May be secondary or primary. In the second case, the information was obtained in the course of a survey (observation) first-hand. In the first case, the source is already published material.
Collection Methods sociological information include: survey, observation, analysis of documents.
The latter technique means the use of any information recorded in the text (handwritten or printed), sound recordings, photo, film, video materials. This method includes and is used in the study of information created in various areas of public communication. All documents are divided into four types. The first includes written materials - archival information, press materials, personal documentation. The second type are iconographic documents. These include paintings, videos, photographs. The next type are statistical documents. They are presented in digital form. The last, fourth, type of documents includes phonetic data. They are sound recordings.
Observation and polling are fairly common methods of data collection.
It should be noted that with a fairly wide application, these techniques (individually) are not the main ones in the study. Often the methods are used in combination.
One of the advantages of observation as a research technique is the presence of a direct personal contact of the researcher with an object or phenomenon. Sociological observation is carried out in natural conditions for the subject being studied. Thus, the researcher has the opportunity to obtain primary information. In the process of studying, registration of occurring phenomena is carried out.
Depending on the degree to which the researcher takes part in the process, included and simple observation are distinguished. In the second case, the researcher captures everything "from the outside", not participating in the ongoing phenomenon or the activities of the group being studied.
The general trend that has clearly manifested itself in the improvement of research methods in various sciences over the past century is their mathematization and technization. This trend also manifested itself in psychology, giving it the status of a fairly accurate experimental science. Now in psychology, radio and video equipment, electronic equipment are used.
Along with mathematization and technicalization of research methods in psychology, they have not lost their significance and are still accepted by general, traditional methods of collecting information, such as observation and interview(see Table 1).
There are many reasons for their persistence: the phenomena studied in psychology are unique and complex, they cannot always be identified with the help of technical means and describe in exact mathematical formulas. Despite the fact that modern mathematics and technology are extremely complex in themselves, they remain quite simple compared to the phenomena that psychology studies. For the study of subtle phenomena and psychological categories that psychology deals with, in many cases they are simply not suitable.
observation. This is the first of the methods used to collect primary data. It has several different options:
a) outside surveillance is a way of collecting data about another
person, his psychology and behavior by observing him with
sides;
b) internal surveillance or introspection- applied
when the researcher sets himself the task of studying
the phenomenon of interest to him in the form in which it
presented directly to his consciousness. experiencing
corresponding phenomenon, he, as it were, observes himself, his
sensations, uses similar data communicated to him
other people who conduct self-observation on his instructions;
Table 1
The main methods of psychological research used to collect primary information
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in) free observation does not have a predetermined
programs and can change its object;
G) standardized observation, on the contrary, is carried out according to
a certain, pre-thought-out program and strictly follows it;
e) at enabled surveillance the researcher himself acts in
as a direct participant in the process behind which
being monitored. Thus, by examining human relationships,
the experimenter can join himself in these relationships, at the same time
without stopping watching them;
e) outside surveillance unlike the included one, it does not imply the personal participation of the researcher in the process that he is studying.
Each of these types of observation has its own characteristics and is used where it can give the most useful results.
Interview. This is a method in which a person answers a series of questions asked of him. Each survey option has its own advantages and disadvantages.
Oral questioning is used in cases where it is desirable to monitor the behavior and reactions of the person answering the questions at the same time, it allows you to penetrate deeper into human psychology.
A written survey allows you to reach a large number of of people. His most common tool is a questionnaire.
Tests- these are specialized methods of psychological diagnostic research, using which you can get an accurate quantitative or qualitative characteristic phenomenon being studied.
They differ from other methods in that they imply a standardized, verified procedure for collecting and processing data. With the help of tests, you can study and compare people with each other, evaluate their psychology and behavior.
Type of tests: test questionnaire is based on a system of questions pre-selected and tested in terms of their validity 1 and reliability, the answers of the subjects to which one can definitely judge their psychological qualities.
Test task involves assessing the psychology and behavior of a person not on the basis of what he says, but on the basis of what he does. In tests of this type, a person is given a series of special tasks, based on the results of which the quality being studied is judged.
At the core projective tests, there is a projection mechanism, according to which positive and especially negative characteristics that are not realized by a person, he is inclined to attribute not to himself, but to other people, to “project” them onto others. When applying tests of this kind, the subject is judged on the basis of how he evaluates situations, other people, what properties he attributes to them.
Each science has its own methods of research and collection of information. Social psychology is no exception. Although, as an independent science, it began to be singled out only to late XIX century. The methods of social psychology are used to study the main psychological phenomena in society and their patterns. The study of the totality of all indicators helps to reveal the essence and depth of the ongoing processes and phenomena in society.
All methods used in social psychology can be divided into two large groups:
1. The method of collecting information (observation, experiment, survey, test, study of documentary sources).
2. Information processing method (correlation and factor analysis, building typologies, etc.).
Observation
This method can rightly be called the most "ancient" and one of the most popular. It does not require special preparations and tools. True, there are significant disadvantage– there is no clear plan for recording data and their interpretation. Each subsequent researcher will describe the data through the prism of his perception.
What is the subject of observation in social psychology? First of all, verbal and non-verbal acts in the behavior of one person, small or large group, who are in certain conditions of the social environment or situation. For example, answer the question?
Observation is of several types:
External observation is a method of collecting information that each of us often uses. The researcher, through direct observation from the outside, obtains information about the psychology and behavior of people.
Internal observation or self-observation is when a research psychologist wants to study a phenomenon of interest to him exactly in the form in which it is represented in consciousness. He sets himself a task and conducts internal observation of himself.
Observation considers an object or phenomenon as a whole. This method of social psychology is not limited to a clear program of study. The observer can change the object of his observation at any time if he is interested in something that was not planned in advance. Using this method, it will not be possible to identify the cause of what is happening, and a lot of time will have to be spent.
Experiment
This method psychological research quite specific. The researcher, if necessary, can work and create an artificial situation to study a certain property, which "here and now" will be best manifested.
The experiment is natural and laboratory. What distinguishes them is that the psychology and behavior of people can be studied in remote or close to reality conditions.
A natural experiment takes place in a normal life situation. The researcher only fixes the data, without interfering in the course of events.
Laboratory experiment opposite. It takes place in a previously artificially created situation. This is done in order to study a certain property as best as possible.
Interview
One of the frequently used methods of social psychology can be safely called - a survey. This is usually a series of questions that the subjects must answer. His great advantage It is considered that it is possible to cover a large number of respondents in a short period of time.
Specialists use oral questioning when it is necessary to observe how a person behaves and how he reacts to questions. It, in contrast to the written one, will allow a deeper study of human psychology. However, it requires more special training and time.
In order to cover a large number of subjects, a written survey is used - a questionnaire.
If a written or oral survey is not limited to certain answers to questions, then it is called free. Its plus is that you can get interesting and non-standard answers.
We all know tests - this is also one of the methods of social psychology. With their help, the researcher receives accurate information, both qualitatively and quantitatively.
With the help of tests, it is easy to compare the psychology of different people, give assessments, and study yourself. Probably, everyone at least once answered the questions of the tests?
Tests are divided into two types - task and questionnaire. We often come across questionnaires. They are based on a system of responses that are carefully selected and tested for reliability and validity. The test questionnaire allows you to study the psychological qualities of people.
The test task will help to assess the psychological and behavioral qualities of a person based on what and how he does. This method is based on a series of special tasks presented to the subject. Based on the results of the test, we can talk about whether a person has a certain quality and how developed it is.
Sociometry is widely used in the study of the psychology and behavior of small groups.
Statistical method
Methods and models of mathematical statistics are widely used in social psychology. They help in the collection of information, as well as its processing, analysis, modeling and comparison of results.
In the article, we have listed the main methods of research in social psychology. Each of them has its own advantages and disadvantages. Which method to choose depends on what goal the researcher sets for himself and what process or phenomenon he plans to study.
The methods used in social psychology to collect empirical data are to a certain extent interdisciplinary and are used not only in social psychology, but also in other sciences, for example, in sociology, psychology, and pedagogy. The whole set of methods can be divided into two large groups: research methods and methods of influence. The latter belong to a specific area of social psychology, to the so-called "". Research methods, in turn, differ in the methods of collecting information and methods of processing it.
There are many other classifications of methods of socio-psychological research. For example, there are three groups of methods:
1) methods of empirical research;
2) modeling methods;
3) managerial and educational methods.
Among the methods of collecting information, one should name: studying documents (in particular, content analysis), various kinds (questionnaires, interviews), various kinds of tests (including the most common sociometric test), finally, an experiment (both laboratory and natural ). In most cases, these methods are identical to those used in sociology and psychology.
Observation is the "oldest" method of social psychology and is a deliberate, systematic and purposeful perception of phenomena in order to study their specific changes in certain conditions and to find the meaning of these phenomena that are not directly given. In the case of obtaining data on open behavior, on the actions of individuals, the method of observation plays a very important role. the main problem The problem that arises when applying the observation method is how to ensure the fixation of certain classes of characteristics so that the “reading” of the observation protocol is understandable and can be interpreted by another researcher in terms of a hypothesis.
The study of documents has great importance, because this method can be used to analyze products human activity. A special problem arises here in connection with the fact that the document is interpreted by the researcher, i.e. a person with his own individual psychological characteristics inherent in him. critical role when studying a document plays, for example, the ability to understand the text.
To overcome the "subjectivity" in the interpretation of the document by the researcher, a special technique is introduced, called "" (literally: "content analysis"). This is a special, more or less formalized method of document analysis, when special “units” are highlighted in the text, and then the frequency of their use is calculated. It makes sense to apply the content analysis method only in cases where the researcher is dealing with a large amount of information, so that one has to analyze numerous texts.
A survey is a method in which a person answers a series of questions asked of him. Among the many, the most widespread in social psychology are interviewing and questioning (especially in studies of large groups).
Questionnaire method - a written survey in which communication between the researcher and the respondent, who is the source necessary information, mediated by the questionnaire.
Interviewing is a method of collecting information that involves the researcher's oral address to a certain set of people with questions, the content of which represents the problem under study. During the interview, all the ways of influencing one person on another described in social psychology are manifested, all the laws and norms of their communication are in effect.
The main methodological problems that arise when applying these methods lie in the design of the questionnaire. The first requirement here is the logic of its construction, ensuring that the questionnaire delivers exactly the information that is required by the hypothesis, and that this information is as reliable as possible.
A test is a special kind of test in which the subject performs either a specially designed task, or answers questions that differ from questions in questionnaires or interviews. Questions in tests are indirect. Tests are not a specific socio-psychological method, they are widely used in various areas of psychology. When talking about the use of tests in social psychology, they most often mean personality tests, less often - group tests. There are not many tests that are relevant for diagnosing a group. An example is the widely used sociometric test, which will be discussed specifically in the small group section.
There is no special specificity in the application of this method in socio-psychological research: all the methodological standards for the use of tests adopted in general psychology are also valid here.
The experiment acts as one of the main research methods in social psychology. The specificity of the experiment lies in the fact that an artificial situation is deliberately and thoughtfully created in it, in which the studied property is distinguished, manifested and evaluated in the best way. In other words, the experiment creates an imitation of everyday processes. By varying one or two factors - called independent variables - the experimenter finds out how changing them affects people. The controversy around the possibilities and limitations of the experimental method in this area is one of the most acute controversies on methodological problems at the present time.
By experimenting, social psychologists sometimes create situations that affect. In this case, scientists are required to follow professional ethical rules: obtain consent from the subjects, follow the principle of "do no harm", after the completion of the experiment, fully disclose to the participants any temporary deception.
In social psychology, there are two main ones: laboratory and natural. For both types, there are some general rules that express the essence of the method, namely: the arbitrary introduction by the experimenter of independent variables and control over them, as well as over changes in dependent variables. Also common is the requirement to isolate the control and experimental group so that the measurement results can be compared with some standard. However, along with these general requirements laboratory and natural experiments have their own rules.
Information collection methods. There are three main classes of information gathering methods 1 Direct observation 2 Document analysis 3 Polls, which are divided into two subclasses a interview b questionnaire DIRECT OBSERVATION Observation refers to the direct recording of events by an eyewitness.
Observation can be of different nature. Sometimes the observer independently observes the events taking place. Sometimes he can use the observational data of other persons. Observation is simple and scientific. Simple is that which is not subject to a plan and is carried out without a definitely developed system. Scientific observation is distinguished by the fact that it is subject to a clear research goal and clearly formulated tasks. b Scientific observation is planned according to a predetermined procedure. c All observational data are recorded in protocols or diaries according to a certain system. d Information obtained through scientific observation must be verifiable for validity and sustainability.
Observation is classified 1 According to the degree of formalization, uncontrolled or non-standardized, unstructured and controlled standardized, structural are distinguished. In uncontrolled observation, only a fundamental plan is used, and in controlled observation, events are recorded according to a detailed procedure. 2 Depending on the position of the observer, there are participating or included and simple non-included observations.
During participant observation, the researcher imitates entry into social environment, adapts to it and analyzes events as if from the inside. In non-involved simple observation, the researcher observes from the outside without interfering in events. In both cases, surveillance can be done openly or incognito. One of the modifications of participant observation is called stimulating observation.
This method involves the influence of the researcher on the events that he observes. The sociologist creates a certain situation in order to stimulate events, which makes it possible to evaluate the reaction to this intervention. 3 According to the conditions of organization, observations are divided into field observations in natural conditions and laboratory observations in an experimental situation. The procedure for any observation consists of answering the questions What to observe, How to observe, and How to keep records.
We will try to find answers to them. The first question is answered by the research program, in particular the state of hypotheses, empirical indicators of the selected concepts, the research strategy as a whole. In the absence of clear hypotheses, when the study is carried out according to a voluntary exemplary plan, a simple or unstructured observation is used. The purpose of such a preliminary observation is to come up with hypotheses for a more rigorous description of the observed object.
The following is used in this case: the rules and norms governing the state of the object as a whole are formal and generally accepted, but not fixed in instructions or orders; the degree of self-regulation of the object of observation; to what extent its state is determined by external factors and internal reasons. 2 An attempt to determine the typicality of the observed object in a given situation, relative to other objects and situations public consciousness on the this moment. 3 Subjects or participants in social events. Depending on the common task observations can be classified according to demographic and social signs according to the content of the activity, the nature of work, the scope of occupations, the scope of leisure regarding the status in the team or group, the leader of the team, subordinate, administrator, public figure, a member of the team for official functions in joint activities at the object under study duties, rights, real opportunities for their implementation of the rules that they follow strictly and which they neglect for informal relations and functions friendship, communications, informal leadership, authority 4 Purpose of activity and social interests of subjects and groups common and group goals and interests official and informal approved and not approved in a given environment, the consistency of interests and goals. 5 The structure of activity on the part of external motives, incentives, internal conscious intentions, motives, means attracted to achieve goals in terms of the content of the means and their moral assessment, according to the intensity of activity, productive, reproductive, intense, calm, and according to its practical results, material and spiritual products. 6 Regularity and frequency of observed events for a number of the above parameters and for typical situations that they describe.
Observation according to such a plan allows you to better understand the object of observation.
According to the collected preliminary data, the tasks of observation are specified.
Some aspects of the observed events are studied in more detail, others are completely omitted. Thus, after the preliminary, the observation passes into the stage of a more formalized search.
Drawing up a rigid procedure for controlled observation is preceded by a detailed analysis of the problem based on theory and data from uncontrolled observation.
Now individual phenomena, events, forms of human behavior must be interpreted in terms of the logic of research, they acquire the meaning of indicators of some more common properties or action. An instructive technique for recording observed events was developed by Moscow sociologists within the framework of research project public opinion research leader B.A. Grushin. Assemblies were singled out as one of the channels for expressing public opinion.
To record the data, an observation file was used, including nine different forms for assessing the situation before the start of the meeting, the organizational period, recording the actions of the speaker or speaker, recording the audience's reactions to the speech, describing the general situation during the debate, the situation when making decisions at the meeting, in particular when discussing amendments and additions to the draft decision, situations at the end of the meeting and a card general characteristics assembly.
This is how the indicator card looks like for registering the attitude of the meeting participants to the speaker - the speaker, the discussion participant. Indicators of the attitude of the participants in the meeting to the speakers by direct observation of the reactions of the audience Elements of observed behavior The strength of the manifestation of the reaction by groups scale estimates Special notes of the observer, not formalized in advance A Approving remarks, exclamations, applause. B Disapproving remarks, etc. C Demanding additional information.
D Conversations related to the issue under discussion. D Questions to the speaker. E No reaction neutral attitude. G Appeals for observance of order. 3 Calls for compliance with the regulations. And Conversations, the topic of which cannot be determined. To extraneous conversations. L Engaging in extraneous activities.1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 A 6-term nominal scale is given for each line of elements of the observed behavior , the points of which are 1 - the presidium of the meeting 2 - the majority of the audience 3 - about half of the audience 4 - the minority of the audience 5 - several people 6 - one - two people Observation of a large meeting audience is carried out by several persons who adhere to a single instruction. the preparation of an observation data recording protocol is preceded not only by the development general concept, but also repeated non-standardized observations at different objects in our case - collections of different organizations and teams.
Whether the observer should intervene in the observed process The answer to this question depends on the purpose of the study.
If the purpose of the study is to describe and analyze and diagnose the situation, then the intervention will distort the picture and may lead to a distortion of information that is undesirable for the study. To do this, there are ways to achieve minimal errors in diagnostic observation. One is for the researcher to make sure people don't know they're being watched. Another way is to create a false idea about the purpose of the observation.
Of course, these methods may seem immoral, but in order to achieve the veracity of the information, it is better for the researcher not to show his goals, especially if, having learned about them, people can misinterpret the research objectives. If the purpose of the study is to make certain management decisions, then the intervention will be useful, as it will allow you to change the course of events and evaluate the results. This is the purpose of stimulating participant observation.
The advantages of included observations are obvious; they give the most vivid, direct impressions of the environment, help to better understand the actions of people and the actions of social communities. But the main disadvantages of this method are also associated with this. The researcher may lose the ability to objectively assess the situation, as if inwardly moving to the positions of those whom he studies, he too gets used to his role as an accomplice in events. Therefore, as a rule, the result of participant observation is a sociological essay, and not a strictly scientific treatise.
There are also moral problems of participant observation, how ethical it is, masquerading as an ordinary member of some community of people, to actually explore their Ways to improve the reliability of data during observation. AT field conditions, with simple unstructured and non-involved observation, it is very difficult to keep records. This is a matter of skill and ingenuity of the researcher. You can use pre-designed codes. You can use camouflage techniques, for example, a student at an enterprise to keep records supposedly related to work.
Can be used good memory and record observations later, in a calm environment. Structured observation undertakes more rigorous record keeping practices. Forms are used here - protocols lined by observation points with code designations of events and situations. Example Observers and employees of the research team who investigated the meetings divided the observation zones of the presidium, the speaker, the sector of the meeting participants from 15-20 people and recorded what was happening on the time scale using codes.
In the protocol, see the diagram below, in each line, a point of the nominal scale is marked, taking into account time. Let me remind you that another observer registers the actions of the speakers according to the appropriate instructions, after which it is possible to synchronize the reactions of the audience to the speeches from the podium of the meeting. The frequency and intensity of events in this case are recorded using ranking scales according to the previous scheme, column 2. Modern technology allows the use of a tape recorder, film or camera, video recordings that ensure the authenticity of the registration of the observed. Event registration protocol based on indicators of the attitude of meeting participants to speakers Time Elements of observed behavior and reactions encoded in a nominal scale Special marks, notes 0 - 5 min 6 - 10 min abvgdez and events to be monitored using clear indicators.
Their reliability is tested in trial observations, where several observers register, according to a single instruction, the same events occurring on an object similar to the one that will be studied. b If the main observation is carried out by several persons, they compare their impressions and agree on assessments, interpretation of events using a single recording technique, thereby increasing the stability of the observation data. c One and the same object should be observed in different situations, normal and stressful, standard and unusual, which allows you to see it from different angles. d It is necessary to clearly distinguish and record the content, forms of manifestation of observed events and their quantitative characteristics intensity, regularity, periodicity, frequency. e It is important to ensure that the description of events is not confused with their interpretation.
Therefore, the protocol should have special columns for recording factual data and for their interpretation. f In case of inclusion or non-inclusion observation performed by one researcher, it is especially important to monitor the validity of the interpretation of the data, trying to cross-check your impressions with the help of various possible interpretations.
For example, the violent reaction of the meeting to a speech may be the result of approval, dissatisfaction with what was said by the speaker, a reaction to his joke or remark from the audience, to a mistake or reservation made by him, to an extraneous action during the speech. In all these cases, special notes are made explaining the protocol record. g It is useful to resort to independent criterion to test the validity of the observation.
Observation data from the outside can be controlled by interviews with participants in the events, it is desirable to check the materials of the included observation not included in the same program or according to the available documents.
Place of observation among other methods of data collection.
The main disadvantage of this method is the bias of the observer. A person very rarely assesses the situation absolutely impartially, he tends to draw conclusions. The personal characteristics of the observer definitely affect his impressions. The events of the past, many phenomena and processes of a mass character, the isolation of a small part of which makes their study unrepresentative, are not subject to observation.
Observation is used mainly as a supplementary method that allows you to collect materials to start work or helps to check the results of other methods of collecting information. DOCUMENTARY SOURCES Documentary in sociology is any information fixed in printed or handwritten text, on magnetic tape, on photographic or film. In this sense, the concept of documentation differs from the commonly used one; we usually refer to documents as official materials.
According to the method of fixing information, handwritten and printed documents are distinguished on magnetic tape. From the point of view of the intended purpose, materials that were chosen by the researcher himself are distinguished. Example The American sociologist W. Thomas and the Polish F. Znaniecki studied the life of Polish emigrants in Europe and America according to documents. They asked a Polish peasant to write an autobiography and received from him 300 pages of handwritten text. These documents are called target. Other documents, independent of the sociologist, are called cash.
Usually they constitute documentary information in sociological research. According to the degree of personification, documents are divided into personal and impersonal. Personal documents individual accounting library forms, questionnaires and forms, certified by signature, characteristics issued by this person, letters, diaries, statements, memoirs. Impersonal - statistical or event archives, press data, minutes of meetings.
Depending on the status, documents are divided into official and unofficial. Official - protocols, government materials, resolutions, statements, communiques, transcripts of official meetings, state and departmental statistics, archives, etc. reporting. Unofficial - personal documents, as well as impersonal documents compiled by private citizens, for example, statistical generalizations made by another researcher based on their own observations. A special group of documents - the media, newspapers, magazines, radio, television, cinema. According to the source of information, documents are divided into primary and secondary.
The first is direct observation. To secondary - processing of direct observation data, generalization or description based on primary sources. You can also classify documents by content, for example, literary data, historical and scientific archives, archives sociological research. The problem of the reliability of documentary information.
One should not confuse such concepts as reliability, the authenticity of the document itself with the reliability of the information reported in it. Reliability primarily depends on the source of the available document. Of course, official, personal, first-hand documents are much more reliable than any other. Evaluation of the method of documentary analysis. Documents often act as the main source of information supplemented by a survey or direct observation. The sociologist must show remarkable ingenuity in the search for suitable documents, sometimes quite unexpected ones.
The main shortcomings of the described method are the problems of obtaining reliable information from biographical materials and the fact that when studying human activity, the process is almost not reflected in the documents, but only the results. Document Analysis - important method collection of information in the formative research plan for hypotheses and general exploration of the topic and at the stage of work on the descriptive plan. In experimental studies, significant difficulties arise in translating the language of documents into the language of hypotheses, but, as experience shows, even these difficulties can be overcome with skillful handling of the material.
Finally, the data of state statistics, the numerous data of the Central Statistical Bureau, which one must be able to use, as well as to know with what regularity they are collected and published, are of enormous and quite independent importance for the sociologist. POLLS Polls are an indispensable method of obtaining information about the subjective world of people, their inclinations, motives, and opinions.
Polling is an almost universal method. With proper precautions, information can be obtained no less reliable than in the study of documents or observation. And this information can be about anything. Even about what you can not see or read. For the first time, official polls appeared in England at the end of the 18th century, and in early XIX century in the USA. In France and Germany, the first surveys were conducted in 1848, in Belgium - in 1868-1869. And then they began to actively spread. The art of using this method is to know what to ask, how to ask, what questions to ask, and finally, how to make sure that the answers you receive can be trusted.
For the researcher, first of all, it is necessary to understand that not the average respondent is participating in the survey, but a living one, a real man endowed with consciousness and self-awareness, which affects the sociologist as well as the sociologist on him. Respondents are not impartial registrars of their knowledge and opinions, but living people who are not alien to some kind of sympathy, preferences, fears, etc. Therefore, perceiving questions, they cannot answer some of them due to lack of knowledge, and they do not want to answer others or answer insincerely.
Types of polls. There are two large classes of survey methods: interviews and questionnaires. An interview is a conversation conducted according to a specific plan, involving direct contact between the interviewer and the respondent being interviewed, and the latter's answers are recorded either by the interviewer as his assistant, or mechanically on film.
There are many types of interviews. 1 According to the content of the conversation, documentary interviews are distinguished, the study of past events, clarification of facts and interviews of opinions, the purpose of which is to identify assessments, views, judgments, interviews with specialist experts stand out, and the organization and structure of interviews with specialists differs significantly from conventional system survey. 2 According to the technique of conducting - they are divided into free, non-standardized and formalized, as well as semi-standardized interviews.
Free - a long conversation for several hours without strict detailing of questions, but according to the general program, an interview guide. Such interviews are appropriate at the exploration stage in the formulational research plan. Standardized interviews, like formalized observation, require a detailed development of the entire procedure, including the general plan of the conversation, the sequence and design of questions, and possible answers. 3 Depending on the specifics of the procedure, the interview may be intensive clinical, i. deep, sometimes lasting for hours and focused on revealing enough narrow circle respondent's reactions.
The purpose of a clinical interview is to obtain information about the internal motives, motives, inclinations of the respondent, and a focused interview is to extract information about the subject's reactions to a given impact. With its help, they study, for example, to what extent a person reacts to individual components of information from the mass press, lectures, etc. Moreover, the text of information is pre-processed by content analysis.
In a focused interview, they try to determine which semantic units of text analysis are at the center of the attention of the respondents, which are on the periphery, and which are not left in the memory at all. 4 So-called non-directed interviews are therapeutic in nature. The initiative for the flow of the conversation here belongs to the respondent himself, the interviewer only helps him pour out his soul. 5 Finally, according to the method of organization, interviews are divided into group and individual.
The former are used relatively rarely; this is a planned conversation, during which the researcher seeks to provoke a discussion in the group. the methodology for conducting reader's conferences resembles this procedure. Telephone interviews are used to quickly solicit opinions. Questioning The study of public opinion is associated mainly with the conduct of a survey. It can be said that a real questionnaire boom, questionnaire mania, has formed in the region.
This is one of the main forms, but far from the only one. Questioning, conducted for any reason, on any topic, often does not stand up to criticism and should be regarded only as a tribute to fashion. Many questionnaires are a mechanical set of contrived, often illiterately formulated, curious questions, do not give an idea of the purpose of the study, do not cause any feelings, except for bewilderment and irritation, and, accordingly, the information received practical value does not have.
Moreover, such questionnaires are sometimes provocative in nature, in themselves they are a source of the emergence and formation of perverted public opinion. So, in one of the districts, a survey was conducted among high school students about their attitude to religion. For clarity, we will give the full text of some questions of the questionnaire 1 what do you know about the origin of Jesus Christ and in your concept of god is a person b in your concept of god is a myth, fiction 2 can there be spiritual interests of believers in God, non-believers, in our life, convinced supporters of atheism, yes. b no 3 who has a positive influence on you in matters of religion a family b friends c art and church
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Public opinion as a subject of study of social psychology
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