Mathematical methods for improving forms of organizational behavior. behavior of individuals in an organization. The role of the manager in carrying out changes in the organization

Question 21. Organizational behavior as a science. Organizational behavior and management.

Organizational behavior as a science is the study of the many factors that influence how individuals and their groups react and act in organizations and how organizations manage the external environment in which they operate. Understanding how people behave in organizations is important because most people work in an organization at one time or another in their lives, and their behavior is fully influenced by their previous work experiences. The study of organizational behavior provides guidance that helps both managers and employees understand and evaluate the many forces that influence the behavior of people in organizations and make the right decisions to motivate and coordinate the activities of employees and use other resources to achieve their goals.

The study of organizational behavior provides a set of tools in the form of concepts and theories that help people understand, analyze and describe what happens in organizations and explain why it happens. Such basic concepts and theories of organizational behavior allow us to correctly understand, describe and analyze how individual characteristics of people, groups, work situations or the organization itself affect how people feel and how they act in that organization. The main difficulty for all managers is the problem of how to encourage all members of the organization to work effectively and happily, so that this is beneficial to themselves, the groups in which they work, and the entire organization as a whole.

Organizational behavior is a set of tools allowing:

1. Employees – understand, analyze and describe the behavior of people in the organization.

2. Managers - improve, expand or change employee behavior so that individuals, groups and the organization as a whole can achieve their goals.

A good knowledge of organizational behavior is essential for employees at all levels of the organization because it helps them better assess situations at work and understand how they should behave in order to achieve their own goals (for example, promotion or higher income). But knowledge of organizational behavior is especially important for managers. Much of a manager's job involves using organizational behavior research and the tools and techniques developed from that research to improve the organization's performance and ability to achieve its goals. A goal is a desired future outcome that an organization is trying to achieve.

In addition to providing tools that managers can use to enhance their ability to perform their functions, the study of organizational behavior can also help managers improve their proficiency in managing organizational behavior. Skill is the ability to do a job well. To effectively perform organizational functions Managers need to have three main components of excellence: conceptual, human and technical.

1. Conceptual mastery allows the manager to diagnose and analyze the situation and identify the main cause-and-effect relationships in it. Planning and organization require high level conceptual mastery and effective decision making.

2.Human experience allows the manager to understand the behavior of other people and groups, interact with them, direct them and control them.

3.Technical qualification- this is specific working knowledge and techniques that a manager must possess professionally, for example, experience in production, accounting or marketing. The specific technical qualifications required by each manager are determined by the nature of the organization in which he works, as well as his position within it.

Question 22. Problems of organizational behavior

Organizational behavior is a science that studies the behavior of people (individuals and groups) in organizations with the aim of practical use of the acquired knowledge to improve the efficiency of a person’s work activity.

Human behavior at work is much more complex and varied than is assumed by the “economy - safety - working conditions” scheme. The new view is that workers are much more complex entities, and theoretical understanding of empirical research is needed before developing applied methods of managing people. The traditional "human relations" approach no longer plays a dominant role in the behavioral dimension of management. Few would dispute the fact that the organizational behavior approach, with all the knowledge associated with it, dominates the behavioral dimension of management today and will remain so for the foreseeable future.

The field of organizational behavior is beginning to develop and take on the characteristics of a mature academic discipline. However, as in other young fields of knowledge, difficulties and deviations are also encountered here. In addition to scientific discussions on theoretical approaches and research results, we also had to face a crisis in the definition of concepts.

OP is characterized by a theoretical orientation, and focuses on the analysis of phenomena at the micro level. OP is based on many theories from other behavioral sciences that focus on the behavior of individuals and groups in organizations.

The social, cultural and technological changes occurring in the modern world create many challenges for men and women whose job responsibilities require them to manage organizational behavior. Some of these issues include managing human resources for competitive advantage, developing organizational ethics and employee welfare, managing a diverse workforce, and managing a global environment.

The study of organizational behavior can help managers achieve these goals, each of which is part of an overall package that companies use to manage human resources to achieve competitive advantage.

Question 23: Individual differences in people's approaches to work. (Big Five personality model and other organizationally relevant personality traits)

Individuality is a type of relatively stable manifestation of how a person feels, thinks and behaves. The relative stability of personality suggests that it remains stable for a long time) and can only change over many years. Because of this, managers should not expect to be able to change employees' personality in a short time. Individuality is an important factor in explaining why employees in an organization act the way they do and why they exhibit positive or negative attitudes toward their work or toward the organization. It is known that personality influences career choice, job satisfaction, stress level, leadership and some other aspects.

Modern changes in the environment have led to a change in management paradigm. The new approach consists in recognizing the primacy of the individual in the organization, his knowledge, and skills for effective operation.

An individual who comes to work in an organization assumes a number of restrictions on his behavior dictated by the regulations, the norms of this organization, and the corporate code of conduct. In the 20th century the employer entered into a moral contract with the employee, according to which, in exchange for loyalty to the organization and willingness to follow instructions, the employee received guarantees of employment, career growth, and material remuneration.

Today, employers need knowledge much more than simple performance discipline. The ability to learn begins to be valued over devotion. As a result, a new type of organizational contract appears, which has the nature of a commercial partnership: the parties undertake to interact as long as it is beneficial to each of them, but to cooperate with maximum impact in the form of creativity on the part of the employee and creating conditions for this creativity on the part of the organization. As a result, relations within the organization change; the market component (component) is strengthened in them, which represents a more rigid form of relationship that requires adequate behavior of both the employee and the employer. This situation makes it especially relevant to develop modern approaches to teaching EP when preparing specialists to work in changing conditions.

For the first time, the concept of “organizational behavior” (hereinafter OP) was used by the American psychologist F. Roethlisberger (50s of the 20th century), while studying organizations. But the systematic development of organizational behavior as an academic discipline began in the 70s. in the USA (F. Lutens, 1976)

The concept of “organizational behavior” was introduced in connection with the need to designate a variety of behavioral reactions of an individual (group) to organizational influences (incentives, role and administrative requirements, regulations and sanctions), as well as in connection with the variability of the types of these reactions. The need to study organizational behavior is that:

1. behavioral reactions to homogeneous external influences are varied;
2. the behavior of people in and outside the organization is different;
3. behavioral reactions of the same person (group, organization) are different in different situations.

Organizational behavior is changing each other's reactions in the process of interaction to achieve set goals. Behavior is a person’s reaction to internal and external influences. The essence of management from the perspective of organizational behavior is to direct the entire team of the organization in one direction

Organizational behavior is a science that studies the behavior of people (individuals and groups) in organizations with the aim of practical use of the acquired knowledge to improve the efficiency of a person’s work activity.

Organizational behavior- this is the behavior of employees involved in certain management processes that have their own cycles, rhythms, pace, structure of relationships, organizational framework of requirements for employees. These processes, on the one hand, are directed by the efforts of managers at all levels of management, and on the other hand, they are implemented in the behavior of direct participants, i.e. workers at different management levels.

Objects of EP study

* behavior of individuals in an organization;
* problems of interpersonal relationships in the interaction of two individuals (colleagues or “boss-subordinate” pairs);
* dynamics of relationships within small groups (both formal and informal);
* emerging intergroup relations;
* organizations as integral systems, the basis of which is formed by intra-organizational relationships (for example, strategic alliances and joint ventures).

Most scientific disciplines (and OP is no exception) pursue four goals - description, awareness, prediction and control over certain phenomena.

The objectives of the OP are:

1. a systematic description of people’s behavior in various situations that arise during the work process;
2. explanation of the reasons for the actions of individuals in certain conditions;
3. prediction of employee behavior in the future;
4. mastering the skills of managing people’s behavior in the labor process and improving them.

Organizational behavior can be classified as follows:

1. According to the degree of awareness of human behavior: conscious and unconscious.
2. By goals: aimed at solving individual, group, and organization-wide goals.
3. By type of subject-carrier: individual, group, role and organizational.
4. By type of influence on the subject-carrier: reactive (reaction to appropriate sanctions from the leader, group or organization), conformal (reproduction of the behavior of the leader, group), role-playing (response to the impersonal requirements of official and professional regulations).
5. According to the consequences of implementing this type of behavior for the group: constructive (focused on strengthening unity or increasing the efficiency of the group) and destructive (leading to disintegration and a decrease in the efficiency of the group or organization).
6. According to the form of the course: cooperative (oriented towards maintaining cooperation) and conflict.

The essence of OP lies in the systematic, scientific analysis of the behavior of individuals, groups, organizations in order to understand, predict and improve individual performance and the functioning of the organization, taking into account the influence of the external environment. OP involves the study and formation of the behavior of individuals and groups in order to achieve the organization’s goals and increase the efficiency of its activities. OP is a multi-discipline (cross-discipline) because it uses principles and methods borrowed from other disciplines: organization theory, psychology, social psychology, management, personnel management. In turn, EP represents the basis for the study of a whole range of management disciplines. The OP has a clear orientation towards the individual within the group, its behavior: people within the group, their feelings, perceptions, receptivity to new things, reaction to the environment.

Characteristic features of the OP

1. One of the main distinguishing features of the science of organizational behavior is its interdisciplinary nature.

OP combines behavioral (behaviourist) sciences (systematized knowledge about the nature and reasons for people’s actions) with other disciplines - management, economic theory, economic and mathematical methods, cybernetics (from which any ideas that help improve relationships between people and organizations are borrowed).

2. One more distinguishing feature OP is systematic, based on research results and conceptual developments.

Research is the process of collecting and interpreting data that supports or refute theoretical constructs. Research is a continuous process through which we constantly expand our knowledge about human behavior at work.

3. The third feature of OP is the ever-increasing popularity of theories and research among practicing managers. Modern managers are very receptive to new ideas; they support OP research and test new models in practice.

OP research methods:

* surveys - interviews, questionnaires, testing - measuring the level of satisfaction with work, the organizational climate of the team, interviews can also be conducted by phone;
* collection of fixed information - study of documents existing in the organization and regulating the activities of employees and groups (charter of the organization, corporate code of conduct, contracts, job descriptions, regulations on departments);
* observations - studying the situation, the state of the workplace, the appearance of employees in accordance with the requirements of organizational culture;
* experiments - conducting laboratory or natural experiments;
* Internet using.

The research currently being conducted on the Internet relates to a wide range of issues and areas and is cognitively oriented, i.e., it concerns primarily cognitive processes in various fields of activity, including EP. Studying OP via the Internet has a number of advantages:

1) saving resources when conducting a survey: time, money and other resources;
2) the ability to ensure greater accuracy by involving a larger number of subjects;
3) ease of changing methodological tools at the stage of development and testing;
4) reducing the influence of the experimenter;
5) use of additional software control when performing tasks.

However, these advantages come with certain difficulties, especially for the OP. For example, the user becomes completely anonymous, which can lead to decreased control over the subject’s behavior and distortion of information about the respondent.

In order to reduce data distortion, the following procedures are used: simultaneous comparisons of data obtained through the network with data obtained traditionally, as well as with theoretical concepts.

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Ministry of Education and Science of the Russian Federation

TEST

by discipline

Organizational behavior

using a computer training program

1. Theoretical question. Subject, purpose, objectives and methodological features of organizational behavior as an applied science

1. Subject, purpose, objectives and methodological features of organizational behavior as an applied science

Organizational behavior is a complex applied science of managing human behavior in an organization based on theory and systematic scientific analysis of the actions of individuals, groups and the organization as a whole in a complex dynamic environment. It emerged from the general science of management when the need for practice arose in it and when for this the necessary conditions have matured - theoretical foundations have appeared for designing models of human behavior in an organization and the theory of group dynamics of E. R. Leio, known as the doctrine of human relations. Any science has its own tasks, subject, object of study and methodological features.

The main task of studying this discipline is to master the theoretical foundations and obtain some practical skills in managing the behavior of people (groups, organizations) in the labor process. R. Leneger must understand the nature of the human psyche, the role of will, emotions, needs and motives, as well as unconscious mechanisms in human behavior in the workplace; be able to give a psychological characteristic of a person, his temperament, his ability to use techniques to influence employee behavior, as well as carry out socio-psychological regulation in work groups.

Goals of organizational behavior:

Development of techniques for analytical and empirical research of people's behavior in an organization;

Analysis of the reasons and actions (individual and group) of people under certain conditions;

Developing methods for explaining and predicting the behavior of people in an organization;

Forecasting and adjusting human behavior in an organization;

Formation of skills to manage the behavior of subordinates and your own;

Creation of an organization working on the principles of cooperation and a combination of corporate, group and individual interests;

Formation of the company's organizational culture.

The subject of organizational behavior is the patterns and driving forces that determine the behavior of people in conditions of joint work and interpersonal communication.

The objects and at the same time the subjects are the individual, the group and the organization.

Methodological features of organizational behavior determine its synthetic or interdisciplinary nature and systematic nature.

The synthetic nature of organizational behavior follows from the fact that this discipline synthesizes various sciences in its content: psychological, sociological, economic, etc. with other areas of knowledge of reality: art, religion, morality, etc. Accordingly, she uses various methods of cognition:

1.scientific,

2.ordinary,

3. artistic,

4.religious.

The mechanism of human behavior in an organization is influenced to varying degrees by all these methods of understanding reality.

The systematic nature of organizational behavior is manifested in: that the study of its main problems is based on a systematic approach. The systems approach is a direction of the methodology scientific knowledge and social practice, which is based on an understanding of the object being studied as a system.

2. Application task

Can you currently run your own business?

Please mark the answers you have chosen with an underline.

2.1. Initiative:

a) looking for additional tasks;

b) resourceful, savvy when performing a task;

c) perform the required amount of work without instructions from management;

d) lack initiative, waiting for instructions.

2.2. Treating others: organizational behavior

a) a positive start, a friendly attitude towards people;

b) pleasant to deal with, polite;

c) sometimes it’s difficult to work with you;

d) grumpy and uncommunicative.

2.3. Leadership skills:

a) a strong personality, you inspire confidence and trust;

b) skillfully give effective orders;

c) rather leading;

d) rather a follower.

2.4. Your responsibility:

a) show responsibility when carrying out instructions;

b) agree with instructions (although not without protest);

c) reluctantly agree to instructions;

d) avoid any instructions.

2.5. Your organizational skills:

a) have the gift of persuasion, the ability to arrange facts in a logical order;

b) you are a capable organizer;

c) you rate your organizational skills as average;

d) consider yourself a bad organizer.

2.6. Your determination:

a) you complete tasks quickly and accurately;

b) thorough and careful, prudent;

c) you work quickly, but often make mistakes;

d) usually doubt and fear.

2.7. Perseverance:

a) you are a purposeful person who does not give in to difficulties;

b) make constant efforts;

c) you have an average level of perseverance and determination;

d) almost no persistence.

Answers “a” are worth 4 points, “b” - 3, “c” - 2, “d” - 1.

Test results.

Calculate your points and write them down in this window: _22_

3. Control test tasks

3. The main regulators of human behavior are:

1) environment

2) individual needs

3) abilities

4) norms

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1. SUBJECT AND METHODS OF RESEARCH OF ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIOR

EP research allows us to determine ways to increase the efficiency of a person’s work activity. OP is a scientific discipline in which the results of new research and conceptual developments are constantly added to the main body of knowledge. OP is an applied science, thanks to which the experience of successful and unsuccessful companies is disseminated in other organizations.

The science of OP allows managers to analyze the behavior of an individual in an organization, promotes understanding of the problems of interpersonal relationships in the interaction of two individuals (colleagues or boss and subordinate), when considering the dynamics of relationships within small groups (both formal and informal), between groups when considering intra-organizational relationships – when the organization is viewed and managed as a complete system (for example, strategic alliances and joint ventures).

Objectives of the academic discipline: a systematic description of people’s behavior in various situations that arise in the organization; explanation of the reasons for the actions of individuals in certain conditions; predicting employee behavior in the future. The ultimate goal of studying OP is to master the skills of managing people’s behavior in the work process and improve them.

OP is not only a theoretical discipline, but also a comprehensive applied science about psychological, socio-psychological, social and organizational-economic aspects and factors that influence and largely determine the behavior and interaction of organizational subjects - people, groups, the team as a whole with each other. friend and with the external environment.

OP research methods:

Surveys (interviews, questionnaires, testing);

Collection of fixed information (study of documents, etc.);

Observations and experiments;

A method of structured observation (for example, when observing the organizational environment, the following elements are highlighted: premises, furnishings and equipment, design, lighting and color, appearance of members of the organization).

The research is based on laboratory and natural experiments.

2. INFLUENCE OF PERSONALITY ON OP

OP is based on a number of basic ideas about the nature of humans and organizations.

Basic concepts that characterize any individual.

Individual characteristics. Each person is unique, and the concept of his individual characteristics has strict scientific evidence(differences in DNA parameters, fingerprints, etc.). The presence of individual characteristics suggests that the most effective motivation of employees is the manager’s specific approach to each of them. The concept of the uniqueness of each person is usually called the law of individual characteristics.

Perception. The attitude of a person to objective reality depends on his individual perception, which is a unique way for each person, formed on the basis of accumulated experience, of seeing, systematizing and interpreting things and events.

Managers should analyze the characteristics of employees’ perceptions, take into account the degree of their emotionality and find an individual approach to each employee.

Personal integrity. Companies have to deal with a holistic personality, and not with its individual qualities - qualifications, ability to analyze, etc. Personal life a person cannot be completely separated from the labor process; moral conditions are inseparable from physical ones.

The implementation of the EP assumes that the organization’s administration needs not just qualified employees, but developed individuals. Managers must take into account the impact of work on the whole person.

Motivation of behavior. Normal human behavior is formed under the influence of certain factors that may be associated with the needs of the individual and (or) the consequences of his actions. Managers have the opportunity to use two main ways to motivate employees: 1) demonstrating that certain actions will increase the degree of satisfaction of the subordinate's needs; 2) the threat of a decrease in the level of satisfaction of needs in cases where an individual carries out actions that are incorrect, from a management point of view.

Personal value. Every employee of the organization would like to be treated with care and respect by management.

3. NATURE OF ORGANIZATIONS

The foundation of the organizational concept is formed by three main “stones”: organizations are social systems (1), which are formed on the basis of common interests (2), and relations between management and employees are based on certain ethical principles (3).

1. Social systems. Organizations are social systems whose activities are regulated both by the laws of society and by psychological laws. Social roles and status are the same attribute of the human personality as psychological needs. People's behavior is shaped by their individual desires, as well as by the groups of which they are members. In fact, there are two social systems in an organization: formal (official) and informal.

The social system assumes that the organization's environment is subject to dynamic changes, all its elements are interdependent and each of them is influenced by any other element.

2. Community of interests. Each organization has certain social goals and is formed and functions on the basis of a certain community of interests of its members. In its absence, there is also no common base on which something valuable for society is created. The community of interests determines the organization’s ultimate task, which can only be solved by the combined efforts of employees and employers.

3. Ethical principles. In order to attract and retain valuable employees (whose demand is constantly increasing), organizations strive to comply with ethical principles in the course of their activities. More and more firms are recognizing this need and are developing various programs to help ensure high moral standards for both managers and employees. Managers recognize that since OP always affects people, ethical philosophy inevitably forms the basis of every action they take.

The ethics of the organization’s goals and actions is the main prerequisite for the emergence of the system triple reward that is, achieving the goals of individuals, organizations and society. Collaboration and teamwork contribute to increased job satisfaction by providing individuals with opportunities for learning and personal growth and a sense of making a valuable contribution to shared goals. In turn, the efficiency of the organization as a whole increases: product quality improves, service improves, and costs are reduced.

4. MAIN OP APPROACHES

The main theoretical approaches on which OP is based are orientation to human resources, situation, results and a systems approach.

Human resource oriented the approach involves analyzing the personal growth and development of individuals, their achievement of ever higher levels of competence, creative activity and performance. It is assumed that the task of management is to provide opportunities for improving the skills of employees, increasing their sense of responsibility, and creating an atmosphere conducive to increasing their contribution to achieving the goals of the organization. Thus, developing the abilities of employees and providing them with opportunities for self-realization directly lead to an increase in their productivity and degree of job satisfaction.

Situational approach to OP - achieving effectiveness in various situations - involves the use of specific patterns of behavior.

A thorough analysis of the situation that has arisen allows us to identify its significant factors and determine the most effective OP methods in the given circumstances. The advantage of the situational approach: it encourages an analysis of the conditions prevailing in the organization, the conclusions of which become the basis for decisions made. This concept encourages management to abandon assumptions about the possibility of universal employee behavior. Using a situational approach implies addressing an expanded range of scientific disciplines, being systematic and research-oriented.

The dominant goal for many is to perform their function, i.e. the basis of organizational behavior is results orientation. Productivity in its simplest terms is the ratio of what is output to what is put in (usually according to some predetermined standard).

Systematic approach of the organization assumes that it is considered as a complex of interacting elements. An event that seems to affect one employee or department can play important role for other subsystems or the organization as a whole. Consequently, when making decisions, managers are required to evaluate their long-term consequences for other elements of the organization, subsystems and the system as a whole.

The systems approach assumes that managers have a holistic view of the subject of management. Holistic OP interprets the relationship between “individuals and organizations” at the level of the individual as a whole, the group as a whole, the organization as a whole and the social system as a whole.

5. OP SYSTEM

Achieving the goals set for the organization involves the creation and implementation of an EP management system. Such systems exist in every organization, but in different forms. Systems that are consciously created and regularly monitored and improved are considered the most effective.

Main task OP systems – identification of the most important human and organizational factors influencing the organization’s achievement of its goals, and the creation of conditions for their effective management.

Foundation The organization's OP systems form the basic beliefs and intentions of the individuals who join forces to create it (for example, the owners of the company), as well as the managers who currently manage its activities.

Philosophy(theoretical model) OP of an organization's management includes a set of assumptions and beliefs of its leaders and managers regarding the real state of affairs of the company, the tasks of its production activities and a possible ideal system. Based on factual and value premises. Factual background- a descriptive view of existence, based on research from behavioral sciences, on our personal experience (essential points of the validity of which we are confident). Value prerequisites– the desirability of certain goals and activities. Value prerequisites are variable beliefs, which means they are entirely under our control: we can choose them, change them, abandon them. Many organizations are looking for opportunities to identify and establish their own values.

The OP system also includes visions, missions and goals. IN And denition is an idea of the possible (and desirable) future of the organization and its members.

The organization should also formulate mission, determining the directions of its activities, market segments and niches that it seeks to occupy, and the types of customers with whom it wants to maintain stable relationships. A mission statement includes a short list of an organization's competitive advantages or strengths. Unlike in And Today, the mission statement is more descriptive and focused on the near future. Further specification of the organization's objectives involves setting its goals based on the stated mission.

Goals- these are specific indicators that the organization strives for in a certain period of time (for example, within a year, in the next five years). Goal setting is a complex process, and the goals of senior management must be linked to the goals of employees. Therefore, the creation of an effective social system requires a real integration of individual, group and organizational goals.

6. PRINCIPLES OF BUILDING AN EP SYSTEM

1. The principle of optimality of the ratio of intra- and infrafunctions of the OP: determines the proportions between the functions aimed at organizing the OP system (intrafunctions) and the OP functions (infrafunctions), i.e., the focus of the system on the task or people.

2. Principle of potential imitations: the temporary departure of individual employees should not interrupt the process of carrying out any management functions. To do this, each employee of the system must be able to imitate the functions of a superior, subordinate employee and one or two employees of his level.

3. Economy principle: the most efficient and economical organization of the OP system, reducing the share of costs for the management system in the total costs per unit of output, increasing production efficiency.

4. Progressive principle: compliance of the EP system with advanced foreign and domestic analogues.

5. Perspective principle: When forming an EP system, the development prospects of the organization should be taken into account.

6. The principle of complexity: When forming a system, it is necessary to take into account all factors affecting the organization’s management system.

7. Principle of efficiency: timely decision-making to analyze and improve the EP system, preventing or actively eliminating deviations.

8. The principle of simplicity: the simpler the system, the better it works. Of course, this prevents simplification of the system to the detriment of production.

9. Hierarchy principle: in any vertical sections of the OP system, hierarchical interaction between management links must be ensured.

10. Principle of autonomy: in any horizontal and vertical sections of the system, rational autonomy of structural units or individual managers must be ensured.

11. The principle of consistency.

12. Principle of sustainability: To ensure the sustainable functioning of the EP system, it is necessary to provide special “local regulators”, which, if they deviate from the given goal of the organization, put one or another employee or department at a disadvantage and encourage them to regulate the system.

13. Systematic principle.

14. The principle of transparency.

15. Comfort principle: the system should provide maximum convenience for the creative processes of human justification, development, adoption and implementation of decisions.

7. BEHAVIOR AS A CATEGORY

Behavior is a set of actions performed over a relatively long period under constant or changing conditions. Behavior covers all actions entirely and allows them to be given a moral assessment, regardless of such local indicators as intentions, motives, etc., i.e. behavior provides more grounds for the moral assessment of a person than an act, motive, means, goal, since behavior – this is a system, this is a relatively stable phenomenon.

Regulators of behavior of individuals and groups are legal norms and decrees of the state (political regulators), production and administrative regulations, organizational charters and instructions (organizational regulators), customs, traditions, public opinion (public regulators), morality (system of moral norms).

Organizational behavior regulate macroeconomic, political, scientific and technical components (objective in relation to the organization), as well as the situation in the market in which the organization operates, the features of its state on this moment, development prospects, its culture (traditions, customs, leadership style, vertical and horizontal relationships, etc.) and the potential of its leadership (the result and experience of previous activities, manifestation of the level of competence and morality).

In organizations that understand the value of a person, the regulation of his behavior is carried out on the basis of stimulating directions that correspond to the motives of the employee’s behavior and the underlying needs, interests, and value orientations, which allows for adequate external influence, i.e. stimulation.

Personality as an element of the system, “organization” should be considered as an independent system with its own internal structure.

Group can be considered as an independent system, the elements of which are subjects of professional activity. The nature of the connections between them determines the internal structure of the group and the degree of unfreedom of the individual.

Each individual, voluntarily joining a group engaged in professional activities, agrees to certain restrictions. In turn, the group guarantees a certain status to the person.

Social behavior can be understood as a process of purposeful activity in accordance with significant interests and needs of a person.

A type of social behavior is work activity and work behavior.

Labor activity- this is a strictly fixed in time and space expedient series of operations and functions performed by people united in an organization.

8. SCHOOL OF SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT (1885–1920)

The school of scientific management is most closely associated with the names of F. W. Taylor, F. Gilbreth and G. Gantt.

The first major step towards considering management as a science was made F. Taylor(1856–1915), who led the scientific management movement. Taylor's teaching is based on a mechanistic understanding of man, his place in the organization and the essence of his activities. He was interested in the effectiveness of not an individual person, but an organization, which marked the beginning of the development of the school of scientific management.

F. Taylor's main merit is the development of a number of methods scientific organization labor, based on the study of worker movements using timing, standardization of techniques and tools.

Scientific management is closely related to the work F. Gilbreth, who conducted research in the field of labor movements, improved timing techniques, and developed scientific principles for organizing the workplace.

Scientific management did not neglect human factor. The merit of this school was the systematic use of incentives in order to create employee interest in increasing labor productivity and increasing production volume. Representatives of this trend recognized the importance of selecting people who must be physically and intellectually suitable for the work they perform, and also emphasized great importance training. It was F. Taylor who introduced into practice scientific approaches to the selection, placement and stimulation of workers.

The concept of scientific management was a major turning point, thanks to which management became widely recognized as an independent field of scientific research. For the first time, practical managers and scientists saw that the methods and approaches used in science and technology could be effectively used to achieve the goals of the organization.

9. SCHOOL OF ADMINISTRATIVE (1920–1950)

With the emergence of the administrative school, attention began to be paid to improving the management of the organization as a whole.

The founders of the administrative school (better known as classical school of management), in particular A. Fayol (1841–1925), had experience as managers senior management management in big business. Subject A. Fayol's scientific research focused on management issues at the level of senior administration.

A. Fayol determined that any business organization is characterized by the presence of certain types of activities, or main functions, which are still used in the management of an organization: planning, organization, selection and placement of personnel, leadership (motivation) and control.

Purpose administrative school was the creation of universal principles of management, which affected two main aspects: the development of a rational management system for the organization and the construction of the structure of the organization and employee management.

A. Fayol developed the following 14 principles of management, which he followed in practice and on which, in his conviction, the success of management depended: 1) division of labor (increases qualifications and level of work performance); 2) power (the right to give commands and be responsible for results); 3) discipline; 4) unity of command (orders from only one manager and accountability to only one manager); 5) unity of leadership; 6) subordination of individual interests to common interests; 7) staff remuneration (payment should reflect the state of the organization and encourage workers to work with full dedication); 8) centralization (the level of centralization and decentralization should depend on the situation and be chosen in such a way as to give the best results); 9) chains of interaction (clear construction of chains of commands from management to subordinates); 10) order (everyone should know their place in the organization); 11) equality (workers should be treated fairly and kindly); 12) staff stability; 13) initiative (managers should encourage subordinates to come up with ideas); 14) corporate spirit (a spirit of unity and joint action should be created, a team form of work should be developed).

Prominent representatives of the administrative school were also M. Bloomfield(the concept of “personnel management”, or workforce management (1917)) and M. Weber, who proposed the concept of “rational bureaucracy” (1921), characterized ideal types of domination and put forward the position that bureaucracy - an order established by rules - is the most effective form of human organization.

In the concept of organization put forward by M. Weber, personality as such was absent. Procedures and rules determined all major activities, employee careers, specific decisions and management activities.

Having perfectly studied the technical side of the production process, the administrative school has largely exhausted its capabilities.

10. SCHOOL OF HUMAN RELATIONS (1930–1950)

The founder of the school of human relations is considered to be a professor at the Harvard Business School E. Mayo(1880–1949). He discovered that a group of workers was social system, which has its own control systems, and by influencing such a system in a certain way, labor results can be improved.

As a result of the research, it turned out that the human aspect has a greater impact on labor productivity than changes in technical and physical conditions. This study showed the importance of behavioral factors.

As a result, the human relations school became a counterweight to the entire scientific movement, since its emphasis shifted to people rather than to the concern for production, as in the scientific management school. The idea was that simply paying attention to people has a very large impact on productivity, that is, it was about increasing the effectiveness of the organization by increasing the efficiency of its human resources.

The shift of the center of gravity in management to the individual gave rise to the development of various behaviorist theories of management.

Behaviorism(from English behavior– behavior; behaviorism can be translated as behavioral psychology) is one of the trends in American psychology that arose at the beginning of the 20th century. Its founder is considered J. Watson(1878–1958), who argued that the subject of psychology, unlike other theories, is behavior, not consciousness or thinking.

A person’s personality from the point of view of behaviorism is a set of behavioral reactions inherent in a given person, i.e. skills, socially regulated instincts, socialized emotions plus the ability to be plastic in order to form new skills, as well as the ability to retain and retain skills. Thus, personality is an organized and relatively stable skill system. Skills form the basis for relatively stable behavior and adaptation to life situations. Changing the situation leads to the formation of new skills. By changing incentives and reinforcements, you can program a person to the desired behavior.

Besides D. Rotter And A. Maslow Among other representatives of the school of human relations, we can note the famous management theorist M. P. Follett(1868–1933), who analyzed leadership styles and developed leadership theory. She was the first to define management as “providing work with the help of others.” Her interpretation of management as “the art of obtaining results through the actions of others” emphasized flexibility and harmony in the relationship between managers and workers.

11. D. ROTTER’S THEORY OF SOCIAL LEARNING

In the 70s XX century behaviorism presented its concepts in a new light - in the theory of social learning. According to social learning theory D. Rotter Each person has a certain set of actions, behavioral reactions formed throughout life - behavioral potential.

Behavioral potential, according to D. Rotter, includes five main blocks of behavioral reactions, "technique of existence":

1) behavioral reactions aimed at achieving success and results serve as the basis for social recognition;

2) behavioral reactions of adaptation, adaptation - this is a technique for coordinating with the requirements of other people, social norms, etc.;

3) defensive behavioral reactions - used in situations whose requirements exceed a person’s capabilities at the moment (these are reactions such as denial, suppression of desires, devaluation, shading, etc.);

4) avoidance technique – behavioral reactions aimed at “getting out of the field of tension”, leaving, escaping, resting, etc.;

5) aggressive behavioral reactions - this can be real physical aggression, and symbolic forms of aggression: irony, criticism of another, ridicule, intrigue, etc.

12. THEORY OF NEEDS A. MASLOW

Development of the school of human relations in the 40-60s. XX century contributed to the development by behavioral scientists of several theories of motivation. One of them is hierarchical A. Maslow's theory of needs(1908–1970) – “pyramid of needs”.

According to this theory, a person has a complex structure the following hierarchical needs, in accordance with which management should take place:

1) physiological– lower needs – food, water, air, shelter and other needs that a person must satisfy in order to survive. People who work mainly due to the need to satisfy these needs have little interest in the content of the work, concentrating their attention on pay, working conditions, convenience of the workplace, etc. To manage such people, it is necessary that a minimum salary ensure their survival and working conditions did not burden their existence too much;

2) security of your existence– the desire and desire of people to be in a stable and safe state that protects them from fear, disease and other suffering. They evaluate their work primarily from the point of view of ensuring their stable existence in the future (job security, pensions, medical care). To manage this kind of people, it is necessary to create a clear and reliable system of social insurance, apply simple and fair rules for regulating their activities, pay above the subsistence level for work, and not involve them in making risky decisions and carrying out actions related to risk and change;

3) social(belonging to a team, communication, attention to oneself, caring for others, etc.). In relation to such employees, management should take the form of a friendly partnership; conditions should be created for them that facilitate communication at work;

4) need for recognition and respect. This group of needs reflects people's desire to be competent, strong, capable, self-confident, and to experience recognition and respect from others. When managing these people, you must use various shapes expressions of recognition of their merits;

5) self-expression, self-realization, full use of your capabilities. This is the highest group of human needs, which, to a much greater extent than the needs of other groups, are individual in nature. They realize a person’s desire for creativity in the broad sense of the word. When managing such people, it is necessary to give them original tasks, provide greater freedom in choosing means of solving problems, and involve them in work that requires ingenuity and creativity.

13. PERSONALITY STRUCTURE

A person’s individuality is determined by his life experience, refracted through personality traits and manifested through his attitude to surrounding phenomena and the uniqueness of his internal mental functions.

Personality– a systemic quality acquired by an individual in specific activities and communication, characterizing him in terms of involvement in social relations.

A person is not born an individual, but becomes one as he actively enters into the life of society and masters the accumulated social experience. The formation of personality occurs throughout a person’s entire life. The formation of personality in a team occurs both through involuntary imitation of generally accepted group norms and through conscious assimilation of the requirements of the team.

Each individual is a bearer of what is common, which is characteristic of the whole society, and at the same time special, typical of a certain group. But personalities are inherent individual characteristics, which are determined by hereditary characteristics, natural inclinations, etc.

Conventionally, we can talk about the internal, socio-psychological structure of the personality and its external structure as belonging to social groups.

Internal personality structure includes a number of substructures:

a) the psychological environment that has developed in the consciousness of the individual: a system of needs, interests, claims, value orientations, ideals, beliefs, worldview;

b) mental properties: character, intellect, emotions, will, thinking, memory, imagination, etc.

c) psychological properties, possibilities of realization (abilities) of the individual: experience, skills, abilities;

d) physiological, hereditary qualities: temperament, etc.

External social structure personalities characterized by belonging to various social groups. Such groups can be, for example, socio-demographic (men and women, young and older workers, family and non-family), professional and qualification (belonging to different professions, differences in qualifications, job status, etc.), etc.

People can also belong to other groups that differ in their psychology of behavior - party, national, territorial, religious, various formal and informal associations.

A manager who takes into account the personal qualities of a subordinate can find an individual approach to each employee, and therefore activate internal reserves to enhance his activities.

14. NEEDS AND MOTIVES OF THE PERSONALITY

Need can be defined as a person’s need for something, prompting him to take action to realize this need. The need is always associated with activity and determines the activity of the individual.

From the objective side

a) a specific item of need (need);

b) objective environment - a situation of need satisfaction that is conducive to need satisfaction;

c) objective means of satisfying needs;

d) the objective value of satisfying a need and the effort required to satisfy it.

From the subjective side The need is characterized by the following factors:

a) the image of the object of need (need) in the consciousness of the individual;

b) subjective environment: the internal system of human needs, the level of its development and state at the moment;

c) subjective means: the individual’s capabilities (abilities) to satisfy the need;

d) the subjective value of need satisfaction.

The needs determined by production, in turn, actively influence its development.

People's needs are realized through their abilities. To satisfy some need, you need to apply your abilities to create material and spiritual values. Needs develop along with the development of society, never reaching a limit.

It is the constant reproduction of such an unsatisfied need, due to a constant increase in needs, that serves as an important incentive to human activity and production development.

In the psychological mechanism of personality behavior, an important role is played by value orientations, that is, relatively stable, socially conditioned relationships of the individual to material and spiritual goods, which are for him the goal or means of satisfying his needs.

Closely related to value orientations social attitudes people – their attitude to certain phenomena. Social attitudes influence the emotional reaction and people’s attitude, for example, to various changes in work, and require psychological preparation for innovation.

Knowing the expectations of the individual, the manager can find the most acceptable forms of regulating his behavior.

15. MENTAL PROPERTIES OF PERSONALITY

Mental properties of personality– character, intelligence, emotions, thinking, memory, imagination, etc.

Character- the individual personality of a person, manifested in the characteristics of his behavior and attitude towards people and environmental activities, in particular to work, one’s responsibilities and duty.

Character is not given to a person from birth, but is formed in the process of active socially useful activity.

The ability to objectively evaluate oneself helps to develop character traits such as modesty and integrity. Increased self-esteem and arrogance are negative traits character that causes conflict situations.

The attitude towards people is characterized by such positive features character, such as politeness, sociability, goodwill, or, conversely, negative – isolation, rudeness, tactlessness, etc.

A person’s diligence, conscientiousness, accuracy, and diligence characterize a person’s attitude to public duty and work; they are opposed by passivity, laziness, negligence, etc.

Among the many qualities of a person that make up her individuality, the qualities of intelligence: curiosity, depth of mind, flexibility and agility of mind, logic, etc.

Will represents the regulating side of consciousness, expressed in a person’s ability to perform purposeful actions and deeds that require overcoming difficulties. The level of development of the will is manifested in the following basic volitional properties of the individual: purposefulness, determination, perseverance, endurance, independence.

In psychology, a distinction is made between moral, intellectual and aesthetic feelings of an individual.

Moral sense called the emotional attitude of a person to the behavior of people and his own; intellectual feelings– these are experiences that arise in the process of mental activity; aesthetic feelings arise and develop when man perceives and creates beauty.

The conditions for carrying out a particular type of activity are human abilities, determined by natural data, as well as experience, skills, and abilities. Abilities can be developed in the process of training and education, active social activities.

The skillful use of human abilities largely depends on the leader.

16. PHYSIOLOGICAL PROPERTIES OF PERSONALITY

Human behavior depends not only on social conditions, but also on his natural features.

Such features are determined by temperament, which determines the nature of the flow of emotions and thinking, and the volitional action of the individual.

Depending on the temperament, which is given to man by nature, they distinguish between choleric, sanguine, phlegmatic and melancholic.

Cholerics They are highly efficient, energetic and active. They can work uphill and can overcome difficulties. But a wave of recovery can quickly give way to a period of decline in mood. Choleric is easily excited, has a quick temper, speaks quickly, and fluctuates intonation. A choleric person enthusiastically devotes himself to his favorite work, charges other people with his energy, but his work is characterized by cyclical nature. It is difficult for him to restrain the manifestation of his emotions; he is often too straightforward and harsh.

Sanguine cheerful, easily gets along with people, quickly switches from one type of work to another, does not like monotonous work. Emotions are subject to him, he has good self-control, quickly adapts to a new environment, and is optimistic. Speaks loudly, clearly, with expressive gestures. A sanguine person easily grasps new things and is flexible in communicating with people around him.

Phlegmatic person characterized by a slow reaction: slowly switches from one job to another, is inactive, takes a long time to adapt to a new environment. To motivate him to action, he needs a certain impulse, a push. He is reserved, reasonable, slow and stress-resistant. But he does not adapt well to the changed environment, he is characterized by poverty of emotions, so he has difficulty getting along with people.

Melancholic impressionable, easily vulnerable, emotional, he often experiences panic, despondency, melancholy, painfully endures failures, indecisive, cautious. This is usually a shy person who has difficulty finding contact with other people. To get rid of the melancholic efficient work, you need constant energetic pressure and control from the manager.

People with a clearly defined type of temperament are rare, however, every person gravitates towards one or another type of temperament.

17. BASICS OF PERSONAL BEHAVIOR. PERCEPTION

The three fundamental personal principles of human behavior are perception, criterial basis and motivation.

Perception, i.e. the process of obtaining information from the environment and processing it is important source explanations of behavior. By changing the perception of the life situation in which a person finds himself, one can change his behavior.

In itself, this process of obtaining information is the same for everyone: the input is receiving information from the external environment, processing it and putting it in a certain order, and the output is systematized information, which contains a person’s idea of the environment and forms the basis of his actions, that is, information that is the source material for human behavior.

However, people in the same situation may each perceive it differently. Moreover, the perception may be distorted. Factors influencing perception include an object And subject of observation in the context of the situation in which perception occurs.

An individual's (subject's) attempt to interpret what he sees is greatly influenced by personal perception.

To the most common personal characteristics(the so-called criterion basis) affecting perception include:

location. This is a different interpretation of the same situation - mainly due to different locations relative to any objects, phenomena, etc.;

motives. Unsatisfied needs or motives stimulate individuals and can have a strong influence on their perceptions;

interests. Since people's personal interests differ to a large extent, their perceptions of the same situations differ;

experience, like personal interests, it narrows the focus of perception. People perceive those things with which they are connected. However, in many cases, experience can cancel interest in the object;

expectations can distort a person’s perception, since he often sees what he expects to see.

Perception is also influenced by a person’s personal characteristics.

Movement, sounds, object size, and other attributes also influence perception.

18. FEATURES OF HUMAN PERCEPTION

Our perception of people differs from our perception of inanimate objects: observing people, we try to explain why they behave the way they do and not otherwise, that is, to assess their internal state.

Explaining the characteristics of people's behavior depending on their addiction from their characteristics- the essence of the theory of the same name. According to this theory, when observing an individual's behavior, we try to determine whether it is caused by internal or external causes. This, in turn, largely depends on certain factors - specificity, consistency, consistency.

Internal regulators of behavior are under the personal control of the individual. External regulators of behavior are carried out under the influence of external reasons, in connection with a certain situation. So, if one of the employees was late for work, then the reason for this lateness can be regarded as internal (overslept) and external (got caught in a traffic jam).

Characteristic determines to what extent a particular behavior of an individual is characteristic in various situations, and how unusual this behavior is. If this is an isolated case, then most likely this behavior is due to external reasons; if this behavior is repeated, then it can be assessed as an internal manifestation.

If everyone in a similar situation behaves in a similar way, we can talk about consistency behavior.

Finally, we evaluate consistency human actions. How will the person behave next?

A person perceives information selectively, that is, it passes through a kind of psychological filter. Any characteristic that makes a person, object, or event stand out increases the likelihood that it will be perceived.

Projection. This is the tendency of a person to attribute his own feelings, moods, experiences, fears and motives of activity to other people.

Stereotypes. These are stable forms of existence, closed from the influence of new experience. In the structure of a stereotype, the main role is played by its emotional charge, which clearly indicates what is accepted and what is unacceptable, what is “good” or “bad” in relation to any object.

Gallo effect. It occurs when an impression of an individual is formed on the basis of single characteristics - intelligence, sociability or appearance.

Opinions of others can form an attitude towards the partner, which will not allow one to critically evaluate the partner’s behavior.

Simplification close to the gallo effect, but somewhat different from it. The essence of simplification is the formation of a fairly “complete” idea of a partner based on very fragmentary information obtained on the basis of a first impression, to which some people attach too much importance.

Communication incompetence: low level of culture, inability to listen and adequately understand your partner, inability to competently and, no less important, clearly express your thoughts.

19. PERSONALITY SETTINGS

Settings- these are sensations, feelings and beliefs that largely determine employees’ perception of the external environment, prompting them to plan certain actions and behaviors.

Employee attitudes are of great importance to the organization. Negative attitudes are a symptom of problems that have arisen and at the same time the cause of future difficulties. The consequences of such attitudes are sudden strikes, decreased work intensity, absenteeism and high staff turnover, etc. Favorable attitudes of employees, on the contrary, have a positive impact on the results of the organization.

Concept "social attitude" used to denote a one-way psychological connection between a person - with people, any animate and inanimate objects and phenomena. In social psychology, the definition given by G. Allport is more often used: "social attitude“is a state of psychological readiness of an individual to behave in a certain way in relation to an object, determined by its past experience.”

An attitude as a holistic phenomenon is formed on the basis of not only the individual’s own experience, but also the experience received from other people, therefore the main form of transmission of attitudes is verbal(verbal).

Installations of this type, when in his personal experience a person deals with a separate, single object, are called private(partial). Generalized settings that is, attitudes towards a set of homogeneous objects owe their origin to interpersonal and mass communication. They serve as a factor in strengthening the individual’s attitudes, since listening to opinions that are consistent with the views of the individual himself strengthens him in the correctness of his own attitudes and encourages him to turn to the same source for information.

Basic settings properties– stability or variability. If an individual in all situations implements a way of behavior in relation to an object that has become habitual and natural for him, then this indicates the stability of his attitude. One of the factors in changing attitudes is the impact of mass communication. An attitude manifests its influence on behavior and activity as a practical determinant of things and phenomena towards which a person’s vital interests are directed and which are undesirable and unpleasant for him. Distinguish types of installations according to their modality: 1) positive (“for” the object); 2) negative (“against” the object); 3) neutral.

Main installation function– regulation of an individual’s social behavior. The system of individual attitudes provides the possibility of his orientation in social reality.

"The La Pierre Paradox": systematic discrepancy between stated attitudes towards an object and behavior dictated by the situation.

Protective function of social attitude is achieved through the desire for uniformity of attitudes among the immediate social environment, for example, between members of the same family or work team. Antisocial the attitude protects the self-esteem of the subject in the group if he acts in a certain way and refrains from other, unauthorized behavior.

20. ROLE BEHAVIOR IN THE ORGANIZATION

Each employee performs a certain role, and how successfully he performs it and how satisfied he is with the nature, content and results of his activities in the organization and his interaction with the organizational environment will depend on the degree of likelihood of conflicts arising that disrupt the interaction between a person and the organization.

Necessary conditions successful role behavior are clarity and acceptability of the role.

Under certain circumstances, the fulfillment of a particular role may be difficult due to the contradictions generated by the role itself.

At the same time, in some situations, role uncertainty can be considered as a positive characteristic of relations in an organization, since it contributes to the development of independence, training of employees, expands the scope of decision-making and develops among members of the organization a sense of responsibility and commitment towards the organization.

The main reasons leading to conflicts:

An employee performs several roles that are mutually exclusive at certain moments;

The presence of a conflicting order or a conflicting task;

Contradictions between the values of the individual and the nature of the role he performs;

Changes in the content of the role, accompanied by inconsistency in remuneration;

Role overload when an employee's tasks exceed the scope of the role.

Contradictions and conflicts that arise during the performance of roles can be eliminated by:

1) changes in work (content and method of implementation of the role);

2) human development (advanced training, etc.);

3) role reshuffles of employees.

There are formal and informal role statuses.

Formal status reflects the location of the role in the hierarchical structure of the organization, shows what power rights its performer has, what is his position in the formal hierarchy of distribution and influence on the activities of the organization.

Informal The status of a role is determined by the people around it and is set either by the personal characteristics of its performer, or by the informally defined meanings and influence of the role in the organization.

When studying role behavior, when building interaction between a person and an organization, it is possible to determine the entire set of actions that are carried out by the organization in the process of its functioning.

21. METHODS FOR STUDYING THE PERSONALITY OF AN EMPLOYEE

To successfully cooperate with an employee in achieving common goals, the manager must know:

1) vocational training the employee, his ability to perform a certain type of work, the “power” of incentives for this particular activity;

2) socio-psychological qualities, in particular, a person’s ability to interact with other people in the process of teamwork;

3) business qualities, that is, the ability to achieve certain practical results in a short time without fuss and extra effort;

4) intellectual and psychological capabilities: flexibility of intellect and willpower, creativity and ability to take risks, initiative and sober calculation;

5) the conditions under which personality traits manifest themselves, and the limits beyond which they begin to fail. You need to be able to operate with this knowledge in order to obtain a reliable forecast of an employee’s business (and sometimes everyday) behavior.

Observation method. The object of observation and the purposes for which it is carried out must be determined, and the mode (order, algorithm) of observation must be chosen.

Observation is effective from the moment when the signs of a person’s work performance and signs of the peculiarities of the process of his activity are clearly defined, presented in the form of a unified system and can be recorded in a standard way.

Business games method. These games actually show all the main points of management activities, which is why many of them can be used as a means of testing management abilities.

Test movement method: a person is tested in natural or specially organized conditions by appointing him to a position that he has not previously occupied. A classic example is the replacement of the first manager during vacation by one of his deputies. The relocation method will be effective if the time to fill the position is long enough for the person being tested to make independent decisions.

Method for solving educational management problems. Instead of real problems, you can offer a system of training tasks that are adequate or similar to real ones in terms of solution structures and level of complexity. This method allows, by varying the content of tasks, to determine more accurately than other methods whether a person has the ability to solve not only today’s real problems, but also the problems of the future.

22. CONCEPT OF GROUP

In the system of various scientific disciplines, the concept "group" is interpreted differently. Thus, G. M. Andreeva gives the definition conditional groups: these are associations of people for some reason common feature, necessary in this analysis system for the purposes of statistical accounting and scientific research.

Real groups are associations of people in which there is a unity of activity, conditions, circumstances, characteristics. Groups can be large or small (contact), in which there is the possibility of direct contact between everyone.

Small groups- these are two or more persons interacting with each other in such a way that each person influences the others and is at the same time influenced by other persons.

Groups are divided into formal and informal.

Formal groups have legal status and are created by management to consolidate the division of labor and improve its organization; the role and place of these groups in the general labor process are defined in regulatory document"Regulations on the division." Among the formal groups there are teams– subordinate groups of the manager and his employees, workers(target) groups created for the purpose and duration of a specific task, committees– special and permanent groups to which certain powers are delegated for management, coordination of activities, etc. (bank board, board of directors).

Based on the performance of socially significant work by a formal group, the concept is distinguished "labor collective" – working group, which has reached a high level of cohesion, acting as new system, a single community that combines the advantages of formal and informal groups.

Informal groups are formed spontaneously to satisfy the individual needs of workers, which for one reason or another (incompetent management, authoritarian management methods, etc.) are not satisfied within the formal group. The behavior of members of informal groups led by an informal leader can both contribute to and hinder the achievement of organizational goals.

23. MAIN CHARACTERISTICS OF THE GROUP

The main characteristics of the group include:

Group members– depends on its type and can be designated by a set of certain characteristics and parameters;

group structure depending on the goals of the study and the conditions defined as essential, it can be designated from the standpoint of the implementation of the “power-subordination” relationship, preferences, interpersonal relationships, division of labor, communications, material and documentary flows in the group in the process of joint work, etc. .;

group processes– these are the processes of communication, interaction (status, role, position of group members and their changes), perception (group members’ perception of other members and other groups), attraction (attractiveness, attraction), as well as organizational processes: group formation, formation, increase in cohesion , group pressure, leadership, organization of joint activities, decision making;

group norms- these are elements of group culture, rules of proper behavior from the point of view of the group for each status level, and often for each member of the group. The Group expects proper compliance with the norms and rules of conduct established by it and, when appropriate, applies sanctions, aimed at adjustment (reward and punishment).

The composition of the group, the processes occurring in it and group norms determine group potential. Identifying the potential of the group and the extent of its use, as well as identifying and creating conditions in which the positive direction of the potential is used more effectively, and the negative one ceases to appear, is a serious problem for the head of the organization, the leader of the group and its members.

24. FACTORS OF GROUP BEHAVIOR

Research has shown that group performance standards can increase severalfold if everyone's performance affects the success of others and depends on their overall success.

The following main ones are distinguished factors of group behavior:

1) professional teamwork of the group, which is formed as a result of joint work in a team and is manifested in the norms of interchangeability, complementarity, mutual responsibility, etc.;

2) moral and psychological cohesion: the presence of norms of mutual assistance and mutual support based on common ideas about themselves:

3) interpersonal compatibility: psychological readiness of workers to cooperate with each other;

4) purposefulness and democracy– basically these factors are set by the leader and depend on his position in relation to the group. For example, a goal may be imposed by management or developed jointly by all employees;

5) productivity and satisfaction with work results. This factor is an indicator of professional group efforts, which shows how much the human potential of the group has been translated into concrete deeds, how much the labor efforts of the professional group are recognized, if the wages of its workers are calculated based on the final results.

The successful work activity of a professional group also depends on other factors, which can be called variables:

Group level of aspirations, i.e., employees’ disposition to achieve results;

Qualification potential;

Requirements for the final result, which determines the quality of group work;

Degree of interaction with other professional groups;

Age and gender composition of the group;

Intragroup interpersonal communications, the violation of which can disrupt the working rhythm, pace of work and reduce quality;

Positions that can be sole or variable, when in certain situations one of the employees turns out to be the leader;

The permanence of a professional group or the temporary nature of its work.

The group norm of productivity is the most important variable factor in group performance, the axis of all intragroup relations.

25. DISTINGUISHING FEATURES OF SMALL GROUPS

In a small (primary) work collective, the processes of achieving production and educational goals are concretized, the connection between personal, group (collective) and state interests is expressed directly, the most frequent and stable interpersonal contacts are carried out, and collectivist relations are formed.

The primary labor collective is characterized by appropriate structures and performs certain functions. Its development occurs in accordance with socio-psychological processes of group dynamics, the main ones are:

Employee communication;

Team cohesion;

Labor conflicts;

Management and leadership, etc.

Members of the primary labor team work in direct contact and interaction, and the leader of this team also has direct contact with each of the subordinates.

In the primary work collective, the socio-psychological characteristics of this team are formed: value orientations, norms, attitudes, moods, traditions, moral and psychological climate.

Value orientation groups - a socially conditioned orientation of consciousness and behavior of a group, which has social and group significance, expressed in the preference of relationships to certain objects.

Social setting– the readiness of the team for a certain assessment of the situation and the way of acting in it, a predisposition to certain events, people, objects.

Tradition– a way to implement sustainable public relations, supported by the force of public opinion, collective habits and beliefs.

Moral and psychological climate– a relatively stable emotional mood prevailing in a team, which includes people’s moods, their emotional experiences and worries, attitudes towards each other, and surrounding events.

26. FORMING A COLLECTED GROUP

Cohesion– one of the most important qualities that determine the effectiveness of group activities. The determinants of cohesion are:

1) group existence time: Too short a period does not allow achieving a high level of cohesion, and too long can lead to a decrease in the achieved level;

2) group size: an increase in the number of group members (more than nine people) may lead to a decrease in cohesion;

3) age of group members: Teams whose members are peers are considered more cohesive;

4) external threat: the leader often does not take into account that the disappearance of an external threat often leads to a breakdown in cohesion;

5) previous success: pride in joint achievements increases cohesion, while failures, on the contrary, reduce it. Common attitudes and value orientations (for example, religion and ethics) also contribute to group cohesion.

Efficiency joint activities are related to:

With the emotional closeness of the participants in joint activities;

With the participation of group members in establishing the goals of joint activities;

With interdependence, which involves mutual assistance, mutual compensation of shortcomings;

With timely and skillful resolution of the conflict;

With the refusal to hide conflicts, the search for solutions of true agreement;

With the characteristics of group leadership;

With group cohesion.

High requirements for joining the group, complex rituals and prestige of the group make it more cohesive. Isolation from other people increases the interaction and interdependence of group members. The growth of cohesion is facilitated by democratic procedures and the participation of group members in decision making.

Each team develops its own norms, attitudes, values, traditions, so managing a team is a special and more complex task than managing each subordinate individually.

One of the most important areas for increasing the efficiency of an organization is correct selection of its composition: The higher the qualifications, education, and professional culture of the team members, the higher the social needs, activity, and level of development of the team as a whole, the more developed is the desire of each member of the organization to actively influence the affairs of his team.

The cohesion and compatibility of people in a team, the moral and psychological climate are also determined by the correct approach to forming a team, taking into account socio-psychological factors: number, age, gender, level of education, type of temperament, etc.

27. STAGES OF TEAM DEVELOPMENT

As teams develop, they usually go through certain stages:

1) "grinding in". At first glance, the new team looks businesslike and organized, but in reality people are looking at each other and trying to determine their level of interest in its creation.

True feelings are often hidden, one person increases his authority, and interaction occurs in familiar forms. There is almost no discussion of goals and methods of work. People are often not interested in colleagues and hardly listen to each other, without actually engaging in creative and inspired teamwork;

2) "close combat" Many teams go through a period of revolution, when the leader’s contribution is assessed, clans and factions are formed, and disagreements are expressed more openly. Personal relationships become of great importance, strong and weak sides separate individuals. The team begins to discuss how to reach agreement and tries to improve relationships. Sometimes there is a power struggle for leadership;

3) "experimentation". The potential of the team increases, and it begins to decide how to use the abilities and resources now available. The team often works in spurts, but they have the energy and desire to understand how they can work better. Working methods are revised, a desire to experiment appears, measures are taken to increase productivity;

4) “efficiency”. The team gains experience in successfully solving problems and using resources. The emphasis is on the correct use of resources, time and on clarifying tasks. Employees begin to take pride in being part of a “winning team,” approach problems realistically, and solve them creatively. Management functions move smoothly from one employee to another depending on the specific task;

5) "maturity". In a developed team there are strong connections between its members. People are judged on their merits, not on their pretensions. The relationship is informal but satisfying. Personal differences are quickly resolved. The team turns into a successful unit of society - a team and arouses the admiration of outsiders. He is capable of delivering excellent results and sets high standards of achievement.

The leader of the team must be able to foresee the onset of the next stage of development of the team and lead the group forward. As the quality of the team’s work improves, the possibilities for introducing innovations into the management process also expand. Delegation of authority is increasing and more people are involved in planning and decision making. The leader helps the team go through all stages of development and reach their full potential, using both personal example and authority.

28. ESSENCE OF ORGANIZATIONAL AND ADMINISTRATIVE METHODS OF MANAGEMENT

When we're talking about about the ways in which the control system influences control objects or about the ways in which some links of the control system influence others, we are dealing with management methods. When we talk about the methods of influence of the leader himself, we mean leadership methods.

Management methods and leadership methods are interconnected, they implement interrelated goals and objectives, but at the same time they have specific goals and features.

Management methods are, on the one hand, more fundamental than leadership methods; on the other hand, the use of management methods is largely carried out through the specific activities of the manager, i.e. through management methods.

Guidance Methods are diverse, among them we can highlight: methods organizational impact– rely primarily on power, the right to command, the official authority of the leader, and economic And socio-psychological– to use the material and spiritual interests of workers, their psychological characteristics.

Organize– means bringing people together to work together. The word "organization" has a double meaning: firstly, as the function of a leader to organize people; secondly, as a system that brings together people and resources.

Organization as a function of leadership consists of components:

a) having a clear plan;

b) the organization's ability to achieve and fulfill the requirements of the plan;

c) the availability of people, money, materials, and other resources to complete the task;

d) the presence of competent managers who would be able to force the organization to achieve its goals and consolidate what has been achieved.

Seven main elements of organization(P. M. Kerzhentsev):

1) goal (what is the purpose of the work?);

2) type of organization (what form of organization is most suitable for performing the intended work?);

3) methods (what organizational methods will it be possible to achieve the intended goal?);

4) people (with the help of which people and how many of them will the work be done?);

5) material resources;

7) control (how to keep records of work and organize actual control over its implementation?).

The work of a manager is closely related to the organizational function. Leadership is a chain of organizational actions. You can manage the entire course of a team’s life, and you can organize the execution of a specific task by specific people. The organization function is one of the most important functions of a leader.

29. RULES FOR EFFECTIVE INSTRUCTIONS

Basic rules by observing which a manager can hope for the effective execution of his orders:

1) any order must be objectively necessary;

2) do not give instructions unless you are sure that it is real and can be carried out;

3) before giving an order, consult with your subordinate;

4) provide the subordinate with the conditions necessary to perform the work;

5) when giving instructions, take into account the individual characteristics of subordinates;

6) assignments should educate and develop independence and initiative among subordinates;

7) it is better to give instructions in the form of a request rather than an order;

8) give instructions in a calm, friendly, firm and confident tone;

9) under any circumstances, remember the need to be polite and maintain your subordinate’s self-esteem;

10) teach more than command;

11) interest the subordinate in the social significance of the task, its immediate practical benefit for the team and for him personally;

12) organize an atmosphere of competition, evoke in the employee a desire to distinguish himself, to demonstrate his abilities, emphasize his special role, the importance of his efforts;

13) do not assign several tasks to the contractor at the same time;

14) make sure that the subordinate clearly understands the essence of the assignment and his tasks;

15) indicate the exact deadline for completing the work and the form of its presentation;

16) require a subordinate to perform the work assigned to him;

17) do not allow a subordinate to shift his task to you;

18) do not allow unauthorized tasks;

19) when giving a subordinate responsibility for completing an assignment, remember that your personal responsibility as a leader does not decrease.

30. ORGANIZATIONAL AND FUNCTIONAL STRUCTURE OF MANAGEMENT OF THE ORGANIZATION

The purpose of organizational activities is to create a good organizational and functional management structure and the correct selection of performers.

For the effective operation of an organization, it is important to clearly and clearly define the functional responsibilities and powers of personnel, as well as their relationships in the work process.

The duties and powers of employees are established using:

job descriptions(establish the scope of powers and measures of responsibility of a person holding a certain position);

Organizational and functional organization schemes(displays the interactions (relationships) between individual links in the control system).

1) the principle of division into groups of equal size;

2) a functional feature - the creation of departments for production, marketing, personnel, financial issues, etc.;

3) territorial basis - if the enterprise operates in territories remote from each other;

4) type of product manufactured;

5) the interests of consumers - this is especially typical for the service department.

In addition to creating an organizational structure and selecting performers, the organizational function includes the provision of materials, tools, and workspaces.

The manager, when starting to develop and implement an organizational structure scheme, must provide for the following: necessary conditions and principles:

1. Correct selection performers, their training.

2. The employee undertakes to comply with all reasonable instructions of his superiors, and the enterprise undertakes to pay for his services for this; Anyone dissatisfied with their job has the right to quit.

3. The work should be divided into parts so that each worker can quickly and easily master his area of work.

4. Clear job descriptions must be created.

5. Each employee should have only one immediate supervisor.

6. Creating conditions for departments and employees to fulfill their tasks and responsibilities.

There are no standard organizational structures, since each company has its own characteristics.

The diagram should reflect the real structure of the company and not be a theoretical model. If difficulties arise when drawing up an organizational and functional chart of an enterprise, this may mean that the organization itself is defective.

31. CONTENT OF THE ORGANIZATIONAL MANAGEMENT STRUCTURE

Organizational management structures can vary in complexity and detail, but any of them contains three blocks:

Linear;

Functional;

Providing.

Linear block provides the main production functions of the enterprise (in a factory these are workshops, in the army - combat units, at a construction site - sections, brigades, etc.). As the volume and complexity of production grows, departments increasingly need to provide conditions for performing their functions.

Function block organizational structure provides assistance with its recommendations to line and support services.

Functional services can also make decisions on functional issues - on labor and wages, production, technological development, etc.

Providing block i.e., the support service is designed to free linear units from non-productive functions. Accounting, personnel department, planning department and other departments, in addition to support functions, also perform advisory functions with the manager.

The problems of ensuring clear interaction between linear, functional and supporting services can be minimized if these services interact clearly.

32. DIVISIONAL STRUCTURE OF MANAGEMENT OF THE ORGANIZATION

One of the types of organizational management structures is divisional structure. The first developments of its concept date back to the 20s, and the peak of its industrial use - to the 60-70s. XX century

The key figures in the management of organizations with a divisional structure are not the heads of functional departments, but managers(managers) heading production departments.

Structuring organization by departments is usually done according to one of three criteria: by products manufactured or services provided (product specialization); by customer orientation (consumer specialization); by territories served (regional specialization).

Some businesses produce a wide range of products or services that meet the needs of several large consumer groups or markets. Every group or market has clearly defined needs. If two or more of these needs become particularly important to an enterprise, it may use a customer-oriented organizational structure.

An example of the active use of consumer-oriented organizational structure is commercial banks; The main groups of consumers using their services are individual clients (private individuals), pension funds, trust firms, and international financial organizations.

Flaw. Divisional management structures led to an increase in hierarchy, i.e. vertical management, requiring the formation of intermediate levels of management to coordinate the work of departments, groups, etc. The duplication of management functions at different levels ultimately contributed to an increase in the costs of maintaining the management apparatus.

Positive points– concentration of management functions in only one production manager; clearer assignment of authority and responsibility for key results; more effective control system; freedom of individual behavior. Different types of divisional structure have the same goal - to ensure a more effective response of the enterprise to a particular environmental factor.

The heads of production departments within the product or territory assigned to them coordinate activities not only “along the line”, but also “by function,” thereby developing the required qualities of general management. This creates a good talent pool for the strategic level of the organization. Separating decisions into levels speeds up their adoption and improves their quality.

33. CLASSIFICATION OF LEADERSHIP STYLES

Leadership style is a set of management techniques and methods inherent in a certain type of leader.

Comparative characteristics of traditional and “modern” leadership styles

Traditional Chief: Applies criticism

Modern leader: Applies praise

Traditional Chief: Gives orders and instructions

Modern leader: Defines goals oriented towards the consciousness of subordinates

Traditional Chief: Takes the efforts of subordinates for granted.

Modern leader: Praises for efforts expended and results obtained.

Traditional Chief: Emphasizes ordering work to be done.

Modern leader: Emphasizes encouragement

Traditional Chief: The main thing for him is that the subordinate must be at his workplace all the time

Modern leader: Stimulates increased efficiency and quality of work of subordinates, focuses on trust and final results

Traditional Chief: Demeanor is strictly official

Modern leader: Behavior – friendly, democratic, relaxed

Even the most progressive leader must master both the latest methods of influencing subordinates and traditional ones in order to be able to act depending on the nature of the subordinate and the current situation.

Depending on the degree of manifestation of collegiality and unity of command, three main leadership styles can be distinguished: authoritarian (autocratic), democratic and liberal, which are rarely found in their “pure form”.

Authoritarian style- this is the use of orders, instructions, instructions that do not imply objections from subordinates. The manager himself determines who should do what, when, how, gives commands and demands reports on their execution. It is used in emergency situations - in a military situation, in the event of various types of natural or man-made disasters.

Negative The qualities of an autocrat are especially evident when the leader lacks organizational skills, general culture, and professional preparedness. Under these circumstances, such a leader can turn into a tyrant. Advantages: lightning-fast reaction, energy, determination, speed of decision-making, perseverance.

Democratic style leadership implies friendly advice, instructions in the form of requests, and the active participation of subordinates in the development of management decisions. This is the most effective leadership style, because it fosters initiative, a creative attitude to work, and a sense of responsibility and ownership in subordinates.

Liberal style management is the leader's non-interference in the work of subordinates, at least until the subordinates themselves ask the leader for advice. This style is permissible only in those limited cases when subordinates are higher in their qualifications than the manager or equal to him and at the same time know the basic principles no worse than him. production tasks team.

34. FORMATION OF AN INDIVIDUAL MANAGEMENT STYLE

Individual leadership style, based on a democratic style, which turns into authoritarian in acute situations, and in relation to highly qualified creative individuals - into liberal, can be considered the optimal leadership style.

When assessing an individual leadership style, special importance is attached to the manager’s ability to achieve mutual understanding with employees of different ages, gender, different professions, different education, marital status, temperament, and qualifications. A leader’s ability to convince people, inspire them to carry out even unpleasant tasks, and help them replace their usual way of action with a new, more rational, more effective one is also valued.

Effective leadership is not to limit yourself to the rigid boundaries of any one style: all styles fit within the framework general theory management, all of them can be useful and even necessary in one situation or another.

Formation of the right individual style will be facilitated by adherence to the following principles.

Feedback. Subordinates, as a rule, seek to receive an assessment of the work they have done directly from their supervisor. The manager must be able to timely and accurately evaluate the work of his subordinates.

Definition of freedom of action of a subordinate. Knowing the character of his subordinates, the manager must decide in each individual case how to make the employee’s work more effective.

Consider the subordinate's attitude towards work. The manager helps his subordinates develop the correct psychological orientation, establish a scale of life values, and clearly define the place of work in their lives.

Focus on the final results of work.

Promotion. The manager must instill in his subordinates that the best way to make a career is to perform well in their current daily duties, complementing this with hints about the desirability of promotion.

Personal behavior of the leader. The leader cannot afford to express personal likes and dislikes.

Repeat and repeat. A leader should not expect people to understand his orders the first time.

Don't be overly gloomy and serious. The leader must understand that humor helps soften the most tense situations.

35. AUTHORITY OF THE LEADER

True leader's authority represents well-deserved respect for him and is based on such components as knowledge, experience, intelligence of the leader, his trust in his subordinates and his exactingness towards them, care for them, and high personal qualities.

An ineptly formed individual leadership style contributes to the emergence of false authority which reduces the effectiveness of management; Subordinates often flatter the leader without actually respecting him.

The high authority of a manager in a subordinate group or organization is the basis of his high reputation, which is a broader concept than the authority of a leader. A manager's positive reputation inspires trust and respect among staff and increases his or her own self-esteem.

If the authority of a manager is determined by his assessment by members of a group or organization, then reputation is formed from communication and interaction in all areas of his interaction with society - in the organization, family, politics, region, everyday life.

In general components formation positive reputation manager may be his professional competence, leadership skills and personal authority in the organization, leadership style, image, performance and healthy lifestyle, its assessment by society in different areas and situations.

The psychological preparedness of a leader is, first of all, a management culture, good manners, the ability to manage one’s feelings and emotions, a sense of responsibility, and collectivism.

Of great importance for a leader is his ability to speak simply, accessiblely, expressively, emotionally, clearly and concisely.

The leader's quiet and calm tone gives his words weight and a businesslike character.

The leader should not show familiarity.

A manager must be able not only to speak, but also, no less important, to listen, and also to challenge a subordinate to a conversation in order to understand him.

Both the leader’s appearance and his ability to behave in society have a psychological impact on the subordinate.

36. TYPES AND CULTURE OF COMMUNICATION

Communication is a form of human activity that ensures the emergence of psychological contact, manifested in the exchange of information, mutual influence, mutual experience and mutual understanding.

Communication can be written, oral, by telephone, e-mail etc. Each type of communication has its own techniques and methods.

Types of communication:

“mask contact” is formal communication in which there is no desire to understand and take into account the personality characteristics of the interlocutor, familiar masks are used (politeness, severity, indifference, etc.), i.e. a set of gestures, standard phrases that allow one to hide true emotions, attitude towards the interlocutor. In some situations, "mask contact" is necessary;

Primitive communication, when a person is assessed as a necessary or interfering object: in the first case, they actively come into contact, in the second, they use aggressive, rude remarks. Having received what they wanted from their interlocutor, they lose interest in him without hiding it;

Formal-role communication, in which both the content and means of communication are regulated and instead of knowing the personality of the interlocutor, they make do with knowledge of his social role;

Business communication, when the personality, character, age, and mood of the interlocutor are taken into account, but the interests of the business are more significant than possible personal differences;

spiritual communication of friends, when you can touch on any topic without necessarily resorting to words, your friend will understand you by facial expression, gestures, and intonation. Such communication is possible when each participant can anticipate the interlocutor’s reactions, knows his interests, beliefs, etc.;

manipulative communication, aimed at extracting benefits from the interlocutor using various techniques (flattery, intimidation, deception, demonstration of kindness, etc.), depending on the characteristics of the interlocutor;

social communication, in which people say not what they think, but what is supposed to be said in such cases; This communication is closed, because people’s points of view on this or that issue do not matter and do not determine the nature of this type of communication.

The basis communication culture constitute its moral standards: contracts must be fulfilled, man is the highest value, the need to imagine oneself in the place of another.

The quality of his work, the emotional mood of employees, the stability of personnel, the socio-psychological climate in the organization, the presence or absence of conflict situations, the development of business contacts, which affects the economic situation in the organization, depend on the art of business communication of the manager.

37. MECHANISM OF EMPLOYEE PARTICIPATION IN MANAGEMENT

Empowering employees is any process that provides workers with greater autonomy by increasing their access to information and providing control over the factors that determine the performance of work tasks. Empowerment helps eliminate employees' feelings of powerlessness and enhances their sense of self-worth. Basic Ways to empower employees:

1) assistance to employees in achieving a high level of working knowledge and skills:

2) expansion of employee control functions (providing greater freedom of action in the labor process, accompanied by increased responsibility for results);

3) familiarizing employees with examples of successful role models (observing the actions of highly effective employees);

4) the practice of social encouragement and persuasion;

5) emotional support.

Various methods are used to empower employees. behavioral tools(joint goal setting, feedback on work results, modeling, various reward systems), but the main ones are various programs for participation in management. Implementing these types of programs helps employees develop a sense of ownership, their participation in decision-making processes, and a sense of choice in their work environment.

Participation in management implies that in order to achieve the goals of the organization, employees have the opportunity to realize their abilities, show initiative and creativity. In accordance with the “path-goal” management method, participation in the decision-making process is associated with a high sense of responsibility among employees and an increase in the degree of their motivation to achieve goals.

Participation in management causes a change in the motivation of employees who have the opportunity to influence the situation, an increase in self-esteem, the degree of job satisfaction, and improved interactions with managers. In addition, the likelihood of conflicts and stress is reduced, workers’ sensitivity to change increases, staff turnover and absenteeism rates are reduced, and communication improves.

A critical element of the effectiveness of any participatory management program is the degree to which its employees understand responsibility for the opportunities provided to them.

38. ESSENCE OF CONFLICTS

Conflict is a contradiction that arises between people in the process of resolving certain issues.

One of the parties to the conflict requires a change in the behavior of the other party. However, not every contradiction can be called a conflict: the fact that people have different views and opinions about any problem does not interfere with their coordinated work. The emergence of conflict is facilitated by contradictions affecting the interests, status, and moral dignity of an individual or group. Conflicts create tense relationships in the team, switch the attention of employees from direct work to “showing things up,” and have a serious impact on their neuropsychological state.

Conflict is a multidimensional, dynamic, developing process that has not only forms of manifestation, but also the following stages of development:

1) conflict situation;

2) the conflict (incident) itself;

3) conflict resolution.

Intentional, deliberate intrigue, the purpose of which is to force people to act according to the planned scenario. You can reduce the possibility of developing intrigues by:

Formation of stable personal ideas about phenomena and processes;

Creating acceptable information transparency at all levels of activity;

Formation of the organizational culture of the team and company;

Creation of cohesive, purposeful teams.

39. TYPES OF CONFLICTS

Conflicts are divided into natural and artificial. Natural– arise spontaneously when there is a large discrepancy between someone’s idea of a person, organization or activity and the person’s own idea of himself, organization or activity. Artificial conflicts are created by people to achieve certain goals, including to relieve accumulated stress.

Depending on the degree of employee involvement in them conflicts are divided:

On horizontal(employees who are not subordinate to each other are involved);

vertical(they involve subordinate employees);

mixed(employees are involved, both those who are not subordinate to each other, and those who are subordinate).

Emotional conflicts: their source is distrust, suspiciousness, based not on objective, but on subjective reasons.

The socio-psychological typology of conflicts is based on the interconnection of people within the framework of their relationships in a team.

Motivational conflicts. The most pronounced motives are security, belonging to a particular community, prestige, self-esteem, and self-realization.

Communication conflicts. A communication conflict is evident when no one dares to establish feedback with the manager, that is, no one draws the boss’s attention to his mistakes. A similar situation is when an employee does not hear words of recognition, as a result of which he loses self-confidence.

Conflicts between power and anarchy: when the manager is opposed by opposition, which is joined by the majority of employees.

Intrapersonal conflict. One of its most common forms is role-playing conflict when a person is presented with conflicting demands regarding what the result of his work should be.

Interpersonal conflict The most common. Most often, this is a struggle between managers over limited resources, capital, labor, time to use equipment, or approval of a project.

Such conflict also manifests itself as a clash of personalities: people with different character traits, views and values are sometimes unable to get along with each other.

Conflict between the individual and the group. If the expectations of the group conflict with the expectations of the individual, conflict may arise.

Intergroup conflict. Intergroup conflicts can arise between the trade union and the administration, between formal and informal groups.

40. CONFLICT SITUATION AND ITS GROWTH INTO CONFLICT

The basic concept of conflict is conflict situation, which presupposes the presence of two main components - participants in the conflict (opponents) and the subject of the conflict.

Participants in the conflict due to the complexity of their structures, they are not identical to each other “in strength,” that is, in rank. If a participant in a conflict acts in it only on his own behalf and pursues only his personal interests and goals, then he is classified as an opponent of the first rank. If a group of individuals pursuing a common group goal comes into conflict, then we are talking about an opponent of the second rank. An opponent of the third rank is a structure consisting of simple groups of the second rank directly interacting with each other. An opponent of zero rank is a person who, in contradiction with himself, develops his own position.

The root cause, which is the basis of the conflict situation, is subject of conflict. Its definition is the most difficult, but the main task, which is solved simultaneously with identifying the causes of the conflict.

For a conflict to arise, in addition to the participants (opponents) and the subject of the conflict, certain actions on the part of the opponents are required, called incident.

Thus, conflict– this is a conflict situation plus an incident (actions of the parties to the conflict). Conflict situation can exist long before a direct clash between opponents; it can move on to new opponents even when the causes of the conflict have already disappeared. Incident can arise both on the initiative of opponents (or one of them) and for objective reasons (for example, the failure of an important task or a manager’s mistake).

The conflict situation and the incident are relatively independent of each other. Thus, a conflict situation may be based on objective circumstances, and an incident may arise unexpectedly. On the other hand, a conflict situation (like an incident) can be created by the opponent intentionally, in order to achieve certain goals. The situation can also be generated by him without a purpose or even to his own detriment for psychological reasons.

41. CAUSES OF CONFLICTS

In socio-psychological terms, a conflict situation is a sharp discrepancy in the sphere of communication between the expected and specific actions of employees.

The emergence of a conflict is result of interaction the following three components:

Situation (a set of objective preconditions that provoke the emergence of a conflict);

The personality of the conflict participant (her awareness of the situation of entering into a conflict);

The individual’s attitude to the situation (whether she has motives for entering into conflict).

In a conflict situation, it is very important for a manager to timely determine the true cause of the conflict, since the main thing for eliminating conflicts is to eliminate their preconditions.

Causes occurrence of conflicts:

1. Inability to correctly formulate a goal and setting the wrong goal by the manager.

2. Inability to take into account the individual characteristics of people.

3. Innovative changes in the structure of the organization - change of managers, emergence of new professional groups, promotions, salary reductions, etc.

4. Incorrect stimulation of subordinates with rewards and punishment.

5. Wrong attitude towards criticism.

6. Tactlessness and sometimes rudeness on the part of the manager.

A special place is occupied by the so-called reactive aggression, when people begin to look for the culprit of all troubles and misfortunes in their close circle, in their environment.

The main condition for a conflict to escalate into a quarrel is the dissatisfaction of team members with each other, the subjective emotional attitude of one conflicting party to the other. Negative emotions are the main cause of conflict, while business disagreements in this case are only a reason to express hostility towards a person.

The cause of the conflict can also be a random combination of circumstances – a kind of “force majeure”. Such a conflict is difficult to foresee, and in this case the manager has to act quickly on the results, and not on preventing the conflict.

42. WAYS TO RESOLUTE CONFLICTS

The manager is obliged to intervene in the conflict, while clearly delineating his legal and moral rights.

To resolve the conflict the manager must:

1) objectively assess the situation and acknowledge the existence of a conflict, which will remove many negative aspects (omissions, “behind-the-scenes” actions, etc.) and bring its resolution closer;

2) distinguish the cause of the conflict from its subject - the immediate cause, which is often disguised;

3) determine the type of conflict, its stage, the subject of the conflict, the goals of the main participants (opponents) of the conflict;

4) find out the motives of each opponent for entering into conflict, which can be both positive and negative;

5) before taking action, imagine and analyze possible solutions.

Ways to get out of conflict based on the direct actions of the leader:

1) negotiations with opponents - when a compromise is reached, the basis of the conflict may disappear;

2) change the subject of the conflict, and therefore change the attitude towards the conflict;

3) separate disputes between the conflicting parties from the problem that needs to be solved, analyze a number of possible ways to solve the problem and choose the best one, mutually acceptable to all parties to the conflict;

4) strive to create ideal jobs;

5) use A complex approach to minimize conflict situations, which includes:

Prevention of conflict situations by increasing the reliability of the personnel management system;

Development of conflict resolution algorithms on a scientific basis and a clear scheme of administration actions in specific situations;

Creation of an adequate system of mental self-regulation and high emotional stability of personnel; application of psychotechnologies for positive impact on personnel;

Conflict-free procedures for relocation (redistribution), part-time employment and dismissal (reduction) of personnel.

If the basis of the conflict is made up of objective conditions, then its simple interruption without taking effective measures to overcome the causes can create an even more acute situation, since after the conflict is interrupted, the conflict situation persists.

43. CONCEPT OF LEADERSHIP

Every group has a leader. He may be officially appointed, or he may not hold any official position, but actually lead the team due to his organizational abilities. The manager is appointed officially, from the outside, and the leader is nominated from below. The process of influencing people from a leadership position in an organization is called formal leadership. However, a person holding a high position cannot automatically become a leader in an organization, since leadership is largely characterized by an informal basis.

Informal leader is a member of the team who collects a relatively large number of votes in any choice situation. Functions informal leader comes down to two main ones:

Establishes goodwill, responsibility, mutual understanding or, conversely, contributes to the emergence of aggressiveness and isolation of the group, acquisitiveness, etc.

Having established the norms, goals, customs and traditions of the group, the informal leader motivates the behavior of each member, forcing him to follow the standards of group behavior. The leader carries out motivation by evaluating the actions of a group member with a look, gesture or word; The majority of group members voluntarily and not always consciously join this assessment.

Social psychology distinguishes, but does not contrast, the concepts of management and leadership. Management is a management process labor activity collective, carried out by a leader - an intermediary of social control and power on the basis of administrative and legal powers and social norms. Leadership– the process of internal socio-psychological self-organization and self-management of relationships and activities of team members through the individual initiative of the participants.

The phenomenon of leadership arises in problematic situations. However, in terms of group goals, leadership can be either positive or negative.

Psychological qualities of a leader:

Self confidence;

Sharp and flexible mind;

Competence as a thorough knowledge of one's business;

Strong will;

The ability to understand the peculiarities of human psychology;

Organizational skills.

Sometimes a person who does not have the listed qualities becomes a leader; on the other hand, a person may have these qualities, but not be a leader. According to situational leadership theory a leader becomes the person who, when any situation arises in a group, has the qualities, properties, abilities, and experience necessary for the optimal solution of this situation for this group.

44. TYPES OF LEADERSHIP

There are two polar types of leadership – instrumental and emotional.

Instrumental(business) leader is a group member who takes the initiative to solve a problem situation in accordance with group goals and has the appropriate knowledge, information, skills and techniques.

Emotional Leader is a group member who takes on the function of regulating group mood (expressive functions) in problem situations. Sometimes the position of an emotional leader is called the epicenter of emotional contacts.

Main functions, which the leader performs:

Distribution of roles, responsibilities, tasks;

Monitoring the behavior of each group member;

Planning the actions and means by which the group achieves its goals;

Representation of collective interests, will, desires;

Arbitrator function;

Reference function;

Group symbol function;

Function of the bearer of responsibility;

“Father” function (a true leader is the focus of all positive emotions of group members, the ideal object of identification and feelings of devotion);

Function of the bearer of group guilt.

Force and coercion in leadership are often replaced by motivation and inspiration. Influence is based on people's acceptance of the demands of a leader who does not use overt or direct displays of power.

Research shows that a leader's knowledge and abilities are rated higher than those of other group members.

45. LEADERSHIP AND POWER IN AN ORGANIZATION

From the point of view of the effectiveness of the team, it is most expedient if the manager is also its leader.

However, no matter how much a person strives to become a leader, he will never become one if those around him do not perceive him as a leader.

A manager is often appointed to his post regardless of whether his subordinates believe that he is suitable for this role. In other words, leadership is a social phenomenon in its essence, and leadership is psychological.

Leadership is not management. Management focuses on getting people to do things right, while leadership focuses on getting people to do the right things. An effective manager is not necessarily an effective leader, and vice versa.

Manager is a person who directs the work of others and is personally responsible for its results. A good manager establishes the order and sequence of work performed. He builds his interaction with subordinates more on facts and within the framework of established goals. Leader inspires people and inspires enthusiasm in employees, conveying to them its vision of the future and helping them adapt to the new and go through the stage of change.

Managers Most often, out of necessity, they are guided by goals set by someone. Leaders They set their own goals and use them to change people’s attitudes towards business.

Managers tend to develop their actions in detail and in time. Leaders achieve organizational effectiveness by developing a vision of the future and ways to achieve it, without delving into operational details and routine.

Using your professionalism, various abilities and skills, managers concentrate their efforts in the area of decision making. They try to narrow down the set of ways to solve the problem. Decisions are often made based on past experiences. Leaders, on the contrary, they make constant attempts to develop new and controversial solutions to the problem. Most importantly, once they solve a problem, leaders take on the risk and burden of identifying new problems, especially when there are significant opportunities for corresponding rewards.

It is obvious that in practice there is no ideal observance of these two types of relationships in management.

46. EFFECTIVE LEADERSHIP

In modern conditions, effective leadership is not an “iron” or “steady hand”, but a high sensitivity to the needs of its followers, which is manifested in the development of employees, in including them in group work, in helping them achieve personal goals.

An effective leader, consistent with the new philosophy of management, is considered to be a person who realizes that his authority directly depends on the respect of his subordinates, and not on his formal status.

Effective Leader:

He is accessible to any employee, and when discussing any problems he is invariably friendly;

Deeply involved in the personnel management process, constantly pays attention to reward systems, personally knows many employees;

Does not tolerate armchair style, prefers to appear more often among ordinary workers and discuss local problems, knows how to listen and hear, is decisive and persistent, does not have a reputation for being cunning;

We tolerate expressions of open disagreement, delegate authority to performers, and build relationships on trust;

In difficult moments, does not seek to find someone to blame, prefers oral rather than written information;

Features of leader behavior:

1) instructions and orders give way to persuasion, strict control to trust; transition to cooperative relationships;

2) managers-leaders strive to develop collective forms of work as a single team, which dramatically increases the mutual exchange of information between members of work groups;

3) leaders are always open to new ideas coming from colleagues, subordinates, and clients. For such leaders, free expression of ideas and exchange of opinions become a natural form of relationship;

4) the manager-leader strives to create and maintain a good psychological climate in the team, not to infringe on the interests of some employees at the expense of others, and readily and publicly recognizes the merits of employees.

Today we need leaders who know how to lead an organization out of crisis situations.

Characteristic features of the activity "crisis leader":

Desire to become a leader in difficult situations and find pleasure in fulfilling this role;

The desire to be competitive in everything and always;

High adaptability;

Tendency to innovation;

Lack of fear of failures, using them as new starting points for development.

47. FORMATION OF A MANAGER TEAM

In its general sense team is a single whole, a team of like-minded people united by a common goal. It is the commonality of goals that is the main condition for forming a team. A team has the potential to achieve much more than the sum of the individual's accomplishments.

A team can achieve its goals more or less effectively depending on the size and composition of the team, group norms, cohesion, conflict, status, the functional role of its members, and the work of the manager in managing his team.

Number. An ideal group should consist of 3–9 people. As a group grows in size, communication among its members becomes more complex and agreement becomes more difficult to achieve.

Compound(the degree of similarity between personalities, their points of view and approaches to solving problems). It is recommended that the group be made up of people with different points of view.

Group norms(norms accepted in groups) have a strong influence on the behavior of each individual and on the direction in which the group will work - achieving the goals of the organization or counteracting them.

Cohesion- a measure of the attraction of group members to each other and to the group. Highly cohesive groups tend to have fewer communication problems. A potential negative consequence of high cohesion is group like-mindedness.

Group like-mindedness. This is the tendency for an individual to suppress his views on some phenomenon in order not to disrupt the cohesion of the group. As a result, the decisions made by such a team are not always effective: the team tries to make an average decision that will not hurt anyone.

Conflict. Differences in opinion increase the likelihood of conflict. Although active exchange of views is beneficial, it can lead to intragroup disputes and other manifestations of open conflict, which are always detrimental.

It is the personal responsibility of all members of a good team to create an environment in which the team's potential can flourish.

Stages of team formation (B. Bass)

1) acceptance by group members of each other;

2) development of communications and development of a mechanism for making group decisions;

3) formation of group solidarity;

4) the desire to maximize group success through the rational use of individual abilities, opportunities and mutual assistance.

48. DISTRIBUTION OF ROLES OF THE MANAGEMENT TEAM

A critical factor determining the effectiveness of a manager's team is the distribution of functions among its members, that is, the distribution of roles in the team. Target roles – working out and performing basic team tasks. The activities of people playing target roles are aimed directly at achieving the goals of the group. Supporters roles contribute to maintaining and activating the life and activities of the team.

Target Roles

Chairman– this is the main role. This person performs a very specific role-functional task.

Coordinator recognizes and controls the process of activities and goals of the team, pays attention to everyone, takes into account the feelings, interests and motives of the activities of people in the team, summarizes incoming proposals. The main task is to create conditions conducive to each team member making his assigned role contribution.

Idea's generator develops new ideas, solutions, approaches.

Informant. His task is to search and provide the group with all the necessary information.

Expert expresses opinions or beliefs regarding any proposal.

Worker explains, gives examples, develops ideas, predicts the future fate of the proposal if it is accepted.

Finisher generalizes, summarizes all proposals, sums up, formulates the final decision.

Each target role carries a huge functional load, so it is undesirable for one person to perform several roles at the same time. Taking into account the specifics of production, target roles may change, their list may be supplemented with new ones or, conversely, reduced.

The presence of players playing supporting roles is not necessary - the performance of these roles can be combined with the performance of other functions.

Key supporting roles

Encourager. His job is to be friendly, praise others for their ideas, agree with them, and positively evaluate their contributions to solving the problem; resolve conflicts between team members.

Giving shape. This person does not control or coordinate the process, but monitors its dynamics and supports it. It creates an environment in which every team member strives to perform at their best.

Executor Must follow team decisions while being thoughtful about other people's ideas.

Setting criteria is obliged to establish criteria that should guide the group when choosing substantive (or procedural) points (or evaluating the team’s decision).

Responsible for external contacts. His task is to connect the team with the outside world.

Many people combine different roles. A combination of roles balances the functions and abilities of the people on the manager's team.

49. SELF-MANAGED TEAMS

Self-Managed Teams- These are working groups that are given significant autonomy. Such teams take full responsibility for the behavior of their members and the results of their production activities. Members of a self-managed team can have several professions, i.e. they are multi-professionals. This allows them to move from one task to another depending on the needs of the group.

Team meetings take up a significant amount of time as team members gradually take on more and more management responsibilities. As they gain more experience, self-managed teams are able to propose changes to the pay system or production organization.

There are no problems with the adaptation of a newcomer to the team, since the “veterans” are always ready to provide him with all possible assistance and pass on to him knowledge about organizational behavior and culture.

TO benefits self-managed teams include:

Increasing flexibility and developing the potential of human capital within the boundaries of human capabilities;

Increased productivity and reduced need for specialized specialists;

The emergence of a powerful synergistic effect;

Reducing absenteeism and tardiness rates;

High team loyalty, increased level of job satisfaction.

Self-managed teams are a brilliant example of the application of organizational behavior and participatory management principles. Their growing popularity is largely due to the fact that as formal groups they enjoy the support of the organization, allow them to reach a significant proportion of the company's employees, and are developmental models of organizational behavior.

50. LIFE CYCLE OF AN ORGANIZATION

Widespread concept life cycle organization - its changes with a certain sequence of states when interacting with the environment. There are certain stages that organizations go through, and the transitions from one stage to another are predictable, not random.

There are four main stages life cycle of an organization: 1) the firm expands its operations and accumulates resources; the organization is built on a functional principle, the leadership is autocratic; 2) resources are rationalized, further growth becomes selective as the need for increased efficiency arises; 3) expansion into new markets begins with the goal optimal use resources; 4) new structures are being created to optimize work and rational planning; At this stage of evolution, the company decentralizes.

Dividing the life cycle of an organization into appropriate time periods involves the following stages.

1. Entrepreneurship stage. The organization is in its infancy; the product life cycle is being formed. The organization's goals are still unclear; progress to the next stage requires a stable supply of resources.

2. Collectivity stage. The innovative processes of the previous stage are developed, and the mission of the organization is formed. Communication and structure within the organization remain informal. Members of the organization spend a lot of time developing contacts and demonstrate high levels of commitment.

3. Stage of formalization and management. The structure of the organization is stabilized, rules are introduced, and procedures are defined. The emphasis is on innovation efficiency and sustainability. The role of the top management of the organization is increasing, the decision-making process is becoming more balanced and conservative.

4. Stage of developing the structure. The organization increases product output and expands the service market. Leaders identify new development opportunities. The organizational structure becomes more complex and mature. The decision-making mechanism is decentralized.

5. Decline stage. As a result of competition and a shrinking market, the demand for the organization's products or services decreases. Leaders are looking for ways to hold onto markets and seize new opportunities. The need for workers, especially the most valuable specialties, is increasing. The number of conflicts is often increasing. New people are coming to management to try to stem the downward trend. The mechanism for developing and making decisions is centralized.

51. TYPES OF ORGANIZATIONAL MANAGEMENT

Moving on to creating conditions for economic growth and high quality goods and services, the organization must choose a type of management that corresponds to the characteristics and objectives of this stage, guided by its goals.

Organizational behavior choices

Characteristics of the organization: Main purpose

Control type – operational: Profit maximization

Control type – strategic: Profit maximization taking into account the interests of society

Characteristics of the organization: The main way to achieve goals

Control type – operational: Optimizing the use of internal resources

Control type – strategic: Establishing a dynamic balance with an uncertain and unstable environment

Characteristics of the organization: The importance of the time factor

Control type – operational: Not the most important factor in competition

Control type – strategic: The most important factor in competition

Characteristics of the organization: Short-term performance evaluation

Control type – operational: Profitability

Control type – strategic: Accuracy of forecasting changes in the internal environment and time of adaptation to changes in the external environment, quality of goods and services

Characteristics of the organization: Attitude towards staff

Control type – operational: Employees are one of the organization’s resources

Control type – strategic: Workers – most important resource organizations

The main criterion when choosing the type of management of an organization should be the implementation of effective activities while simultaneously planning for the future. Organizational maturity manifested in the fact that the main attention is paid to the efficiency of innovation and stability, product output increases and the service market expands, managers identify new opportunities for organizational development. All this is aimed at ensuring the strategic viability of the organization, maintaining and strengthening its stable position in the market. At the maturity stage, it is especially important to periodically and timely adjust the management structure of the organization, abolish bodies that have completed their task, timely introduce new divisions into the structure, create temporary target structural units to solve certain problems, allocate specialists to analyze the state of affairs and develop development prospects, etc. . P.

52. ORGANIZATIONAL CULTURE AND ITS TYPES

In concept « organizational culture» includes ideas, beliefs, traditions and values that are expressed in the dominant management style, methods of motivating employees, the image of the organization, etc.

Properties of organizational culture:

Forms employees’ ideas about organizational values and ways to follow these values;

Community: knowledge, values, attitudes, customs are used by a group to meet the needs of its members;

The basic elements of an organization's culture do not require proof - they are self-evident;

Hierarchy and priority: any culture involves ranking of values; Absolute values are often put at the forefront, the priority of which is unconditional;

Consistency: organizational culture is complex system, uniting individual elements into a single whole.

Among the functions of organizational culture are:

1. Are common functions are divided into regulatory and reproductive functions. Regulatory functions provide adaptive (external) and integrative (internal) tasks of the organization.

2. K specific The following functions include:

Security: culture serves as a kind of barrier to the emergence of undesirable tendencies and negative values characteristic of the external environment;

Integrating: by instilling a certain system of values that synthesizes the interests of all levels of the organization, organizational culture creates a sense of identity of interests of individuals and separate groups;

Regulatory: organizational culture includes informal, unwritten rules that indicate how people should behave in the process of work;

Substituting, or function of a substitute for formal relations;

Educational and developmental;

Quality management function;

The function of adapting a business organization to the needs of society;

The function of legitimizing organizational activities.

Organizations with strong culture have a coherent set of values and norms that closely bind their members to each other and promote their involvement in the process of achieving organizational goals. Weak culture Gives vague guidance on how employees should behave. In organizations with weak cultures, formal organizational structure rather than values and norms are primarily used to coordinate organizational behavior.

53. THE SIGNIFICANCE OF ORGANIZATIONAL CHANGE

Organizational changes is the company’s mastery of new ideas or behavior patterns. The activities of an organization are a constant response to the need for changes coming from both the internal and external environment. Managing the change process requires guided and long-term development of both leaders and the organization. Change is not an end in itself, it is constant process.

The drivers of organizational change exist both inside and outside the organization. External forces are formed in all sectors of the external environment (consumers, competitors, technologies, national economy, international sphere). Domestic the driving forces of change arise from the activities of the organization itself and the management decisions made within it (growth strategy, demands of employees, trade unions, low productivity indicators).

When making decisions to reorient the internal activities of the organization, management must be proactive and reactive, that is, either be active themselves or respond to the requirements of the situation. Be proactive- means to anticipate events, initiate changes, strive to control the very destiny of the organization. Behavior reactive character is a response to current events, adaptation to changes, and mitigation of their consequences.

Changes may concern any aspect or activity factor companies, which include:

Basic structure. The nature and level of business activity, legal structure, ownership, sources of financing, the nature of international operations change, mergers, divisions occur, joint ventures or projects are created;

Goals and objectives of the activity. Modification of goals is necessary even for the most successful organizations, if only because current goals have already been achieved;

Technology used. Equipment, materials and energy, technological and information processes are changing;

Management processes and structures. The internal structure of the organization, the content of labor processes, decision-making processes, and information systems are changing. Structural change is one of the most common and visible forms of change in an organization. This is a real need when there are significant changes in goals or strategy;

Organizational culture. Values, traditions, informal relationships, motives and processes, and leadership style are changing. The most common and effective tool for changing the culture of an organization is training;

Human factor. Management and subordinates, their level of competence, motivation, behavior and labor efficiency change;

Organizational performance. The financial, economic and social aspects of its activities are changing, and its business prestige in the eyes of the public and business circles is changing.

54. RESISTANCE TO ORGANIZATIONAL CHANGE AND ITS TYPES

Resistance to change– these are any actions of employees aimed at discrediting, delaying or opposing the implementation of changes in the labor process.

Often employees resist change for no apparent reason. Effective change management requires management to identify counteracting factors and the ability to apply methods to involve employees in the change process.

The reaction of employees to changes in the work process is complex and prevents them from directly adapting to the changes. First of all, changes affect the attitudes of each employee and cause certain reactions determined by attitude towards changes. One type of psychological protective mechanisms is stereotypes, preventing the correct perception of innovations.

Often, in an effort to maintain balance, the group makes attempts, regardless of the changes that occur, to keep attitudes and assessments intact by any means. Consequently, every external influence causes opposition within the group. Thus, each group is a self-correcting mechanism, whose task is to restore balance at the slightest threat of change. This characteristic of organizations is called homeostasis.

There are three main type of resistance to change, influencing the formation of a negative attitude of employees towards change.

Logic resistance– means employees disagree with facts, rational arguments, and logic. Occurs due to the real time and effort required to adapt to changes, including mastering new job responsibilities. These are real costs that employees bear, even though in the long term we are talking about changes that are favorable to them, which means that management needs to compensate them one way or another.

Psychological resistance– based on emotions, feelings and attitudes; internally “logical” from the point of view of the employee’s attitudes and feelings about change. Employees may be afraid of the unknown, distrust managers, and feel a threat to their safety. Even if the manager considers such feelings unjustified, he must take them into account.

Sociological resistance- the result of the challenge that changes pose to group interests, norms, and values. Since public interests (political coalitions, the values of trade unions and various communities) are a very significant factor in the external environment, management must carefully consider the attitude of various coalitions and groups to change. At the small group level, change jeopardizes the values of friendships and the statuses of team members.

55. REASONS FOR RESISTANCE TO CHANGE ON THE SIDE OF ORGANIZATIONAL PERSONNEL

Reasons for resistance to change:

Employees’ feeling of discomfort caused by the very nature of the change, when employees show uncertainty about the correctness of the decisions taken technical solutions, negatively perceive the uncertainty that has arisen;

Fear of the unknown, threat to the safety of their work;

Methods for implementing changes when employees are unhappy with the restriction of information, do not accept an authoritarian approach that does not involve their participation in implementing changes;

Employees feel unfair because someone else is benefiting from the changes they make;

Feeling that change will lead to personal losses;

The belief that change is not necessary or desirable for the organization.

Experience shows that most often employee resistance to innovation occurs in cases where:

The goals of the changes are not explained to people;

Employees themselves were not involved in planning these changes;

The traditions of the team and their usual style and mode of operation are ignored. Formal and informal groups will stubbornly resist innovations that threaten their usual relationships;

It seems to subordinates that a mistake was made in preparing the reforms; especially if people suspect that there is a threat of a salary reduction, demotion or loss of favor with the manager;

Perestroika threatens subordinates with a sharp increase in the volume of work. A similar threat arises if the manager did not bother to plan changes far enough in advance;

People think that everything is fine;

The initiator of reforms is not respected and has no authority;

When planning reforms, the team does not see the final result;

The worker does not know what his personal benefit will be;

The subordinate does not feel the confidence or conviction of the leader;

Reforms are proposed and implemented in a categorical manner, using administrative methods;

Innovation may entail staff reductions;

The team doesn’t know how much it will cost (costs, effort);

Reform does not bring quick results;

The reforms will benefit a narrow circle of people;

The progress of the reform is rarely discussed in the team;

There is no atmosphere of trust in the team, etc.

56. METHODS OF OVERCOMING RESISTANCE

Methods by which you can reduce or completely eliminate resistance:

transfer of information– open discussion of ideas and activities will help employees become convinced in advance of the need for change;

involving subordinates in decision making. This allows employees who may be resistant to freely express their views on these innovations, potential problems and changes;

relief and support– means by which employees fit into the new environment more easily. For example, a manager can provide emotional support, such as listening carefully to employees or giving them some time to relax after a stressful period. There may be a need for additional professional training to improve the skills of employees;

negotiations to ensure approval of innovations. The implication is that the consent of those who resist is obtained through material incentives. For example, management may offer the union higher wages or promise not to fire workers; or the manager is offered a more interesting job if he recognizes the need for change;

co-optation- giving a person who can or is resisting change a leading role in making decisions about the introduction of innovations and in their implementation. For example, a worker or group of employees who are skeptical about future innovations may be placed on a committee that analyzes the technology being used and determines which machines should be purchased;

maneuvering in order to reduce resistance to change - selective use of information or drawing up a clear schedule of activities and events in order to have the desired impact on subordinates;

compulsion– the use of formal power by management, aimed at encouraging staff acceptance of changes, when opponents of change are faced with a choice between transformations and deprivation of part of their remuneration or work. Coercion should be resorted to in critical situations when the very fate of the organization depends on achieving a result;

senior management support– indicates that transformations are of great importance for the organization. Such support is especially necessary in cases where changes affect several departments or when their implementation involves the redistribution of resource flows.

57. ROLE OF THE MANAGER WHEN CARRYING OUT CHANGES IN THE ORGANIZATION

Managers play a decisive role in initiating and implementing change, as they are responsible for developing a strategy for change and planning activities for its implementation.

A huge role in the process of implementing changes belongs to transformative leaders, i.e., managers who initiate strategic changes aimed at strengthening and developing the organization’s position. They are the ones who formulate the vision and “show the product face to face,” help employees see the big picture, strive to create a continuously learning organization and employees, and prepare them to solve complex problems.

Qualities of a transformative leader

1. Creative in And denition. Transformational leaders create and promote their vision for the organization, that is, the long-term image of the company expressed in a certain form, or an idea of what the company can and should become. IN And activity forces employees to distract themselves from immediate problems, take a more active part in the activities of the organization, and form common beliefs and values, which are the basis for changing the organizational culture.

2. The presence of communicative charisma. The transformational leader needs to convince employees that what is being proposed in And making the company's future realistically achievable, and motivating them to transform the future into the present. Charisma- one of the characteristics of leadership, the ability of a leader to influence employees, to encourage them to take constant actions desired by the leader. Charismatic leaders take the risk of transformation by demonstrating high degree competence and well-founded self-confidence. Employees treat such leaders with great respect and trust, and tend to express emotional commitment to them. And Denia. But charismatic leaders (like all managers) need to recognize the emotional vulnerability of employees during change and take actions to reduce employees' fear while encouraging them to make changes.

3. Ability to provide stimulating training. The most important task of transformations (and managers) is to develop the potential abilities of employees for creative perception and learning from the experience of changes. Double loop learning: the information obtained during the implementation of the change (first cycle) allows for more effective management of future transformations (second cycle). Such training develops employees' forecasting skills and overcoming their own paradigms. This is different from unit learning loop, when employees resolve current problems by adapting to changes imposed on them from above.

58. ESSENCE OF CHANGE STRATEGY

Let's consider a model of the process of successful management of organizational change, consisting of several stages and developed by L. Greiner.

1. Pressure and inducement. Management must recognize the need for change.

2. Mediation and reorientation of attention. Although management may sense the need for change, they may fail to make an accurate analysis of the problems. The services of an external consultant who can objectively assess the situation may be required. You can also involve your employees as intermediaries, but on condition that they can be considered impartial and express an opinion that is unlikely to please senior management. For mediation to be effective, it must result in a change in orientation, and this involves the perception of new points of view.

3. Diagnosis and awareness. Management collects relevant information, determines the true causes of problems that require a change in the existing situation.

4. Finding a new solution and obligations to implement it. After recognizing the existence of a problem, management looks for a way to correct the situation.

5. Experiment and detection. An organization rarely takes on the risk of making major changes in one fell swoop. She is more likely to test planned changes and identify hidden challenges before implementing innovations on a large scale.

6. Reinforcement and agreement. The final step is to motivate people to accept the change by convincing them that the change is beneficial to both the organization and themselves. Possible ways to reinforce agreement to innovation are praise, promotion, increased pay for higher productivity, permission to take part in a discussion of the process of introducing innovations, problems, amendments that need to be made, etc.

Participation in organizational development, i.e. participation of an organization, department or production group in various planned activities during the implementation of the organizational development program, provides for improving the functioning of the organization, providing its members with the opportunity to more effectively manage the culture of the group and the organization.