influence of Russian reality in the first quarter of the 19th century. The progressive part of the nobility expected Alexander I to continue the liberal reforms begun in the first years of his reign. However, the policy of the tsarist government after the Patriotic War of 1812 aroused their indignation (the creation of military settlements by A. Arakcheev, reactionary policies in the field of education and culture, etc.). Familiarity with the development of Western countries strengthened the desire of the nobility to put an end to the causes of Russia's backwardness. The main one is serfdom, which hampered the economic development of the country. Serfdom was perceived by the Decembrists as an insult to the national pride of the victorious people. The participation of the tsarist government in the suppression of revolutionary and national liberation movements in Europe also caused indignation. At the same time, these movements served as an example and inspired struggle. Russian journalism and literature, Western European educational literature also influenced the views of future Decembrists.

The first secret political society - the "Union of Salvation" - arose in St. Petersburg in February 1816. The society included A. N. Muravyov, S. I. and M. I. Muravyov-Apostol, S. P. Trubetskoy, I. D. Yakushkin, P. I. Pestel (28 people in total). Its members set as their goal the abolition of serfdom and the adoption of a constitution. However, limited forces prompted the Union members to create a new, broader organization.

In 1818, the “Union of Welfare” was created in Moscow, numbering about 200 members and having a charter with an extensive program of action (“Green Book”). The work of the Union was led by the Indigenous Council, which had local councils in other cities. The goals of the organization remain the same. The Decembrists saw the ways to achieve them in the propaganda of their views, in preparing society (for 20 years) for a painless revolutionary coup by military forces. Disagreements between radical and moderate members of society, as well as the need to get rid of random people, led in January 1821 to the decision to dissolve the Union of Welfare.

In March 1821, the Southern Society arose in Ukraine, headed by P.I. Pestel, at the same time in St. Petersburg, on the initiative of N.M. Muravyov, the beginning of the Northern Society was laid. Both societies interacted with each other and viewed themselves as part of the same organization. Each society had its own program document. Northern - “The Constitution” by N. M. Muravyov, and Southern - “Russian Truth”, written by P. I. Pestel.

"Russian Truth" expressed the revolutionary nature of the changes. N. Muravyov's "Constitution" expressed the liberal nature of the transformation. Regarding the tactics of struggle, members of the societies held the same view: an uprising of the army against the government.

In 1823, preparations began for the uprising, which was scheduled for the summer of 1826. However, the death of Alexander I in November 1825 prompted the conspirators to take active action. Members of the Northern Society decided on the day of taking the oath to Nicholas I to come forward with the demands of their program. On December 14, 1825, 3 thousand rebels gathered on Senate Square. However, their plans fell apart. Nicholas, who knew about the conspiracy, took the Senate oath in advance.

S.P. Trubetskoy, the leader of the conspirators, did not appear on the square. Troops loyal to the government were massed Senate Square and began shelling the rebels. The performance was suppressed.

On December 29, the uprising of the Chernigov regiment began under the command of S.I. Muravyov-Apostol. However, on January 3, 1826, it was suppressed by government troops.

In the case of the Decembrists, 579 people were brought to trial, 289 were found guilty. Five - Ryleev, Pestel, Kakhovsky, Bestuzhev-Ryumin, S. Muravyov-Apostol - were hanged, more than 120 people were exiled to different terms to Siberia for hard labor or settlement.

The main reasons for the defeat of the uprising were the lack of coordination of actions and unpreparedness, the lack of active support in different layers society, society's unpreparedness for radical transformations. However, this speech was the first open protest in Russia, whose goal was a radical restructuring of society.



Historical portrait of Alexander 1: Alexander Pavlovich reigned as Emperor of Russia from March 23, 1801 to December 1, 1825. He was the son of Emperor Paul 1 and Sophie Dorothea of ​​Württemberg. Alexander was the first Russian king of Poland, reigning from 1815 to 1825, and also the Russian Grand Duke of Finland. He was sometimes called Alexander the Blessed.

Although at first a supporter of limited liberalism, as evidenced by his approval of the Polish constitution in 1815, from the end of 1818 Alexander changed his views dramatically. It is said that a revolutionary plot to kidnap him on the way to the congress at Aix-la-Chapelle shook the foundations of his liberalism. In Aix, he first came into close contact with Metternich and from that time Metternich's influence on the mind of the Russian Emperor and on the Council of Europe ascended.

Alexander firmly believed that he had been chosen by Providence to ensure peace in general and European countries in particular. He was not very successful in fulfilling this supposed mission because his concept of national happiness - and the means of obtaining it - differed significantly from the desires of other people.

He ruled Russia during the chaotic period of the Napoleonic Wars. As prince and emperor, Alexander often used liberal rhetoric, but continued Russia's absolutist policies in practice.

Domestic and foreign policy

Alexander 1's domestic policies are summarized: in the early years of his reign, he initiated some minor social reforms and major liberal educational reforms, such as the construction of more universities. The Collegium was abolished and replaced by the State Council, which was created to improve legislation. Plans were also made to create a parliament and sign a constitution.

Foreign policy Alexandra 1 briefly: In foreign policy, he changed Russia's position towards France four times between 1804 and 1812 between neutrality, opposition and alliance. In 1805 he joined Britain in the War of the Third Coalition against , but after the massive defeat at the Battle of Austerlitz he concluded the Treaty of Tilsit (1807) with Napoleon, joined Napoleon's Continental System and fought in naval war against Great Britain between 1807 and 1812. Alexander and Napoleon could never agree, especially on Poland, and their alliance collapsed by 1810.

The Tsar's greatest triumph came in 1812, when Napoleon's invasion of Russia proved a complete disaster for the French. He created the Holy Alliance to suppress revolutionary movements in Europe, which he viewed as immoral threats to legitimate Christian monarchs. Alexander helped the Austrian Foreign Minister Clemens von Metternich suppress all national and liberal movements.

In the second half of his reign, he became more and more arbitrary, reactionary, afraid of conspiracies against him, and slowed down many previous reforms. He cleared schools of foreign teachers, as education became more religiously oriented as well as politically conservative.

Main directions of domestic policy

At first Orthodox Church had little influence on Alexander's life. The young king was determined reform highly ineffective centralized systems controls that Russia relied on.

The government reform of Alexander I abolished the old Collegiums, and in their place new ministries were created, headed by ministers responsible to the Crown. The Council of Ministers, chaired by the emperor, dealt with all interdepartmental issues. The State Council was created with the aim of improving the technology of legislation. It was to become the second chamber of the representative legislature. The Governing Senate was reorganized as Supreme Court Empire. The codification of laws, begun in 1801, was never carried out during his reign.

Alexander wanted to solve one more important question in Russia, the status of serfs, although this was not achieved until 1861 (during the reign of his nephew Alexander II).

Peasant question under Alexander 1 it was decided as follows. In 1801 he created a new social category of "free farmer" for peasants voluntarily freed by their masters.

When did Alexander's reign begin?, there were three universities in Russia:

• in Moscow;
• Vilna (Vilnius).
• Tartu.

They were expanded, and in addition three more universities were opened:

• in St. Petersburg;
• in Kharkov;
• Kazan.

Literary and scientific bodies were created or encouraged, Alexander later expelled foreign scientists.

After 1815, military settlements (farms with working soldiers and their families) were introduced with the idea of ​​making the army or part of it economically self-sufficient and providing it with recruits.

Foreign policy

By the end of the 18th century, Russia was entering a new phase of its history in relation to foreign affairs. So far it has limited its efforts to expand its territory to Eastern Europe and in Asia, and sought foreign alliances only as temporary means to help achieve this goal. She now began to consider herself a powerful member of the European family, and sought to exert predominant influence in all European matters.

The emperor's main attention was paid not to internal politics, but foreign affairs, in particular, Napoleon. Fearing Napoleon's expansionist ambitions and the rise of French power, Alexander joined Britain and Austria against Napoleon. Napoleon defeated the Russians and Austrians at Austerlitz in 1805.

Napoleonic Wars

Alexander was forced to conclude the Treaty of Tilsit, signed in 1807, after which he became an ally of Napoleon. Russia lost a small amount of territory to the treaty, but Alexander used his alliance with Napoleon to further expand. He wrested the Grand Duchy of Finland from Sweden in 1809 and Bessarabia from Turkey in 1812.

After the Battle of Austerlitz (December 1805), the two emperors not only reconciled, but also agreed to divide the world between them. The grandiose project was immediately outlined vaguely in three formal documents, to the intense satisfaction of both parties, and there was much joy on both sides at the conclusion of such a favorable alliance; but the diplomatic honeymoon did not last long.

Napoleon harbored the secret hope that Alexander could be used as an obedient subordinate in the implementation of his own plans. Alexander soon began to suspect that he was being deceived.

His suspicions were increased by the hostile criticism of the Tilsit Treaty among his own subjects and the arbitrary behavior of his ally, who continued his aggression in a reckless manner, as if he were the sole master of Europe.

The rulers who were overthrown were:

• Sardinia.
• Naples.
• Portugal.
• Spain.

The Pope was expelled from Rome. The Confederation of the Rhine was expanded until France had a foothold on the Baltic Sea. The Grand Duchy of Warsaw was reorganized and strengthened, and the promised evacuation of Prussia was postponed indefinitely. The truce between Russia and Turkey was concluded by French diplomacy so that Russian troops had to leave the Danube principalities, which Alexander intended to annex to his empire.

At the same time, Napoleon openly threatened to crush Austria, and in 1809 he carried out his threat by defeating the Austrian armies.

The Russian-French alliance gradually became tense. Napoleon was worried about Russia's intentions in the strategically important Bosporus and Dardanelles straits. At the same time, Alexander viewed the French-controlled Polish state with suspicion. The demand to join France's continental blockade against Great Britain was a serious disruption to Russian trade, and in 1810 Alexander refused the obligation.

Invasion

Russia remained the only unconquered power on the continent, and it was obvious that war with it was inevitable and it began in 1812 with the offensive of the Napoleonic army against Russia and ended in 1815 at the Battle of Waterloo.

In June 1812, Napoleon invaded Russia with an army of 600,000 men, twice the size of the Russian regular army. Napoleon hoped to inflict a serious defeat on the Russians and force Alexander to agree to surrender. However, during the war the Russian army inflicted a catastrophic defeat on Napoleon.

During these three years, Alexander was Napoleon's main antagonist, and it was largely thanks to his skill and persistence that the Allies freed Europe forever from Napoleonic rule. When the French retreated, the Russians pursued them in Central and Western Europe, reaching Paris. When peace was finally concluded, Alexander 1 gained the dominant position in European politics, which had been the object of his ambitions since the beginning of his reign.

After the Allies defeated Napoleon, Alexander became known as the savior of Europe, and he played a prominent role in redrawing the map of Europe at the Congress of Vienna in 1815. That same year, under the influence of religious mysticism, Alexander initiated the creation of the Holy Alliance, a loose agreement obliging the rulers of the countries involved - including most of Europe - to act in accordance with Christian principles.

More pragmatically, in 1814 Russia, Britain, Austria and Prussia formed the Quadruple Alliance. The Allies created an international system to maintain the territorial status quo and prevent a resurgence of expansionist France. Quadruple alliance confirmed nearby international conferences, ensured Russia's influence in Europe.

During the war with Napoleon People different countries fought to free themselves not only from the yoke of Napoleon, but also from the tyranny of their own governments, while Alexander expected them to remain submissive under the patriarchal institutions that imposed them on the nation. Thus, despite his academic sympathy with liberal ideas, he became, along with Metternich, a leader of political stagnation, and willingly collaborated with the reactionary authorities against the revolutionary movements in Germany, Italy and Spain.

At the same time, Russia continued its expansion. Congress of Vienna created the Kingdom of Poland (Russian Poland), to which Alexander 1 granted a constitution. Thus, Alexander I became the constitutional monarch of Poland, remaining the autocratic Tsar of Russia. He was also limited monarch of Finland, which was annexed in 1809 and given autonomous status. In 1813, Russia gained territory in the Baku region of the Caucasus at the expense of Persia. By the early nineteenth century, the empire was also firmly established in Alaska.

Alexander (Blessed) I – Emperor of the Russian Empire, who reigned from 1801 to 1825. The autocrat tried to maneuver between France and Great Britain and expanded the territory of his state. His domestic and foreign policies were aimed at improving public administration and gaining international prestige.

The reign of Alexander 1 became an important stage in our history. Russia under Alexander emerged victorious from the war with Napoleon and underwent a number of serious changes.

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Early years and beginning of reign

The future tsar was born on December 23, 1777 and was named Alexander by his grandmother - in honor of the hero and famous prince Alexander Nevsky. His teachers were Nikolai Saltykov and Frederic Cesar. Huge influence on the formation of the personality of the future ruler provided by his grandmother. He spent his entire childhood with Catherine II - away from his parents.

Alexander ascended the throne immediately after killing his father. The conspirators, among whom were diplomat Nikita Panin, General Nikolai Zubov and his closest associate Peter Palen, were dissatisfied with his unpredictable decisions in foreign and domestic policy. Historians still do not know whether the future emperor knew about the murder of his father.

March 24, 1801 Alexander becomes emperor- a few hours after the overthrow of Paul I. Upon his accession to the throne, the emperor pardoned thousands of people who were convicted at the whim of his father.

The Russian Tsar also wanted to quickly improve relations with Great Britain and Austria, which had suffered seriously under the previous ruler, who acted impulsively and unwisely. Six months later, the young emperor restored the former allied relations and even signed a peace treaty with the French.

Domestic policy

Features of the tsar's domestic policy are largely caused by his associates. Even before ascending the throne, he surrounded himself with smart and talented people, among whom were Count Kochubey, Count Stroganov, Count Novosiltsev and Prince Czartoryski. With their help, the emperor wanted transform the state, for which the Secret Committee was created.

Secret committee - government agency, which was unofficial and existed from 1801 to 1803.

The main directions of the domestic policy of the Russian sovereign were to carry out the so-called liberal reforms who should have turn Russia to a new country. Under his leadership the following were carried out:

• reform of central government bodies;
• financial reform;
• education reform.

Reform	Description
Central authorities	The essence of the reform was the creation of an official council that helped the emperor resolve important state issues. Thus, on his initiative, a “Variable Council” was created, which included twelve representatives titled nobility. In 1810 it was renamed the State Council. This body could not independently issue laws, but only gave advice to the emperor and helped make decisions. He also organized a Secret Committee of his closest associates. As part of the reform, eight ministries: internal and foreign affairs, military and naval forces, commerce, finance, justice and public education.
Financial sector	As a result of the war against Napoleon in the country the financial crisis began. At first the government wanted to overcome it by printing even more paper money, however this is only caused inflation to rise. The sovereign was forced to carry out reforms that raised taxes exactly twice. This saved the country from the financial crisis, but caused wave of discontent to the monarch.
The sphere of education	In 1803 it was reformed the sphere of education. Now it could be obtained regardless of social class. At the primary levels, education became free. As part of the reforms, new universities were founded and received partial autonomy.
Military sphere	After the victory over Napoleon, the sovereign realized that recruitment was not able to provide the country with a professional army. After the end of the conflict, they also cannot organize demobilization as soon as possible. In 1815 there was a decree was issued, which provided for the creation of military settlements. The king created a new class of military farmers. The reform caused sharp discontent in all layers of society.

In addition to the above reforms, it was planned to eliminate the estates, but this did not happen due to lack of support in higher circles.

Attention! Alexander planned by issuing decrees that reduced injustice against serfs.

If you are asked: “Give a general assessment of the internal policy of Alexander 1,” you can answer that at first he took all the necessary steps that would turned an empire into a modern state of European standards. The main achievements of the tsar were reforms in the field of education and the creation of centralized government bodies, including important role played Unspoken committee. Attempts to abolish serfdom should also be considered positive.

However, internal activities in the second half of the reign cause negative assessments among historians. Under Alexander 1, taxes were significantly increased and military reform was carried out, which caused even more sharp reaction in the empire.

Thus, we can highlight the following features of the internal policy of Alexander I:

• liberal reforms on initial stages boards that had a positive effect in the process of development of the Russian Empire;
• the desire to create a state according to European standards;
• a number of unsuccessful reforms in the financial and military spheres;
• cooling towards any kind of reforms in the second half of the reign;
• complete renunciation of government at the end of life.

Foreign policy

In the first years of his reign, the vector of Alexander 1’s foreign policy was directed to eliminate the threat from Napoleon's side. In 1805, our country became a member of the Third Anti-French Coalition, which also included Great Britain, Austria, the Kingdom of Naples and Sweden.

The Tsar personally led the Russian army. His mismanagement and lack of military experience led to defeat of the united army Austrians and Russians at the Battle of Austerlitz. This battle went down in history as the “Battle of Three Emperors.” Napoleon inflicted a crushing defeat on his opponents and forced the Russian army to leave Austria.

In 1806, Prussia declared war on France, after which Alexander violated the terms of the peace treaty and also sent an army against Napoleon. In 1807 the French Emperor defeats opponents, and Alexander is forced to negotiate.

After his defeat in 1807, Alexander was forced, under pressure from Napoleon, to declare war on Sweden. Without an official announcement of the start of hostilities Russian army crosses the Swedish border.

The beginning of the war for Alexander was disastrous, but during the fighting a radical change occurred, which led to the victory of the Russian Empire in 1809. As a result of the agreement, the Swedes joined the continental blockade against the British, entered into an alliance with the Russian Empire and ceded Finland to that country.

In 1812, Napoleon invades Russia. Alexander 1 announces about the beginning of the Patriotic War. During the fighting and under the influence of severe frosts, Napoleon suffered a crushing defeat, losing most of his army.

After Napoleon's flight, the emperor takes part in the attack on France. In 1814 he entered Paris as a victor. During this time, Alexander I represented the interests of Russia.

results

The foreign policy of Alexander 1 can be briefly formulated in one phrase - the desire for geographical expansion of the empire's space. During the years of his reign, the following territories were included in the state:

• Western and Eastern Georgia;
• Finland;
• Imereti (Georgia);
• Mingrelia (Georgia);
• most of the territory of Poland;
• Bessarabia.

In general, the results of the tsar’s international actions were positive value for the further development of the role of the Russian state in the international arena.

Last stage of life

In their last years emperor lost all interest to state affairs. His indifference was so deep that he repeatedly said that he was ready to abdicate the throne.

Shortly before his death, he issues a secret manifesto, in which he transfers the right to inherit the throne to his younger brother Nikolai. Alexander I dies in 1825 in Taganrog. His death raised a lot of questions.

At the age of 47, the emperor was practically not ill, and no one wanted to recognize such a quick death as natural.

Attention! There is an opinion that the emperor faked his death and became a hermit.

Results of the reign

During the first period of his reign the emperor was energetic and wanted to carry out a wide series of reforms that would change Russian Empire. His policy was initially characterized by activity. Changes in government and educational sphere. Financial reform saved the country from crisis, but caused discontent, however, like the military one. Russia under Alexander 1 was not freed from serfdom, although the emperor understood that this step was already inevitable.

External and domestic politics

Conclusion on the topic

The results of Alexander I's foreign policy were great importance for the future of the country, since the territory of the empire was expanded and authority was gained in the international arena. The achievements of the beginning of the reign were largely negated in the last years of the emperor's life. His indifference led to growing crisis, prompted the Decembrist movement and caused the creation of secret societies. After his death the emperor becomes Nikolai's younger brother, subsequently named .