The economic processes taking place in society are complex and confusing. To understand their trends, one has to go a long way. Economic research methods are just that. They help to understand the scientific truth of what is happening. The word "method" translated from Greek means "path to truth." Once you pass it, you can achieve your goal. In relation to economics, the end result of the study is an understanding of the patterns in economic activity at the macro level. This will help to capture the perspective that the current principles of the system will lead to.
The essence of economic research methods
Economy in real life very complex. Within one state, there are many economic sectors, which in turn consist of many enterprises of various sizes. All these entities are interconnected by financial, organizational, and technological dependencies. Changing the operating parameters of one enterprise can affect many other companies associated with it.
Each manufacturer has its own interests, and they are aimed at obtaining maximum profits. In contrast to businesses, consumers strive to purchase the highest quality products at the lowest prices.
Consumer preferences are constantly changing. All this leads to fluctuations in the economy. In order not to get lost among the variety of factors influencing reality in the economic sphere, they use various methods economic research. There are many ways to get necessary knowledge on a topic of interest. There are many paths to the goal, so you should consider them in more detail.
Research stages
Every field of science uses its own techniques to collect data. In biology and medicine, a microscope is used for these purposes; in astronomy, a telescope is used. Economics involves the use of completely different methods.
The economic research system assumes the following sequence of actions.
- Observation of the object of economic research.
- Processing of information received at the first stage. Many techniques are used for this. These include synthesis, analysis, analogy, induction, deduction, modeling, abstraction, comparison and analogy.
- Conducting experiments.
- Construction of logical and mathematical models.
A certain number of methods are used to conduct economic research. They can be general or specific to one industry.
Dialectics and metaphysics
Economics uses methods such as metaphysics and dialectics to obtain information about the object of study. The difference between these systems lies in their point of view of economic reality. 
Metaphysics considers a factor outside common system. At the time of the study, the phenomenon is at rest and does not change over time. This helps to understand the internal structure of the industry. A feature of metaphysics is the fact that the results of economic research are obtained on the basis of disparate phenomena.
Dialectics is closer to reality. The results obtained by summarizing all processes presuppose such an economic study.
The basis of dialectics are contradictions that appear in their indissoluble unity. The interaction of opposites moves processes forward like a motor. Dialectics allows you to avoid one-sided, flat judgments about reality. This contributes more to the exclusion wrong decisions.
In economics, the struggle of opposites (supply and demand, monopoly and competition, etc.) constitutes one whole, and they must be considered in their inextricable interaction. In this case, the final result of the study is closer to reality.
Data processing
Having carried out observations using the approaches discussed, we should consider more specific tools that allow us to analyze the economy.
Specific and general scientific methods are used.
Specific approaches to the study of economic relationships are applicable to a specific industry. This is a more accurate analysis. In this case, general scientific approaches are adjusted to the conditions of the research object.
Qualitative methods
General scientific methods include historical, logical, mathematical, and statistical approaches.
The historical method examines the origins of economic processes. This allows you to understand the state of the system at different periods of time. The economy is not something historically immutable. The historical approach does not allow us to identify the typical features of the system.
The logical method helps to penetrate into cause-and-effect relationships. Objective logic helps to understand the patterns of processes.
These two methods will allow you to evaluate the system from the perspective of its qualities. But modern approaches They also strive to identify the number of factors influencing the system.
Quantitative methods
Quantitative methods for studying processes include economic-mathematical and statistical research methods. 
In an effort to generalize a certain number of phenomena and factors, modern economic science resorts to mathematical expressions of indicators. Over a certain amount of time, the factors being studied change their meaning. Statistics are used to evaluate these changes.
Mathematical techniques make it possible to calculate quantitative changes in indicators that affect the result of the study. To do this, conducting basic economic research, the relevant indicators are grouped into a single system. This allows us to draw a conclusion about the influence of each of them on the final result.
Economic, mathematical and statistical methods are an integral part of the study.
Economic Linkage Study
After collecting information, it is analyzed and processed. This helps to draw conclusions about reality and predict the course of events. 
The Institute of Economic Research uses all sorts of techniques to build big picture reality. In addition to the descriptive stage of the study, knowledge of connections between elements is used. To do this, they use the method of scientific abstraction, deduction, induction, and analogy.
Economic theories are generated by creating a model of reality. Bringing existing relationships to a single predictable operating principle is the main technique in achieving the goals of economic research.
By developing a pattern according to which the system operates, it is possible to understand the state of the entire system. This is comparable to a blood test. Based on a small amount of biomaterial, a laboratory technician can judge the condition of the entire organism and predict its condition in the long term.
Method of scientific abstraction
The presented method allows you to create a model of economic reality by eliminating unimportant factors. 
The object of economic research in scientific abstraction is cleared of many private, short-term, individual characteristics.
At the end of this process, only the most reliable economic connections, only frequently occurring processes, are left for research.
There are no clear boundaries of abstraction. There are no rules regarding the extent to which a subject of research can be generalized. If you delve deeper into cutting off non-essential factors of the system, you can also eliminate indicators that influence the result of the study. Therefore, the depth of abstraction is determined intuitively, based on experience and general knowledge of the processes.
Deduction and induction
Induction and deduction complement each other. The objectives of economic research are achieved by formulating hypotheses. Induction involves the formation general principles and provisions based on private indicators. Scattered facts are reduced to theories and laws.
Deduction applies a different philosophy. By collecting data on general provisions, the state of a particular economic entity is explained. Deduction puts forward a hypothesis and tests it for correctness. If the real facts fit into the assumption being made, it is considered successful. Scientific theories are developed on this basis.
Basic economic research, limited in time, is carried out using the deductive method.
Models
In order to simplify economic reality, abstract models are drawn up for clarity.
Based on the topics of economic research, models can be presented in mathematical form, in the form of graphs or tables.
The Institute of Economic Research supplements the conclusions about the analysis of indicators with visual expressions of their relationships. The most popular of them is the graph. Words become more convincing when they are complemented by a picture of the dynamics of factors influencing the result.
The table helps to compare the quantitative indicators of the model. Using formulas, the economic and mathematical dependencies of the system are expressed.
Limit analysis method
The dependence between interacting elements of a system is sometimes assessed using the method of limit analysis.
The limit value in the presented approach acts as an additional indicator. It could be additional income enterprises, additional costs, etc.
When an additional unit of goods is sold, additional costs for its production also increase. The essence of the limit analysis method is to compare such quantities.
Depending on the topic of economic research, factors are compared, increased to maximum value. If the ratio of marginal costs and marginal revenue is more favorable than the existing indicators in reality, it is advisable for the enterprise to increase production volume. If marginal costs begin to exceed marginal benefits, increasing turnover is unprofitable.
Errors in the study
Modeling processes in economics sometimes makes a number of mistakes. These are false statements arising from the logical paths of searching for the real picture of the object. 
Among the most common mistakes highlight false construction of evidence, as well as false drawing of conclusions. Such situations must be taken into account during the research process.
Flawed proof modeling stems from the false assumption that “what is good for one will be good for others.” A clear example This situation can be caused by an increase in wages at one enterprise. This led to an increase in the consumer power of his workers. But this does not mean at all that with an increase in wages at all enterprises, people will be able to buy more goods. The latter will lead to rising prices and inflation. Purchasing power will remain the same.
The second mistake is the false construction of the effect, the cause. This happens when the third factor C is omitted or a random (unsystematic) change in A from B. For example, an increase in car prices led to an increase in sales. This is contrary to the law of demand. In the example with cars, the inflation index was not taken into account, which caused an increase in consumption when prices increased.
Therefore, when constructing economic models, maximum attention should be paid to all factors.
Research results
Existing methods of economic research, to a greater or lesser extent, contribute to the knowledge of factors and their interactions in the system.
Having received the result through a comprehensive analysis of indicators and having gone one way or another to a theoretical conclusion, it is tested in practice.
In order to avoid a large-scale mistake that will be difficult to correct, you should conduct an experiment.
It is not always possible to test the correctness of a theory in practice without causing consequences among market relations. However, having found the correct statement, you can achieve the main goal of economic research - forecasting and optimizing the process in the planning period.
By becoming familiar with the basic approaches that are used to understand economic reality, you can gain an understanding of the connections between the elements of the system. Problems economic organization societies do not tolerate frivolity and unreasonableness in their decisions. Economic research methods used in the analysis will help to minimize the risk of erroneous decisions in the field of managing market processes. Mistakes made on the path to learning the truth can be very costly at the level of macroeconomic relations.
Ministry of Education and Science of the Russian Federation
FEDERAL AGENCY FOR EDUCATION
State educational institution of higher professional education
RUSSIAN STATE TRADE AND ECONOMICS UNIVERSITY
Novosibirsk branch
Faculty of Trade and Economics
COURSE WORK
in the discipline "Economic Theory"
on the topic “Methodology for studying economic processes and phenomena”
Novosibirsk 2010
Introduction
1. Theory of studying methods of economic processes and phenomena
1.1 Basic concepts
1.2 Characteristics of basic techniques and methods economic analysis
1. Methodology analysis
2.1 Concept and types
2.2 Methodology of factor analysis
3. Ways to improve
Conclusion
Bibliography
Introduction
To properly understand the course "Economic Theory" it is necessary to determine the methods economic theory For three centuries now, economic theorists of various directions and schools have been expressing contradictory views. During this time, ideas about the sources of society's wealth, the role of the state in economic activity changed somewhat, and even the name of science itself was updated.
The first reason for studying economic theory is that this theory deals with problems that concern us all without exception: what types of work need to be done? How are they paid? How many goods can you buy per unit? wages now and during the period of galloping inflation? What is the likelihood of a time coming when a person will not be able to find a suitable job within an acceptable period?
Economic theory is designed to study and explain the processes and phenomena of economic life, and for this, economic theory must penetrate into the essence of deep processes, reveal laws and predict ways of their use.
In economic processes, one can detect two unique layers of relations between people: the first of them is superficial, externally visible, the second is internal, hidden from external observation.
The study of externally visible economic relations is naturally available to every person. Therefore, already in childhood, people develop ordinary economic thinking, which is based on direct knowledge of economic life. Such thinking, as a rule, is distinguished by its subjective nature, in which the individual psychology of a person is manifested. It is limited by a person’s personal horizons and is often based on fragmentary and one-sided information;
Economic theory strives to discover behind the external appearance of economic phenomena the essence - their internal content, as well as the cause-and-effect dependencies of some phenomena on others. Professor Paul Heine (USA) made an interesting comparison: “An economist knows the real world no better, and in most cases worse than managers, engineers, mechanics, in a word, business people. But economists know how different things are connected. Economics allows us to better understand what we see and to think more consistently and logically about a wide range of complex social relations.
The relevance of the topic lies in the fact that, without knowing the methods for studying economic phenomena, it is impossible to correctly assess this or that economic event, to calculate whether the enterprise will make a profit, or vice versa.
The purpose of the coursework is to consider methods for studying economic processes and phenomena.
Objectives of the course work: we will consider the methodology in theory, conduct an analysis, and also consider ways to improve this topic.
1. Theory of studying methods of economic processes and phenomena
1.1 Basic concepts
First, let's look at the very concept of methodology and what it includes.
The methodology of science, as is known, is the study of the principles of construction, forms and methods of scientific knowledge. Therefore, the methodology of economic theory is the science of the principles of constructing an economic system, of methods for studying economic activity.
The methodology of economic theory is the science of methods for studying economic life and economic phenomena. It presupposes the presence of a common approach to the study of economic phenomena, a common understanding of reality, and a common philosophical basis. The methodology is designed to help solve the main question: with the help of what scientific methods, methods of understanding reality, economic theory achieves true illumination of the functioning and further development of a particular economic system. In the methodology of economic theory, four main approaches can be distinguished:
1) subjectivist (from the standpoint of subjective idealism);
2) neopositivist-empirical (from the standpoint of neopositivist empiricism and skepticism);
3) rationalistic;
4) dialectical-materialistic.
With a subjectivist approach, the starting point for the analysis of economic phenomena is taken as an economic entity influencing the world, and the sovereign “I” is relatively independent, hence everyone is equal. The object of economic analysis is the behavior of the subject of the economy (“homoeconomics”), and therefore economic theory is considered as the science of human activity, determined by the boundaries of needs. The main category in this approach is need, utility. Economics becomes the theory of choice made by an economic entity from various options.
The neopositivist-empirical approach is based on a more thorough study of phenomena and their assessment. At the forefront is the technical apparatus of research, which turns from a tool into a subject of knowledge (mathematical apparatus, econometrics, cybernetics, etc.), and the result of the research is various kinds of empirical models, which are the main categories here. This approach involves dividing microeconomics - economic problems at the firm and industry level and macroeconomics - economic problems on a societal scale.
The rationalistic approach aims to discover the “natural” or rational laws of civilization. This requires research into the economic system as a whole, economic laws governing this system, studying the economic “anatomy” of society. The economic tables of F. Quesnay are the pinnacle of this approach. The purpose of human economic activity is the desire to obtain benefit, but the purpose of economic theory is not the study human behavior, but the study of the laws governing the production and distribution of the social product (D. Ricardo). This approach recognizes the division of society into classes, which is different from the subjectivist approach, which represents society as a set of equal subjects. The main attention in this approach is paid to cost, price, and economic laws.
The dialectical-materialistic approach is considered the only correct one in solving scientific problems on the basis not of empirical positivism (experience), but of objective analysis characterizing the internal connections of phenomena that exist in reality. Economic processes and phenomena constantly arise, develop and are destroyed, i.e. are in constant motion, and this is their dialectic. Methodology must not be mixed with methods - tools, a set of research techniques in science and their reproduction in the system of economic categories and laws.
The characteristic features of the method of economic analysis are: a) determination of a system of indicators that comprehensively characterize economic activity organizations;
b) establishing the subordination of indicators with the identification of total effective factors and factors (major and secondary) influencing them;
c) identifying the form of relationship between factors;
d) selection of techniques and methods for studying the relationship;
e) quantitative measurement of the influence of factors on the aggregate indicator.
The set of techniques and methods that are used in the study of economic processes constitutes the methodology of economic analysis. The methodology of economic analysis is based on the intersection of three areas of knowledge: economics, statistics and mathematics. Economic methods of analysis include comparison, grouping, balance sheet and graphical methods. Statistical methods include the use of average and relative values, the index method, correlation and regression analysis, etc. Mathematical methods can be divided into three groups: economic (matrix methods, theory of production functions, theory of input-output balance); methods of economic cybernetics and optimal programming (linear, nonlinear, dynamic programming); methods for researching operations and decision making (graph theory, game theory, queuing theory).
1.2 Characteristics of the basic techniques and methods of economic analysis
Comparison is a comparison of the data being studied and the facts of economic life. There is a distinction between horizontal comparative analysis, which is used to determine the absolute and relative deviations of the actual level of the indicators under study from the baseline. Vertical comparative analysis used to study the structure of economic phenomena; trend analysis used in studying the relative rates of growth and increase in indicators over a number of years to the level of the base year, i.e. when studying dynamic series.
A prerequisite for a comparative analysis is the comparability of the compared indicators, which presupposes:
· unity of volume, cost, quality, structural indicators; · unity of time periods for which comparison is made; · comparability of production conditions and comparability of the methodology for calculating indicators.
Average values are calculated on the basis of mass data on qualitatively homogeneous phenomena. They help determine general patterns and trends in the development of economic processes.
Groupings – used to study dependencies in complex phenomena, the characteristics of which are reflected by homogeneous indicators and different values (characteristics of the equipment fleet by commissioning time, by place of operation, by shift ratio, etc.)
The balance method consists of comparing and measuring two sets of indicators tending to a certain balance. As a result, it allows us to identify a new analytical (balancing) indicator. For example, when analyzing the supply of raw materials to an enterprise, the need for raw materials, sources of covering the need are compared and a balancing indicator is determined - a shortage or excess of raw materials.
As an auxiliary, balance method is used to check the results of calculations of the influence of factors on the resulting aggregate indicator. If the sum of the influence of factors on a performance indicator is equal to its deviation from the base value, then, therefore, the calculations were carried out correctly. Lack of equality indicates incomplete consideration of factors or mistakes made:
where y is the effective indicator; x – factors; /> – deviation of the performance indicator due to factor xi.
The balance method is also used to determine the size of the influence of individual factors on the change in the performance indicator, if the influence of other factors is known:
Graphic method. Graphs are large-scale representations of indicators and their dependencies using geometric shapes.
The graphical method has no independent meaning in the analysis, but is used to illustrate measurements.
The index method is based on relative indicators that express the ratio of the level of a given phenomenon to its level taken as a basis for comparison. Statistics names several types of indices that are used in analysis: aggregate, arithmetic, harmonic, etc.
By using index recalculations and constructing a time series characterizing, for example, the output of industrial products in value terms, it is possible to analyze dynamic phenomena in a qualified manner.
The method of correlation and regression (stochastic) analysis is widely used to determine the closeness of the relationship between indicators that are not functionally dependent, i.e. The connection does not appear in each individual case, but in a certain dependence.
With the help of correlation, two main problems are solved:
· a model of the operating factors is compiled (regression equation);
· a quantitative assessment of the closeness of connections is given (correlation coefficient).
Matrix models are a schematic reflection of an economic phenomenon or process using scientific abstraction. The most widely used method here is “input-output” analysis, which is built according to a checkerboard pattern and allows the relationship of costs and production results to be presented in the most compact form.
Mathematical programming is the main means of solving problems for optimizing production and economic activities.
The operations research method is aimed at studying economic systems, including production and economic activities of enterprises, in order to determine such a combination of structural interconnected elements of systems that will best allow determining the best economic indicator from a number of possible ones.
Game theory as a branch of operations research is the theory of mathematical models of adoption optimal solutions in conditions of uncertainty or conflict between several parties with different interests.
2. Methodology analysis
2.1 Concept and types
Analysis is the mental division of the phenomenon being studied into its component parts and the study of each of these parts separately. Through synthesis, economic theory recreates a single, holistic picture.
Widely used: induction and deduction. Through induction (guidance), a transition is ensured from the study of individual facts to general provisions and conclusions. Deduction (inference) makes it possible to move from general conclusions to relatively specific ones. Analysis and synthesis, induction and deduction are used in unity by economic theory. Their combination provides a systematic (integrated) approach to complex (multi-element) phenomena of economic life.
An important place in the study of economic phenomena and processes is occupied by historical and logical methods. They do not oppose each other, but are applied in unity, since the starting point of historical research coincides, in general, with the starting point of logical research. However, the logical (theoretical) study of economic phenomena and processes is not a mirror image of the historical process. In the specific conditions of a particular country, economic phenomena may arise that are not necessary for the prevailing economic system. If they actually (historically) take place, then they can be ignored in theoretical analysis. We can take our minds off them. A historian cannot ignore this kind of phenomenon. He must describe them.
Using the historical method, economics studies economic processes and phenomena in the sequence in which they arose in life itself, developed and were replaced by one another. This approach allows us to concretely and clearly present the features of various economic systems.
The historical method shows that in nature and society development proceeds from simple to complex. In relation to the subject of economics, this means that in the entire set of economic phenomena and processes it is necessary to highlight first of all the simplest ones, which arise earlier than others and form the basis for the emergence of more complex ones. For example, in market analysis, such an economic phenomenon is the exchange of goods.
Economic processes and phenomena are characterized by qualitative and quantitative certainty. Therefore, economic theory ( political Economy) widely uses mathematical and statistical techniques and research tools that make it possible to identify the quantitative side of processes and phenomena of economic life, their transition to a new quality. At the same time, it is widely used Computer Engineering. The method of economic and mathematical modeling plays a special role here. This method, being one of system methods research allows us to determine in a formalized form the causes of changes in economic phenomena, the patterns of these changes, their consequences, opportunities and costs of influence, and also makes forecasting economic processes realistic. Using this method, economic models are created.
An economic model is a formalized description of an economic process or phenomenon, the structure of which is determined by its objective properties and the subjective target nature of the study.
In connection with the construction of models, it is important to note the role of functional analysis in economic theory.
Functions are variable quantities that depend on other variables.
Functions are found in our Everyday life, and we most often do not realize it. They take place in engineering, physics, geometry, chemistry, economics, etc. In relation to economics, for example, we can note the functional relationship between price and demand. Demand depends on price. If the price of a product increases, the quantity demanded for it, other things being equal, decreases. In this case, price is an independent variable, or argument, and demand is a dependent variable, or function. Thus, we can briefly say that demand is a function of price. But demand and price can change places. The higher the demand, the higher the price, other things being equal. Therefore, the price can be a function of demand.
Economic-mathematical modeling as a method of economic theory became widespread in the 20th century. However, the element of subjectivity in constructing economic models sometimes leads to errors. Nobel Prize laureate French economist Maurice Alleille wrote in 1989 that for 40 years economic science has been developing in the wrong direction: towards completely artificial and divorced from life mathematical models with a predominance of mathematical formalism, which, in fact, represents a big step back.
Most models and principles of economic theory can be expressed graphically, in the form of mathematical equations, so when studying economic theory it is important to know mathematics and be able to compile and read graphs.
Graphs are depictions of the relationship between two or more variables.
The dependence can be linear (i.e. constant), then the graph is a straight line located at an angle between two axes - vertical (usually denoted by the letter Y) and horizontal (X).
If the graph line goes from left to right in a descending direction, then there is a feedback relationship between the two variables (for example, as the price of a product decreases, the volume of its sales usually increases). If the graph line goes in an ascending direction, then the relationship is direct (for example, as the cost of production of a product increases, it usually increases prices for it -). The dependence may be nonlinear (i.e., changing), then the graph takes the form of a curved line (for example, as inflation decreases, unemployment tends to increase - the Phillips curve).
Within the framework of the graphical approach, diagrams are widely used - drawings showing the relationship between indicators. They can be circular, columnar, etc.
The diagrams clearly demonstrate the indicators of the models and their relationships. When analyzing economic problems, positive and normative analysis are often used. Positive analysis gives us the opportunity to see economic phenomena and processes as they really are: what was or what could be. Positive statements do not have to be true, but any dispute regarding a positive statement can be resolved by checking the facts. Normative analysis is based on the study of what should be and how it should be. A normative statement is most often derived from a positive one, but objective facts cannot prove its truth or falsity. In normative analysis, assessments are made - fair or unfair, bad or good, acceptable or unacceptable.
2.2 Methodology of factor analysis
All phenomena and processes of economic activity of enterprises are interconnected and interdependent. Some of them are directly related to each other, others indirectly. Hence, an important methodological issue in economic analysis is the study and measurement of the influence of factors on the value of the economic indicators under study.
Economic factor analysis is understood as a gradual transition from the initial factor system to the final factor system, the disclosure of a full set of direct, quantitatively measurable factors that influence the change in the performance indicator. The nature of the relationship between indicators distinguishes between methods of deterministic isochastic factor analysis.
Deterministic factor analysis is a technique for studying the influence of factors whose connection with the resultant indicator is functional in nature.
The main properties of the deterministic approach to analysis: construction of a deterministic model through logical analysis; the presence of a complete (hard) connection between indicators; the impossibility of separating the results of the influence of simultaneously acting factors that cannot be combined in one model; studying relationships in the short term. There are four types of deterministic models:
Additive models represent an algebraic sum of indicators and have the form
Such models, for example, include cost indicators in relation to production cost elements and cost items; an indicator of the volume of production in its relationship with the volume of output of individual products or the volume of output in individual departments.
Multiplicative models in a generalized form can be represented by the formula
An example of a multiplicative model is a two-factor model of sales volume
where H is the average number of employees;
CB - average output per employee.
Multiple models:
An example of a multiple model is the indicator of the turnover period of goods (in days). TOB.T:
where ST is the average stock of goods; OR - one-day sales volume.
Mixed models are a combination of the above models and can be described using special expressions:
Examples of such models are cost indicators per 1 ruble. commercial products, profitability indicators, etc.
To study the relationship between indicators and quantitatively measure the many factors that influenced the effective indicator, we present general rules transforming models to include new factor indicators.
To detail the generalizing factor indicator into its components, which are of interest for analytical calculations, the technique of lengthening the factor system is used.
If the original factor model
then the model will take the form
To identify a certain number of new factors and construct the factor indicators necessary for calculations, the technique of expanding factor models is used. In this case, the numerator and denominator are multiplied by the same number:
To construct new factor indicators, the technique of reducing factor models is used. When using this technique, the numerator and denominator are divided by the same number.
The detail of factor analysis is largely determined by the number of factors whose influence can be quantitatively assessed, therefore great importance in the analysis they have multifactor multiplicative models. Their construction is based on the following principles: the place of each factor in the model must correspond to its role in the formation of the performance indicator; the model should be built from a two-factor full model by sequentially dividing factors, usually qualitative, into components; When writing a formula for a multifactor model, factors should be arranged from left to right in the order in which they are replaced.
Construction of a factor model is the first stage of deterministic analysis. Next, determine the method for assessing the influence of factors.
The method of chain substitutions consists in determining a series of intermediate values of the generalizing indicator by sequentially replacing the basic values of the factors with the reporting ones. This method based on elimination. Eliminate means to eliminate, exclude the influence of all factors on the value of the effective indicator, except one. Moreover, based on the fact that all factors change independently of each other, i.e. First, one factor changes, and all the others remain unchanged. then two change while the others remain unchanged, etc.
IN general view The application of the chain production method can be described as follows:
where a0, b0, c0 are the basic values of factors influencing the general indicator y;
a1, b1, c1 - actual values of factors;
ya, yb,- intermediate changes the resulting indicator associated with changes in factors a, b, respectively.
The total change Dу=у1–у0 consists of the sum of changes in the resulting indicator due to changes in each factor with fixed values of the other factors:
The advantages of this method: versatility of application, ease of calculations.
The disadvantage of the method is that, depending on the chosen order of factor replacement, the results of factor decomposition have different meanings. This is due to the fact that as a result of applying this method, a certain indecomposable residue is formed, which is added to the magnitude of the influence of the last factor. In practice, the accuracy of factor assessment is neglected, highlighting the relative importance of the influence of one or another factor. However, there are certain rules that determine the sequence of substitution: if there are quantitative and qualitative indicators in the factor model, the change in quantitative factors is considered first; if the model is represented by several quantitative and qualitative indicators, the substitution sequence is determined by logical analysis.
In analysis, quantitative factors are understood as those that express the quantitative certainty of phenomena and can be obtained by direct accounting (number of workers, machines, raw materials, etc.).
Qualitative factors determine the internal qualities, signs and characteristics of the phenomena being studied (labor productivity, product quality, average working hours, etc.).
The absolute difference method is a modification of the chain substitution method. The change in the effective indicator due to each factor using the method of differences is defined as the product of the deviation of the factor under study and the basic or reporting value of another factor, depending on the selected substitution sequence:
The method of relative differences is used to measure the influence of factors on the growth of an effective indicator in multiplicative and mixed models of the form y = (a - c). With. It is used in cases where the source data contains previously determined relative deviations of factor indicators in percentages.
For multiplicative models like y = a. V. The analysis technique is as follows: find relative deviation each factor indicator:
determine the deviation of the performance indicator y due to each factor
The integral method allows you to avoid the disadvantages inherent in the chain substitution method and does not require the use of techniques for distributing the indecomposable remainder among factors, because it has a logarithmic law of redistribution of factor loads. The integral method makes it possible to achieve a complete decomposition of the effective indicator into factors that are universal in nature, i.e. Applicable to multiplicative, multiple and mixed models. The operation of calculating a definite integral is solved using a PC and is reduced to constructing integrand expressions that depend on the type of function or model of the factor system.
2. Ways of improvement
Economic theory is the methodological foundation of a whole complex of sciences: sectoral (economics of trade, industry, transport, construction, etc.); functional (finance, credit, marketing, management, forecasting, etc.); intersectoral (economic geography, demography, statistics and etc.).Economic theory is one of the social sciences, along with history, philosophy, law, etc. It is designed to reveal one part of social phenomena in human life, the science of law - another, the science of morality - a third, etc., and only the totality of theoretical , social and historical sciences are able to explain the functioning of social life. Economic theory takes into account the knowledge inherent in specific economic sciences, as well as sociology, psychology, history, etc., without taking into account which its conclusions may turn out to be erroneous.
The connection between economic theory and other economic sciences in the most general form can be presented in the form of the following diagram (Scheme 1).
Scheme 1
Practical significance of economic theory ( famous formula O. Comte) is that knowledge leads to foresight, and foresight leads to action. Economic theory should underlie economic policy, and through it, permeate the area of economic practice. Action (practice) leads to knowledge, knowledge - to foresight, foresight - to right action. Economic theory is not a set of rules on how to become rich. It does not provide ready-made answers to all questions. Theory is only a tool, a way of understanding economic reality. Mastery of this tool, knowledge of the fundamentals of economic theory can help everyone do right choice in many life situations. Therefore, there is no need to dwell on the knowledge achieved, but to constantly look for ways to improve this knowledge.
Conclusion
In this course work, we examined the basic concepts of methodology and identified four main approaches to methodology in economic theory. They characterized the main techniques and methods of economic analysis, examined the concept and methodology of factor analysis. We concluded that it is better to use research methods comprehensively in order to see the results more clearly.
Today a person cannot consider himself involved in education and culture if he has not studied and understood the laws social development, did not master the knowledge of economic theory. After all, economic theory is not a set of rules on how to become rich. She does not give ready answers to all questions. Theory is just a tool, a way of understanding economic reality. Mastery of this tool and knowledge of the basics of economic theory can help everyone make the right choice in many life situations. Therefore, you do not need to stop at the knowledge you have achieved, but constantly look for ways to improve this knowledge.
In conclusion, I would like to quote the words of J. Keynes that “the ideas of economists and political thinkers, both when they are right and when they are wrong, have much greater significance than is commonly thought. In reality, they are the only ones who rule the world.” It follows from this that the problems of the economic organization of society are serious things that require study and which cannot be taken lightly.
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5. Richard Jacques. Audit and analysis of the economic activities of the enterprise. –M.: Audit. UNITY, 1997.
6. Savitskaya G.V. Analysis of the economic activity of an agro-industrial complex enterprise: Textbook. – Mn.: IP “Ecoperspective”, 1999.
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The concept of method comes from Greek word methodos, which means the path to something, the path of knowledge or research as a method of science, it means a set or system of techniques and operations used by economists to collect, systematize and analyze economic facts, phenomena and processes. First, an economist studies and collects facts and phenomena related to the consideration of an economic problem. Next, he systematizes the collected facts and phenomena, discovers logical economic connections between them, makes generalizations, and studies their interactions.
In economic research, methods of induction and deduction are used. By induction we mean the derivation of principles, laws, and the analysis of facts. The method of induction means the progression of thoughts from the analysis of facts to theory from the particular to the general. The reverse process, that is, when economists study certain problems, starting from theory to individual facts and testing or rejecting theoretical positions, is called deduction. Induction and deduction are not opposite, but complementary research methods.
When studying economic phenomena and processes, the method of abstraction is widely used, which means purifying our ideas from the random, isolated and isolating from them the stable, typical. So, abstractions are generalizations. In economics it has practical significance. A correct theory is based on an analysis of facts and is realistic. Theories that do not agree with facts are anti-scientific; application often leads to distortions in economic policy.
An important means of understanding economic processes and phenomena is the use of methods of analysis and synthesis. Analysis involves dividing an object (phenomenon or process) into its component parts, identifying individual aspects and features. Synthesis, on the contrary, means the combination of previously disparate parts and sides into integrity. Analysis contributes to the disclosure of the essential in the phenomenon, and synthesis completes the disclosure of the essence, makes it possible to show in what forms this phenomenon is inherent in economic reality, and leads to generalization.
The scientific study of economic phenomena also involves a combination of logical and historical approaches to the study of economic processes and phenomena. This means that it is necessary to consider the conditions in which the phenomenon began to develop, how it changed under the influence of changing historical conditions. Logical changes are those that do not contradict logical principles, and if they contradict, then we need to look for the reason for this.
The final link in the knowledge of economic processes and phenomena, the criterion of truth, is social practice
The use of graphs and tables when studying economic phenomena and processes deserves special attention. Graphs and tables are tools from which certain conclusions are drawn and certain trends are identified. Based on the table, certain generalizations are made. Graphs are a tool with which economists express their theories and models. They show the relationship between two groups of economic facts. Therefore, such simple and two-dimensional graphs are a convenient means of demonstrating the relationships between economic phenomena, for example, between income and consumption, prices and demand, prices and supply of goods, etc.
Economics is divided into macroeconomics and microeconomics. This division is due to the fact that economic phenomena and processes can be studied at the macro and micro levels. Microeconomics studies the activities of individual economic units in relation to various economic entities. She examines the structure of their costs and income, indicators of economic activity, problems of organizing production, sales, management, use of income and other problems of enterprise development. Microeconomics also examines the activities of households as providers of resources, recipients of income, and consumers of goods and services.
Macroeconomics studies economic activity on the scale of the national economy, its regions, national economic complexes, spheres and industries, and the world economy. Based on the study of macroeconomic processes, state forecasting and programming is developed, social insurance, price and tax policy, lending, customs policy and more. Separation economic science in economics and macroeconomics is conditional. Microeconomic processes are closely intertwined with macroeconomic ones; it is almost impossible to clearly distinguish between them.
All economic sciences are divided into two types: theoretical and practical. Theoretical are sciences that study laws and significant economic relationships in real activities at the macro level. These include political economy, macro- and microeconomics. Applied - sciences that study how economic laws and interdependencies manifest themselves in specific areas and areas of economics. These include, for example, the economics of industry, transport, agriculture, and trade.
Target: Study of basic economic categories, methods of economic analysis
Plan:
Methods for studying economic processes. Economic categories and laws
Positive and normative economics
Keywords: Economic categories, economic laws, positive economic science, normative economic science.
Lecture abstracts :
Methods for studying economic processes. Logics scientific research determined by the totality methods, used in scientific knowledge. In this regard, there is a distinction between general scientific and specific methods.
General scientific these are methods that are used in the study of any science: mathematics, physics, chemistry, biology, psychology, sociology, economics, etc. Let us consider them in more detail (see Fig. 1.1).
Rice. 1.1. General scientific methods: their structure
Dialectical method. Dialectics is the science of development. In this regard, the dialectical method involves answering the following questions: Why did this phenomenon arise? How will it develop? And why is it sooner or later replaced by a new phenomenon? The essence of dialectics is that “everything flows” everything changes." Scientists-economists, like scientists of all other sciences, use the method of dialectics as a general scientific method.
If scientists see the basis for changes in social phenomena in the objective, or independent of the will and consciousness of man, then in scientific analysis used materialistic method. Combined with dialectics, it represents the method of dialectical materialism, or the method of materialist dialectics. This method is used in Marxist studies.
If scientists see the basis of changes in the subjective, or dependent on the will and consciousness of people, then there is idealistic method.
Specific these are methods that are used both by economic theory and other humanities: history, psychology, sociology, etc. These include: methods of abstraction, deduction and induction, analysis and synthesis, unity of logical and historical, critical method, mathematical and statistical analysis, graphical representation, etc. Let's look at some of them.
Abstraction method. Abstraction exclusion from economic analysis of specific facts not related to the study. To understand this method, imagine abstract painting. And everything will be clear to you. Economic theories, like abstract painting, do not reflect all the forms and colors of reality. Therefore, economic theories inevitably become abstract. The very process of collecting the necessary facts already presupposes abstraction from reality. However, the abstract nature of economic theory does not make the theory impractical or unrealistic. No! In fact, economic theories are practical precisely because they are abstractions. The world of reality is too complex and confusing to be presented as strictly ordered. Economists build their theories by abstracting from a chaotic set of facts, which would otherwise be misleading and would not bring any benefit, that is, in order to bring the facts into a more useful, rational form. Thus, abstraction, or deliberate simplification, in economic analysis has not only scientific, but also practical significance. Economic theory is a kind of model, an abstract picture the entire economy or any sector of the economy. This model allows us to better understand reality precisely because it ignores confusing details. If theories are based not on fiction, but on facts, then they are always realistic.
Method of deduction and induction. Deductive or hypothetical method this is a movement ineconomic analysis from general to specific, from theory to facts. Thus, economists often solve their problem from the level of theory, and then test or reject the given theory by turning to the facts. Scientists may rely on chance observation, speculation, logic, or intuition to formulate a tentative, untested principle called hypothesis. For example, they may suggest, based on “armchair logic,” that it is advisable for consumers to buy a large number of product when price on him is low, not when she is high. The correctness of this hypothesis must then be tested by systematic and repeated examination of the relevant facts. Hypotheses formulated by the deductive method serve as guidelines for the economist in collecting and systematizing empirical data. In turn, the well-known idea of the facts, about real world is a prerequisite for the formulation of new theories or hypotheses. In this case, the opposite is used inductive method movement from the particular to the general, or from facts to theory. This means that an economic scientist accumulates facts for the purpose of deriving theories or principles from them. Methods of deduction and induction are not opposed to each other, but complementary methods of research.
The reliability of economic analysis largely depends on the extent to which the method of analysis and synthesis is used.
Method of analysis and synthesis. Analysis involves the splitting of economic phenomena into simple processes and individual phenomena. The analysis method establishes the causes and consequences of these phenomena. Then the individual processes and phenomena subjected to analysis are combined or, as it were, synthesized into a whole. Synthesis combining the studied individual parts of a phenomenon into a single whole. This allows us to develop new categories,laws, principles, etc.
Method of unity of historical and logical. It is based on the fact that all social phenomena have their own history, and, accordingly, it is necessary to trace their historical chain, or life, through the stages, and only then build a clear, logically substantiated relationship between the phenomena, reflecting in a concentrated form the historical process of the emergence and development of this phenomenon .
The method of assumption is ceteris paribus, or “other things being equal.” Economists, in constructing their theories, assume that all other variables, except those they are currently considering, remain unchanged. This method simplifies the process of analyzing the relationship under study. In the natural sciences, it is usually possible to conduct control experiments in which “all other conditions” are actually held constant or essentially unchanged. In this case, the scientist can subject the supposed relationship between two variables to empirical testing with great accuracy. However Economic theory is not a laboratory or experimental science. It is impossible to achieve such precision as, say, in space research, in economic analysis. The economist's process of empirical testing is based on "real life" data, but the end result does not always coincide with the theoretical conclusion. During the actual functioning of the economy, in this rather chaotic environment, “other conditions” often change, and, accordingly, the goal, theoretically justified, is not achieved in concrete life. This method, as it were, clarifies and complements the method of abstraction, as a result of which together they can lead to theoretical generalizations, or economic principles.
Economic principle generalization of motives and practices of economic behavior of individuals and institutions.
So, first the economist identifies and collects facts that are relevant to the consideration of a particular economic problem. This task is sometimes called “descriptive or empirical economics” (Figure 1.2, Box 1). The economist also establishes economic principles, that is, he derives generalizations regarding the actual behavior of individuals and institutions. Deriving principles from facts is called economic theory, or “economic analysis” (Fig. 1.2, block 2).
Rice. 1.2. The relationship between facts, principles and policies in economics
The task of economic theory, or economic analysis, is to organize and summarize facts and, ultimately, to bring order and meaning to a set of facts by relating them together, establishing proper relationships between them, and deducing certain generalizations from them. Theory without facts empty, but facts without theory are meaningless.
Principles and theories are meaningful generalizations based on the analysis of facts, but, in turn, facts serve as a constant test of the correctness of already established principles. Facts, i.e. the actual behavior of individuals and institutions in the process production,exchange And consumptiongoods and services change over time. Therefore, it is necessary to constantly compare existing principles and theories with the changing economic environment.
The history of economic ideas is replete with once-true generalizations of economic behavior that have become obsolete as the course of events has changed.
When starting to study any problem or economic sectors, economists must apply the inductive method by which they collect, systematize and generalize facts. Against, deductive method involves putting forward hypotheses, which are then compared with facts. The generalizations obtained from any of these methods are useful not only for explaining economic behavior, but also for developing economic policy.
Finally, a general understanding of economic behavior, which is formed on the basis of economic principles, can then be used to develop economic policy a set of measures or solutions that ensure the implementation of the problem under consideration. This latter process is sometimes called “applied economics,” or economic policy (Figure 1.2, Box 3).
Method of mathematical and statistical analysis. Mathematical analysis formalized description of economic phenomena based on mathematical tools formulas. When conducting economic research, due to the widespread use of computers, it became possible to translate economic processes into mathematical language - the language of the most severe logic and reason. Using mathematics in economic theory its heyday began, a new breath appeared in economic analysis, the so-called MODELS. Although the model provides a simplified or schematic expression of economic life, it clearly reflects the interconnection of processes and phenomena. An equally important role is played statistical analysis description of the economy based on quantitative indicators. Economic analysis based on statistics provides the foundation for building realistic economic forecasts.
Graphic image knowledge of economic phenomena in two dimensions through the system of abscissas and ordinates. This is also one of the important methods of understanding economic life. In this book, some economic theories will be expressed graphically.
2. Positive and normative economics. The word “Economy” comes from a Greek word meaning “house”, “rule”, “housekeeping”. Economics is the study of how societies use scarce resources to produce useful products and distribute them among different groups of people. If the subject of science reveals what is known, then the method reveals how it is known.
Economic phenomena do not occur in their pure form; they are part of complex social life. Therefore, abstraction is used as the main method of understanding them. “Product”, “money”, “price”, “capital”, “profit” and the like are economic categories, they provide the logical “skeleton” of economic theory. Facts are the initial basis for knowledge of economic theory. They move along the path: collection of facts → description → concept → theory.
Theory is a holistic, systemic knowledge about the subject of science, expressed by a system of categories, principles, laws.
General economic theory is divided into four groups:
1) sectoral (economics of agriculture, transport);
2) functional sciences (accounting, finance, marketing,
economic statistics);
3) local (regional);
4) history of economics.
Economic science uses general scientific and specific research methods. The word "method" translated from Greek means "the path to something." The methods of economic science not only reflect the known laws of the world of economic reality, but also act as a means of its further knowledge.
The world of economic reality is complex and confusing; the task of economic theory is to systematize a chaotic set of facts. Economic theory establishes connections between facts, generalizes them and derives certain patterns on this basis. In constructing patterns, we use following methods knowledge:
1. Positive method- this is an objective description and systematization of the facts of economic reality.
2. Practice shows that in economics there is also an opposite approach - normative analysis, which involves the use of assumptions and value judgments that reflect the subjective position of the economist. The presence of normative analysis is associated with the humanitarian nature of economic science and with its fulfillment of an ideological function.
3. General scientific method of analysis involves dividing the object under study into individual elements. The selected elements are examined from different angles, the main and essential things are highlighted in them.
4. Synthesis- a method opposite to analysis, which involves combining the studied elements and aspects of the subject into a single whole. In the course of analysis and synthesis, dependencies between economic processes and phenomena, cause-and-effect relationships are established, and patterns are identified.
5. Method of scientific abstraction- this is the beginning of any research, including economic research, which consists in abstracting from the unimportant, highlighting the most important facts and relationships in the economy.
6. Assumption“other things being equal” (ceteris paribus) is used in the process of analysis and synthesis. It means that only the phenomena and relationships under study change, and all other phenomena and relationships are assumed unchanged.
7. Analogy – a method based on comparison of the object under study with other objects.
8. Method of mathematical modeling- description of the studied economic phenomena using mathematical signs and symbols. Variables that change their value under the influence of various factors are designated by standard alphabetic symbols. For example, in Latin letters R the price is indicated D – demand, S – supply, etc. If two variables of economic research x And y are connected by a functional dependence, then in mathematical language this means that y is a function: x [y=f(x)].
For economic analysis, it is not enough to show this dependence; it is also necessary to reveal how they are connected, i.e., how the y depending on change x . The nature of the relationship between two quantities is most clearly determined by the graphical form of the functions. In economic theory, the Cartesian coordinate system, traditional for mathematics, is widely used, which represents two mutually perpendicular axes: the ordinate axis and the abscissa axis. The dependence of the two quantities will be reflected by a curve (with a certain degree of approximation). And the more initial data for constructing the graph, the more accurately the curve will describe the nature of the dependence of these quantities (all other variables are fixed).
Economic theory derives laws based on two levels of analysis: microeconomic and macroeconomic. In microeconomic analysis, specific economic units are examined: a separate industry, a specific company, or the economic performance of an individual company. Microeconomic analysis is necessary to look at the specific components of an economic system.
Macroeconomic analysis is used to study the economy as a whole, or its main components, which are called aggregate indicators (for example, the public sector, national product, national income). Macroeconomic analysis is used to characterize the overall picture of the economy or the relationships between individual aggregates. Therefore, macroeconomic analysis operates on such quantities as gross output, gross income, general price level, etc.
Although in micro = and macro analysis economic phenomena are considered under different angles viewpoints, research methods and tools are the same.
The use of micro = and macroeconomic analysis does not mean a sharp division of economic theory into separate sections, when some topics relate to microeconomics and others to macroeconomics. IN last years In important areas of analysis, micro= and macroeconomics merge. For example, modern unemployment is not only a problem of macroeconomic analysis. To determine the level, it is important to analyze the functioning of a specific product market and labor market.