Accuracy is the quality of speech, which consists in the correspondence of the semantic side of speech with reality, in the ability to find Right words to express thoughts.
The use of a word in speech is determined by the characteristics of its lexical meaning and also depends on the context.
An incorrectly chosen word can distort the meaning of the message, create the possibility of double interpretation, or impart an undesirable stylistic overtone.
Typical lexical errors in terms of accuracy
1. Violation of lexical compatibility of words. Lexical compatibility is the ability of words to connect with each other. If the lexical meaning of words and the traditions of their combination in a phrase are not taken into account, lexical incompatibility arises. For example, there are words whose combinability in the Russian language is phraseologically related: stale bread, callous person, but not stale cake or callous friend. We can say deep night or deep old age, but not deep day or deep youth. In some other cases, a violation of lexical compatibility may be caused by inattention to the lexical meaning of words that are combined into a phrase. For example, a conversation has been read (a conversation is an oral genre, it can be conducted, and a book or lecture can be read).
From the point of view of modern language, it is often difficult to explain the reasons for differences in the compatibility of words that are close in meaning, for example: Pay attention to / attach importance to the development of sports.
Many combinations of words are fixed by linguistic tradition, and the ability to use them is part of a person’s linguistic culture.
Lexical compatibility has its limits. For example, the word strong has the following meanings:
1. Something that is difficult to break or break (strong fabric, rope).
2. Strong-willed, unshakable (strong-spirited old man).
3. Healthy, strong (strong body).
4. Reliable ( strong friendship, Love).
5. Reaching a strong degree (hard frost, wind).
6. Rich, potent, sharp (strong tea, tobacco).
7. Unwind Prosperous (strong owner).
Let us consider, in particular, the fourth and fifth meanings of the word: friendship, love are “designations of feelings,” as well as hatred and envy. But the expression strong hatred contradicts the requirement of lexical compatibility. Frost and wind are “weather and climatic conditions”, just like heat and humidity. But the combination of intense heat is impossible.
It is necessary to distinguish from a speech error the deliberate combination of incompatible words, for example: ordinary miracle. This combination is an example of a stylistic figure called an “oxymoron.”
2. Mixing of paronyms. Paronyms are words that sound similar, but do not have the same meaning (remains and residues; effective and efficient; economical, economical, economical). The words that make up a paronymic series, as a rule, are related to each other in logical and semantic terms, which can cause their confusion in speech. But paronyms cannot replace each other (illustrated and illustrative. Not possible: illustrative book or illustrated material).
3. Inaccuracies in word usage (using a word in a meaning that is unusual for it). Accuracy of word usage is the correct choice of word in accordance with its lexical meaning.
Inaccurate word usage occurs when a person is not aware of the meaning of a word or does not take this meaning into account. For example: Tatyana is contraindicated to Onegin (instead of: opposed). Tatyana loves her nanny - this gray-bearded old lady (instead of: gray-haired or gray-haired).
4. Verbosity.
Found in speech different kinds verbosity.
Pleonasm (from the Greek pleonasmos - excess) - semantic redundancy, the use in a close context of words that are close in meaning and therefore unnecessary: He has a peculiar facial expression. Facial expression is “facial expression”. It turns out that he has a peculiar “facial expression” on his face.
A brave and courageous person is a clear, open pleonasm. Free vacancy, the main essence is hidden, implicit pleonasm.
Some pleonasms are fixed in the language and are not considered an error. For example, an exhibit of an exhibition (exhibit - “exhibited”)
Tautology (from the Greek tauto - the same, logos - word) is usually a repetition of words with the same root: A nourishing mask nourishes the skin. To correct this error, you need to replace the tautological word with a synonym or remove the extra morpheme: A nourishing mask enriches the skin.
Some grammatical forms are tautological: the best - the best, the best; more beautiful - more beautiful, more beautiful.
There are many tautological combinations in the language, the use of which is inevitable, since they use terminological vocabulary. For example, a dictionary of foreign words, foreman of the first brigade. Tautological are phraseological units: walk around, jam-packed, go to hell.
Predicate splitting - replacement verb predicate synonymous combination: The students decided to clean the school yard. In an official business style, the combinations decided that cleaning was appropriate, but in a situation of everyday communication it would be more correct to say: The students decided to clean the school yard.
5. Speech insufficiency (lexical incompleteness of a statement) - unmotivated omission of words to the detriment of the content of the statement. Example: The advantage of Kuprin is that there is nothing superfluous. Kuprin may have nothing superfluous, but this sentence is missing (and not even just one) word. Or: “... do not allow statements on the pages of the press and television that could incite ethnic hatred.” It turns out - “television page”.
A type of incompleteness is the double use of the dependent element of a sentence. Example: Require all dog owners to keep their dogs on a leash. Here the author uses the word dogs twice: in combination owned-
keep dogs and combined dogs on a leash. However, this makes the phrase unclear and even causes inappropriate comedy due to the association of owners being kept on a leash. The dependent word in this case must be “doubled”. For example: Require all dog owners to keep their dogs on a leash.
6. Alogisms are logical errors that lead to violation of lexical norms in terms of accuracy. They make it extremely difficult to understand the meaning of a statement, and sometimes even make correct understanding impossible. Let's name the main types of illogicalism.
Comparison of incomparable concepts. Examples: The speech of Chekhov's heroes differs from all other heroes (should have been written: from the speech of heroes of other authors)", It is necessary to compare the indicators of the fifth table with the first table. It should be: The indicators of the fifth table must be compared with the indicators of table No. 1 or; It is necessary to compare the indicators of the fifth and first table.
An edit in such cases consists of introducing a word into the text that denotes a comparable concept: A breakdown in a car can be compared to a sick person, and a mechanic to a doctor. Should have; A breakdown in a car can be compared to a human illness, and a mechanic can be compared to a doctor.
Discrimination of the identical. If the same concept needs to be repeated several times in a text or sentence, authors try to alternately use synonyms to avoid repetition and monotony. However, this often leads to the fact that the reader or listener perceives as completely different those concepts that the author thought of as identical. Example: Before the meeting, Svetlitsky was called to headquarters. The officer returned in the middle of dinner. It turns out that Svetlitsky was called, and the officer returned.
Unjustified variations in names cause particular difficulties in the perception of scientific and technical texts. Example: the title of a dissertation in psychology is “The influence of a child’s communication with adults on the effectiveness of teaching preschoolers.” By using two different terms, the author created two different subjects thoughts, when in reality we are talking only about preschoolers.
In such cases, you need to either use personal pronouns or leave repetitions of one word to avoid ambiguity and illogicality.
Imaginary opposition. An example from a radio broadcast. Announcer: Spring is just beginning to taste. Occasionally there is a smell of melted snow from the south. Ledum buds are swelling. And yet it feels like spring is just around the corner. The announcer speaks... and yet, it is as if parts of his description contradict each other, while all the announcer's words indicate the approach of spring. Effect appears
the phenomenon of disappointed expectation: listeners are waiting for a message that would refute the “prospect of the coming of spring,” but nothing of the kind was ever said. Where in reality there is no contradiction or opposition, it is necessary to use such means of communication that reflect the relations of consequence, conclusion, for example: ... so spring is just around the corner.
Substitution of a concept may be caused by an incorrect choice of word. Example: It’s bad when all the cinemas in the city show the same movie title. Of course, it is the film that is shown, not its title. Followed: It’s bad when all the cinemas in the city show the same film.
Example: The hospitable hosts fed us a varied selection of national dishes. It turns out that the guests were not offered national dishes, but a “varied selection” of them.
Similar errors in speech also arise due to insufficiently clear differentiation of the concept, for example: The theater staff is waiting for the approach of the premiere day with special excitement (they are waiting not for the approach of the premiere, but for the premiere itself).
Unjustified expansion or narrowing of a concept. Their cause may be incorrect word usage - a confusion of generic and specific categories. Example: On our farm, each animal produces 15 kg of milk. Obviously, this animal is a cow; the specific species concept should not be replaced by a broad and generic one. Example: At any time of the day, medicine should come to the aid of a child. However, not only children need medical care, so it is more appropriate to say: At any time of the day, medicine should come to the aid of the patient.
Mixing concrete and abstract concepts.
Examples: In the distance is an avenue with high-rise buildings and landscaping. It should be: greenery or trees, green spaces.
However, today the campaign process itself drives candidates to party extremes, compressing meaningful discussion into 30-second remarks or platitudes - the separation of these concepts is impossible, because the first is concrete, and the second is abstract. One does not exclude the other.
Deliberate alogism can be used as a stylistic device - zeugma. Its essence lies in the fact that a word that forms similar syntactic combinations with other words in a sentence is used only in one of these combinations, but is omitted in others. Example: It was raining and three students, the first in a coat, the second in the university
sitet, the third is in a bad mood. In combination with the word rain, the verb to go acquires a procedural meaning, with the word student - the meaning of movement, which makes the phrase a punning combination of constructions that are heterogeneous in meaning.
Among the figures of deliberate illogicality is an oxymoron, which is presented in an illogical at first glance combination of words that are directly opposite in meaning. An oxymoron is used to show the opposite, the complexity of a situation, phenomena, or object. For example: An eternal moment has come (A. Blok); The wild gaze is brazenly modest! (A. Blok).
Lexical norms- these are norms that regulate the rules of use and combination of words in speech. The use of a word in speech is always determined by the characteristics of its lexical meaning– content that reflects our knowledge and understanding of an object, phenomenon, property or process.
When using a word in speech, we must ensure that, firstly, its lexical meaning is implemented appropriately and correctly, and secondly, that the word expresses our attitude, that is, it is expressive. In accordance with this, lexical norms have two aspects: accuracy and expressiveness. In addition, the use of words in speech is determined by the sphere of their existence and the changes occurring in the language over time.
I. Lexical norms in terms of accuracy. Speech violations of lexical norms in terms of accuracy.
Accuracy– the quality of speech, which consists in the correspondence of the semantic side of speech with reality, in the ability to find the right words to express thoughts.
The use of a word in speech is determined by the characteristics of its lexical meaning and also depends on the context. An incorrectly chosen word can distort the meaning of the message, create the possibility of double interpretation, or impart an undesirable stylistic overtone.
Typical lexical errors in terms of accuracy.
1. Violation of lexical compatibility of words. Lexical compatibility is the ability of words to connect with each other. If the lexical meaning of words and the traditions of combining words in a phrase are not taken into account, lexical inconsistency. For example, there are words whose combinability in the Russian language is phraseologically related: stale bread, a callous person, but not callous torus t or callous friend. We can tell deep night or extreme old age, but not deep day or deep youth. In some other cases, a violation of lexical compatibility may be caused by inattention to the lexical meaning of words that are combined into a phrase. For example, conversation read(a conversation is an oral genre; it can be conducted, and a book or lecture can be read).
From the point of view of modern language, it is often difficult to explain the reasons for differences in the compatibility of words with similar meanings, for example: Attend / attach importance development of sports.
Many combinations of words are fixed by linguistic tradition, and the ability to use them is part of a person’s linguistic culture.
Lexical compatibility has its limits. For example, the word strong has the following meanings (Efremova T.F. Explanatory dictionary of word-formation units of the Russian language. - M.: Russian language, 1996):
1. One that is difficult to break or break ( strong fabric, rope).
2. Strong in spirit, unshakable ( strong-willed old man).
3. Healthy, strong ( strong body).
4. Reliable ( strong friendship, love).
5. Reaching a strong degree ( severe frost, wind).
6. Rich, potent, sharp ( strong tea, tobacco).
7. Unwind Prosperous (strong owner).
Let us consider, in particular, the fourth and fifth meanings of the word: friendship, love- these are “designations of feelings”, as well as hatred, envy. But the expression strong hatred contradicts the requirement of lexical compatibility. Frost, wind- these are “weather and climatic conditions”, as well as heat, humidity. But the combination is impossible intense heat.
It is necessary to distinguish from a speech error the deliberate combination of incompatible words, for example: ordinary miracle. This is a type of trope - an oxymoron.
2. Mixing paronyms. Paronyms are words that sound similar, but do not have the same meaning ( remains and remains; effective and efficient; economical, economical, economical). The words that make up a paronymic series, as a rule, are correlated with each other in logical and semantic terms, which can cause them to be mixed up in speech. But paronyms cannot replace each other ( illustrated And illustrative. It is forbidden: picture book or illustrated material).
3. Inaccuracies in word usage (using a word in a meaning that is unusual for it). Accuracy of word usage is the correct choice of word in accordance with its lexical meaning. Inaccurate word usage occurs when a person is not aware of the meaning of a word or does not take this meaning into account. For example: Tatyana is contraindicated for Onegin(instead of: opposed). Tatyana loves the nanny - this one greybeard old lady (instead of: gray-haired or grey-haired).
4. Verbosity.
There are various types of verbosity in speech.
4.1. Pleonasm(from the Greek pleonasmos - excess) - semantic redundancy, the use in a close context of words that are close in meaning and therefore superfluous: He has a peculiar facial expression.(Facial expression is “facial expression”. He has a peculiar "facial expression" on his face). Brave And brave man is a clear, open pleonasm. Free vacancy, main point- hidden, implicit pleonasm).
Some pleonasms are fixed in the language and are not considered an error. For example, exhibition exhibit(exhibit – “exhibited”)
4.2. Tautology(from Greek tauto - the same, logos - word) - repetition of words with the same root (usually): A nourishing mask nourishes the skin. The hockey players launched a counterattack. ( To correct this error, you need to replace the tautological word with a synonym or remove the extra morpheme: A nourishing mask enriches the skin. The hockey players launched a retaliatory attack).
Some irregular grammatical forms are tautological: the best– the best, the best; more beautiful- more beautiful, more beautiful.
There are many tautological combinations in the language, the use of which is inevitable, since they use terminological vocabulary. For example, dictionary of foreign words, foreman of the first brigade. Phraseological phrases can be tautological: walk around, jam-packed, go to hell.
4.3. Predicate splitting– replacing the verbal predicate with a synonymous combination: The students decided to clean up the school yard. (In an official business style, such combinations are appropriate, but in this speech situation it is better to say: The students decided to clean up the school yard).
5. Speech insufficiency (lexical incompleteness of the utterance)– unmotivated omission of words to the detriment of the content of the statement ( Hanging in the office< portraits >Russian writers).
LEXICAL STANDARDS OF MODERN RUSSIAN LITERARY LANGUAGE. THE CONCEPT OF LEXICAL COMPATIBILITY
Lexical norms of the Russian language
The word is the most important unit of language, the most diverse and voluminous. It is the word that reflects all changes in the life of society. The word not only names an object or phenomenon, but also reflects emotions. Words name a wide variety of phenomena in the world around us. This ability of words to name objects, their characteristics, actions, etc. received the name of the nominative (nominal) function of the word. A word can perform a nominative function because it has a certain lexical meaning.
When choosing words, we pay attention to their meaning, stylistic coloring, and compatibility with other words. Neglecting one of these criteria leads to speech errors.
The lexical meaning of a word names phenomena and objects of reality, to which certain concepts correspond in our minds. For example, pine - conifer tree with brown bark and long needles. Orange - midway between yellow and red, the color of orange.
The accuracy of word usage consists in compliance with the lexical norms of the Russian literary language, in the ability to use words in speech (oral and written) in full accordance with their established and fixed lexical meanings in the language.
If the speaker or writer knows the lexical meaning of a word poorly or is completely unfamiliar, then inaccuracy in use or error may occur. An incorrectly chosen word can distort the meaning of the message, create the possibility of double interpretation, or can impart an undesirable stylistic overtone.
Let's consider errors associated with misunderstanding the meaning of a word.
Using a word in a meaning that is unusual for it.
Accuracy as a quality of speech is always associated with the ability to think clearly, with knowledge of the subject of speech (conceptual and subject accuracy), with knowledge of the meaning of words. But first of all, the accuracy of speech is determined by the choice of words. An incorrectly chosen word can distort the meaning of the message and give it an undesirable stylistic overtone.
For example: For lovers of cold cocktails, the same companions are mixed, but in different proportions.
Companion - 1. Someone who keeps someone company. 2.Member of a trading or industrial company. The word component should have been used in this sentence. Component - 1. An integral part of something. Another example from the newspaper: We offer complete cure for alcoholics and other diseases. If we are talking about diseases, then the word alcoholics should be replaced with the word alcoholism. These mistakes are associated not only with ignorance of the meaning of the word, but also with a careless attitude towards the language.
Use of paronyms.
Compare the two sentences: He leads a festive life. I'm in an idle mood today.
They have very similar words - the same root, with a similar emphasis. But do they have the same meaning, do they stand in the same place?
Festive - adjective from holiday (dinner, mood).
Idle - not busy with business (idle life).
To restore the meaning of the statements, you need to swap these words. There are many such words in the Russian language, these are paronyms.
Paronyms - (from the Greek para - next to and onyma - name) words with the same root, similar in sound and spelling, but differing in lexical meaning: Ignorant - ignorant, Addressee - addressee, Deed - misdemeanor, Every - every, Comical - comic.
Paronyms are not interchangeable in speech, as this leads to a distortion of the meaning of the statement. To avoid such errors, you can turn to explanatory dictionaries or dictionaries of paronyms for help (for example, Vishnyakova O.V. Paronyms of the modern Russian language. - M., 1987)
Lexical compatibility
When choosing a word, you should take into account not only its meaning, but also lexical compatibility. Lexical compatibility is the ability of words to connect with each other.
Not all words can be combined with each other:
A good leader must set an example for his subordinates.
You can show by example, not by example. You can be a role model.
Sophia plays great importance to understand the image of Chatsky.
An error is a confusion of two expressions that are close in meaning: to play a role and to have a meaning.
From the point of view of modern language, it is often difficult to explain the reasons for differences in the compatibility of words with similar meanings:
Pay attention/attribute importance to the development of sports.
Many combinations of words are fixed by linguistic tradition, and the ability to use them is part of a person’s linguistic culture.
Lexical compatibility has its limits. For example, the word strong
1. Something that is difficult to break or break (strong fabric, rope).
2. Strong in spirit, unshakable (strong in spirit old man).
3. Healthy, strong (body).
4. Reliable (strong friendship, love).
5. Reaching a strong degree (hard frost, wind).
6. Rich, potent, sharp (strong tea, tobacco).
7. Unwind Prosperous (strong owner).
Let's try to look at the fourth and fifth meanings of the word from the other side: friendship, love is a “designation of feelings,” just like hatred and envy. But one cannot say strong hatred. And frost and wind are “weather and climatic conditions”, just like heat and humidity. But you can't say it's intense heat.
It is necessary to distinguish from a speech error the deliberate combination of incompatible words, for example: ordinary miracle. This is one type of trope - an oxymoron.
Synonyms are words that are different in sound (spelling), but close or equal in meaning. Most synonyms differ either in shades of meaning (capable - talented - brilliant), or in the sphere of use, stylistic coloring (steal a book - steal a neutral - steal a colloquial). Synonyms help avoid monotony of presentation, eliminate repetition of identical words, help clarify thoughts, express them more clearly, strengthen and highlight them.
Synonyms enrich the language and make our speech figurative. Here is an example of using a number of synonyms: “- DiedClaudia Ivanovna,” said the customer. Well, the kingdom of heaven,” Bezenchuk agreed. - She passed away, that means, old lady... Old ladies, they always leave... Or give your soul to God, it depends on what kind of old lady. Yours, for example, is small and in body, which means she has passed away. And, for example, the one who is larger and thinner is considered to give her soul to God... That is, how is it calculated? Who counts? We count it. From the masters. Here you are, for example, a prominent man, tall, although thin. It is believed that if, God forbid, you die, played in the box. And whoever is a merchant, a former merchant guild, means ordered to live long. And if someone is of lesser rank, a janitor, for example, or one of the peasants, they say about him: spreador stretched out his legs.
But when the most powerful die, railway conductors or some of the authorities, it is considered that they give away oak. So they say about them: “But ours, they heard, gave oak».
Shocked by this strange classification of human deaths, Ippolit Matveevich asked: Well, when you die, what will the masters say about you? I am a small person. They will say: “ BentBezenchuk." And they won’t say anything more.” (I. Ilf, E. Petrov. Twelve chairs) Antonyms are words with opposite meanings (light - dark, terrible - beautiful). The existence of antonyms in language is determined by the nature of our perception of reality in all its contradictory complexity, in the unity and struggle of opposites. Different meanings of the same word can have different antonyms. For example, close: 1) located at a short distance (close distance - far distance); 2) related by blood (close people - strangers); 3) similar, similar (close in content - different in content). Therefore, we cannot assume that antonyms form closed pairs. Most of the words in Russian are polysemantic words. The meaning of such words depends on the context. Polysemy means the ability of a word to have several meanings at the same time. In polysemantic words, the main, or primary, meanings are distinguished, which are characterized by the highest frequency and minimal dependence on context; and minor, secondary, meanings, less frequent and always determined by the context. Homonyms (homos - same, onyma - name) are words that have the same sound (spelling), but have different meanings depending on the context. Outwardly, homonymy resembles polysemy. However, the use of a word in different meanings does not give reason to talk about the appearance of new words each time, while with homonymy, completely different words collide, coinciding in sound and spelling, but having nothing in common in semantics. For example, marriage in the meaning of “matrimony” and marriage - “damaged products”. Often homonyms in the same context create ambiguity: You listened to the announcement. You either heard the announcement or missed it. In polysemantic words, different meanings are not isolated from one another, but are connected, systemic, while homonymy is outside the systemic connections in the word. The possibility of using homonyms and polysemous words in the same context creates ambiguity. There are various types of verbosity in speech. Pleonasm (from the Greek pleonasmos - excess) - semantic redundancy, the use in speech of words that are close in meaning and therefore unnecessary. He has a peculiar facial expression. Facial expression is “facial expression”. He has a peculiar “facial expression” on his face. Although some pleonasms in our speech are considered fixed in the language. For example, an exhibit of an exhibition (exhibit - “exhibited”) Tautology (from the Greek tauto - the same, logos - word) - repetition of words with the same root (usually): A nourishing mask nourishes the skin. The hockey players launched a counterattack. To correct this error, you need to replace the tautological word with a synonym or remove the extra morpheme: A nourishing mask enriches the skin. The hockey players launched a retaliatory attack. But there are many tautological combinations in the language, the use of which is inevitable, because they use terminological vocabulary. For example, a dictionary of foreign words, foreman of the first brigade. And also phraseological phrases: walk around, jam-packed, go to hell. Irregular grammatical forms are also tautological: The best is the best. More beautiful - more beautiful is more beautiful. Predicate splitting is the replacement of a verbal predicate with a synonymous combination: The students decided to clean the school yard. In an official business style, such combinations are quite appropriate, but in this speech situation it is better to say: The students decided to clean the school yard. Lexical incompleteness of a statement is the omission of a necessary word in a sentence. This error is the opposite of verbosity. The advantage of Kuprin is that there is nothing superfluous. Kuprin may have nothing superfluous, but this sentence is missing a few words. 4. Words with a limited scope of consumption. The huge dictionary of the Russian language, in terms of scope of use, can be divided into two large groups: ) vocabulary of an unlimited scope of use, which includes commonly used words; ) vocabulary with a limited scope of use, that is, words used in a certain area - professional, territorial, social. Common words should be understandable to all native speakers in all cases (bread, doctor, moon, frost, etc.). The situation is much more complicated with the perception of words with a limited scope of use. They are called that because absolutely everyone cannot and should not understand them. These are neologisms outdated words, words of foreign language origin, dialectisms, colloquial words, vernacular, professionalisms, jargon. Neologisms are new words or expressions that have not yet received “citizenship rights” in the common language, and therefore are not perceived as the norm: new Russians - reduced stylistic coloring; cosmonaut is a neologism from the 60s. Obsolete words are words that have fallen out of active use - archaisms and historicisms. Archaisms are words that name those realities that exist, but for some reason have been forced out of use in the modern Russian language: But things are still there. (I. Krylov) Now - today. It's an open day at the university today. (archaism) Historicisms are words that name realities that no longer exist and therefore are not used today: clerk, roommate, etc. Language, like life itself, changes, as evidenced not only by the transition of words from active to passive, but also by the reverse process. Currently in active stock The word governor returned, because such a position has appeared in Russia again. At the beginning of the 20th century, Mikhail Zoshchenko wrote: “Come on, now bother with the Russian phrase - trouble. The whole speech is peppered with words containing foreign words. vague meaning" A hundred years have passed, but even now we have an addiction to foreign words, sometimes without even knowing their exact meaning. We propose to extend the contract. Renew - extend the life of something. We propose to extend the contract. In common vocabulary, words of foreign origin become a special language, so it is better to use Russian words: spontaneous - random, relative - relative, negative - negative, image - image. Dialectisms are words that belong to Russian dialects and are not included in the literary language. They are justified in artistic and journalistic speech to create speech characteristics heroes. Non-normative use of dialectisms indicates insufficient knowledge of the norms of the literary language. Summer in the village I get up with the kochets (roosters). The use of a dialect word here is unjustified. Colloquial words are words that are used in oral speech in everyday communication and are part of the literary language system: My jacket is very thin (holey, damaged) Vernacular words are words of oral speech that are not included in the literary language system: get away, drift away, dunce, bungler, etc. Professionalisms are colloquial synonyms of terms accepted in a professional group: Steering wheel - steering wheel (in the speech of drivers), Typo - blunder (among newspapermen). The unmotivated transfer of professionalism into general literary speech is undesirable. Professionalisms serve to designate various production processes, production tools, raw materials, resulting products, etc. Unlike terms that are official scientific names special concepts, professionalisms are perceived as “semi-official” words that do not have a strictly scientific character. In terms of their limited use and the nature of their sound (jocular, reduced), professionalisms are similar to jargon and are integral part jargons. Jargon - a variety colloquial speech, used by a certain circle of native speakers, united by common interests, occupations, and position in society. This is a kind of social dialect, characteristic of professional or age groups of people (the jargon of athletes, students). In modern Russian, youth jargon, or slang, is distinguished. The emergence of many jargons is associated with the desire of young people to express their attitude to a subject or phenomenon more clearly and emotionally. Hence such evaluative words: amazing, cool, awesome, laugh, go crazy, buzz, plow, etc. This is everyday vocabulary with a reduced expressive coloring, which is not a literary norm: advanced, sucks, trick, etc. Slang vocabulary is inferior to literary vocabulary in accuracy, which determines its inferiority as a means of communication. The meaning of jargon tends to vary depending on the context. For example, the adjective cool means good, attractive, interesting, reliable. A special socially limited group of words in the modern Russian language is camp jargon, which is used by people placed in special conditions life. He reflected the terrible life in places of detention: zek (prisoner), shmona (search), gruel (pottage), informer (informer) and so on. Such jargon finds application in realistic descriptions of camp life. I would like to hope that there will be no extralinguistic conditions for their consolidation in the Russian language and that they will quickly become part of the passive vocabulary. This cannot be said about the language of the underworld (thieves, tramps, bandits). This slang variety of language is defined by the term argo (French argot - closed). Argo is a secret, artificial language of criminals, known only to initiates and existing only in oral form. But certain argotisms are becoming widespread beyond the argot: blatnoy, pero (knife), raspberry (stash), fraer, split, etc., but at the same time they practically become the category of colloquial vocabulary and are given in dictionaries with the corresponding stylistic marks: “colloquial” , “roughly vernacular.” Words, when combined with each other, form phrases. Some of them are free, they are formed by us in speech as needed. Each word in them retains an independent meaning and performs the function of a separate member of the sentence: He will come soon. But there are phrases that are called non-free, connected, or phraseological, because the entire phrase takes on the meaning of one word: He will come any minute. Such phrases are fixed in the language as a result of frequent and long-term, sometimes centuries-old, practice of use. The same combination can appear either as free or as bound, depending on the context: He closed his eyes and fell asleep. The dean's office turned a blind eye to the student's misbehavior. From the point of view of origin, phraseological units can be divided into several groups: From everyday speech (to speak one's teeth, to lose one's head); from professional spheres of use and from jargons (hatchet work, without a hitch - from the speech of carpenters, rub in glasses, card of a bit - from the speech of gamblers); from scientific use (center of gravity, chain reaction, roll down an inclined plane); from works of fiction (It’s been a while since I picked up checkers. - We know how bad you play (N.V. Gogol)). Phraseological devices also include linguistic aphorisms - proverbs, sayings, catchwords. Proverbs are short folk sayings with an instructive meaning: The word is not a sparrow; if it flies out, you will not catch it. Proverbs are figures of speech that figuratively define an object or phenomenon, an unfinished thought: Wait and see, my hut is on the edge. Winged words - bright, memorable words from literary sources: All ages are submissive to love. (A.S. Pushkin). The winners are not judged. (Catherine II) A special group among phraseological units consists of: expressions from books of religious content: stumbling block - an obstacle in business, daily bread necessary means for life; foreign expressions used in Russian speech in the corresponding language: English - All right, Happy end, Time is money; French - Carte blanche, Cherchez la femme, Tete-a-tete; Italian - Finita la comedia, Salto mortale; Latin - Post scriptum (PS), Nota bene, Terra incognita. Clichés - speech stereotypes, ready-made phrases, standard. Clichés are constructive units of speech and, despite their frequent use, retain their meaning. Clichés are used in official business documents: summit meeting; scientific literature: required to be proven; journalism: our own correspondent reports; colloquial: Who's last? How much time? Speech etiquette formulas (hello, please). Cliches are hackneyed expressions with faded meaning. Words and phrases that, as a result of frequent use, lose their original imagery become cliches: A forest of hands rose during the vote. A type of stamp is clericalism - words and expressions, the use of which is appropriate only in an official business style: There is a lack of spare parts. Collective farm specialists pay attention to weed control. Cliches also include universal words (for example, question, task), which are used in the most general and vague meanings. Usually they are accompanied by companion words: Work - everyday, support - warm. Bibliography Rosenthal D.E., Dzhanzhakova E.V., Kabanova N.P. Handbook of Spelling and Literary Editing. - M., 2001. Russian language and culture of speech: Textbook / Ed. prof. IN AND. Maksimova. - M., 2000. 2. ABSTRACT THE ARTICLE BY ZELENIN A.V. ORTHODOX ETIQUETTE//RUSSIAN SPEECH-2005.No.2 P.74-82 After reading the article by candidate of philological sciences A.V. Zelenina Orthodox etiquette, we can conclude that this article was written in a scientific style. This article introduces the reader to scientific information, for example: At the same time, there is one specific type of etiquette that has not yet been well studied and described by speech culture specialists (orthologists), but which also needs attention. This is Orthodox speech etiquette, the revival of which is obvious. Of course, the activation of Orthodox etiquette is associated with non-linguistic reasons (excerpt from an article by A.V. Zelenin). The text can also be attributed to the scientific style, paying attention to the vocabulary. Vocabulary scientific style consists of three main layers: ) common words: complex, study, consider, difference, etc. (which appear in the text) ) general scientific: analyzing, interpreting, emphasizing, formulating, etc. (also found in the text of the article) ) terms: etiquette, church etiquette, politeness, etc. (terms frequently found in the text) The grammatical structure of a scientific text is very unique. Let us characterize its morphological features. The speech of scientific works is, as a rule, of a nominal nature, which leads to a quantitative predominance of nouns, adjectives before the verb and to the use of various kinds of verbal phrases and words; for example: Church etiquette can be considered from two positions: internal (church-moral) and external (secularized). The syntax of the scientific style convincingly confirms its abstractness, generality, logic in the expression of thoughts, and the desire for extreme accuracy and clarity. An example can be given: Obviously, the first interpretation of church etiquette is extremely broad, including the entire life of a Christian; the second is narrow, reducing the entire problematic of church etiquette to external (behavioral and linguistic) manners. It is absolutely clear that here we see the “pressure” of the general linguistic use of the term etiquette on the concept of church etiquette. In everyday language, etiquette is “an established, accepted order of behavior, forms of behavior” (Ozhegov S.I. Dictionary of the Russian Language. M., 1991). 3. REPRODUCE A FRAGMENT OF THE TEXT COMPLETED IN ACCORDANCE WITH THE REQUIREMENTS OF THE LEGISLATIVE SUB-STYLE OF OFFICIAL BUSINESS STYLE AND JUSTIFY ITS STYLE APPROPRIATION Chapter 2. Rights and freedoms of man and citizen 1. In the Russian Federation, the rights and freedoms of man and citizen are recognized and guaranteed in accordance with the generally recognized principles and norms of international law and in accordance with this Constitution. Fundamental human rights and freedoms are inalienable and belong to everyone from birth. The exercise of human and civil rights and freedoms must not violate the rights and freedoms of others. The rights and freedoms of man and citizen are directly applicable. They determine the meaning, content and application of laws, the activities of the legislative and executive powers, local government and are provided with justice. 1. Everyone is equal before the law and the court. The state guarantees equality of rights and freedoms of man and citizen, regardless of gender, race, nationality, language, origin, property and official position, place of residence, attitude to religion, beliefs, membership in public associations, as well as other circumstances. Any form of restriction of the rights of citizens on the basis of social, racial, national, linguistic or religious affiliation is prohibited. Men and women have equal rights and freedoms and equal opportunities for their implementation. 1. Everyone has the right to life. The death penalty may be established until it is abolished federal law as an exceptional measure of punishment for especially serious crimes against life, while granting the accused the right to have his case tried by a jury. 1. Personal dignity is protected by the state. Nothing can be a reason to belittle him. No one should be subjected to torture, violence or other cruel or degrading treatment or punishment. No one can be subjected to medical, scientific or other experiments without voluntary consent. 1. Everyone has the right to freedom and personal security. Arrest, detention and detention are permitted only by court decision. Pending a court decision, a person cannot be detained for more than 48 hours. 1. Everyone has the right to privacy, personal and family secrets, protection of their honor and good name. Everyone has the right to privacy of correspondence, telephone conversations, postal, telegraph and other messages. Restriction of this right is permitted only on the basis of a court decision. 1. Collection, storage, use and dissemination of information about the private life of a person without his consent is not permitted. State authorities and local government bodies, their officials are obliged to provide everyone with the opportunity to familiarize themselves with documents and materials that directly affect their rights and freedoms, unless otherwise provided by law. Home is inviolable. No one has the right to enter a home against the will of the persons living there, except in cases established by federal law, or on the basis of a court decision. 1. Everyone has the right to determine and indicate their own nationality. No one can be forced to determine and indicate their nationality. Everyone has the right to use their native language, to freely choose the language of communication, education, training and creativity. 1. Everyone who is legally present on the territory of the Russian Federation has the right to move freely, choose their place of stay and residence. Everyone can freely travel outside the Russian Federation. A citizen of the Russian Federation has the right to freely return to the Russian Federation. Everyone is guaranteed freedom of conscience, freedom of religion, including the right to profess, individually or together with others, any religion or not to profess any, to freely choose, have and disseminate religious and other beliefs and to act in accordance with them. 1. Everyone is guaranteed freedom of thought and speech. Propaganda or agitation that incite social, racial, national or religious hatred and enmity are not permitted. Promotion of social, racial, national, religious or linguistic superiority is prohibited. No one can be forced to express or renounce their opinions and beliefs. Everyone has the right to freely seek, receive, transmit, produce and disseminate information by any lawful means. The list of information constituting a state secret is determined by federal law. Freedom of the media is guaranteed. Censorship is prohibited. 1. Everyone has the right to association, including the right to create trade unions to protect their interests. Freedom of activity public associations guaranteed. No one can be forced to join or remain in any association. Citizens of the Russian Federation have the right to assemble peacefully without weapons, to hold meetings, rallies and demonstrations, processions and picketing. The text of the Constitution of the Russian Federation refers to the official business style, the legislative substyle, because formal business style caters legal relations between citizens and the state and is used in various documents - from state acts and international treaties to business correspondence. The most important functions of this style - communication and influence - are implemented in such official documents as laws, regulations, decrees, orders, contracts, agreements, business correspondence, statements, receipts, etc. Depending on the scope of use, the official business style is divided into substyles: diplomatic, implemented in the texts of a communiqué, note, convention, memorandum, international agreement; legislative (legal), presented in the texts of the law, constitution, decree, charter, civil and criminal acts; administrative and clerical, used in office correspondence, in administrative acts, orders, contracts, and various documentation. CHOOSE ONE OF TWO OPTIONS. JUSTIFY YOUR CHOICE ) He is a complete ignoramus in matters of literature. Ignorant, -s; m. and f. An uneducated, ignorant person; He was completely ignorant and didn’t read anything. // what. A person ignorant of smb. areas of knowledge. N. in physics. I'm a complete n. in social issues Ignorant, -and; m. and f. 1. A rude, ill-mannered person. Only n. does not give up a seat on a tram to a woman. I don’t want to talk to such an ignoramus! 2. Colloquial = Ignorant. If you don't learn, you will remain ignorant 2) Two foreign languages are studied at the faculty. Foreign, oh, oh. 1. Located abroad, abroad; foreign, foreign. Third countries. 3rd press. Third business trip. Third contacts (carried out with foreigners, foreign companies, etc.). //Arrived from abroad. 3rd experts, delegations.2. Created outside the borders of its state; foreign (opposite: domestic). 3rd films. Foreign-made suit. Foreign, oh, oh. 1. Relating to another state, another country; belonging to them. 2nd subjects. And languages. And origin. //Made, purchased abroad; overseas. Wines of foreign brands. I-th goods.2.Related foreign policy associated with her. Ministry of Foreign Affairs. ) Lermontov is a worthy successor to Pushkin. Successor, -a; m. The one who received succession from someone. some rights, obligations, social status; successor of smb. activities. The merchant intended his eldest son to be his successor. P. throne. Successors of the great enlighteners of the eighteenth century. //The one who took the place, position of his predecessor. Hand over the affairs to your successor. Find a suitable successor to the old doctor. Successor, -s; and. Be considered someone's Successor. ) Our Far Eastern birches stand in wedding dress. Sawan, -a; m. Funeral robe or cover made of white cloth for the dead. Wrap in s. someone / Book Cover (snow, ice, fog, etc.). The ground is covered with a white shroud Dressing, -a; m. Outdated.1. Outfit, clothes. Rich u. Wedding Funeral u. //About foliage, snow, etc., covering trees, fields, etc. Autumn golden y. forests. Fields covered in snow. //Special equipment. Ratny u. Hunting u.2. General name for items that are put on the head (cap, hat, cap, scarf, etc.). Head u. Women's hats. Men's hats. Hats for children, for men, for women. Head u. military - uniform cap. Papakha is an ordinary headdress. Highlander A man should not enter the premises wearing a hat. They took off their hats, exposing their heads. Leave your hats in the wardrobe! In the old days, a kokoshnik embroidered with pearls and gold was a girl’s festive headdress. ) The difficult fuel situation in Ukraine seems to be starting to change for the better. Literature Large explanatory dictionary of the Russian language. Ch. ed. S.A. Kuznetsov. First edition: St. Petersburg: Norint, 1998. Published in the author’s edition of 2009 BIBLIOGRAPHY word lexical compatibility language 1. Vvedenskaya L.A., Pavlova L.G., Kashaeva E.Yu. Russian language and culture of speech. - Rostov-on-Don, 2001. The culture of oral and written speech of a business person: a reference book. - M., 2000. Culture of Russian speech / Ed. OK. Graudina, E.N. Shiryaeva. - M., 1999 Russian language and culture of speech: Textbook / Ed. prof. V.I. Maksimova. - M., 2000. Golub I.B. Russian language and culture of speech: Textbook. - M.: Logos, 2002. Great Dictionary of Russian language. Ch. ed. S. A. Kuznetsov. First edition: St. Petersburg: Norint, 1998. First edition: St. Petersburg: Norint, 1998. Published in the author's edition of 2009. Constitution of the Russian Federation A.V. Zelenin Orthodox etiquette // Russian speech-2005.-№2.P.74-82Similar works to - Lexical norms of the modern Russian literary language. The concept of lexical compatibility
Lexical norms of speech are the rules for using words in speech, i.e. the accuracy of the choice of word according to the meaning of the statement and the appropriateness of its use in social meaning and generally accepted combinations.
All of the above norms are very important for correct and cultural speech. Let's take a closer look at lexical norms.
Lexical norms, or as they can also be called, norms of word usage, in literary Russian are as follows:
the word must be used taking into account its lexical meaning;
the word should be used taking into account its stylistic coloring (affiliation);
the word must be used taking into account its lexical compatibility.
These rules, if strictly followed, ensure the accuracy and correctness of speech, both oral and written. If you do not follow the above rules of lexical norms, lexical errors will occur. These errors can also appear due to incorrect definition of the lexical meaning of a word used in speech. In order to correctly determine the lexical meaning of a particular word, you need to consult a dictionary. The use of an explanatory dictionary expands a person's knowledge of correct and cultural speech.
The word is the most important unit of language, the most diverse and voluminous. It is the word that reflects all changes in the life of society. The word not only names an object or phenomenon, but also reflects emotions. Words name a wide variety of phenomena in the world around us. This ability of words to name objects, their characteristics, actions, etc. received the name of the nominative (nominal) function of the word. A word can perform a nominative function because it has a certain lexical meaning.
When choosing words, we pay attention to their meaning, stylistic coloring, and compatibility with other words. Neglecting one of these criteria leads to speech errors.
The lexical meaning of a word names phenomena and objects of reality, to which certain concepts correspond in our minds. For example, pine is a coniferous tree with brown bark and long needles. Orange - midway between yellow and red, the color of orange.
The accuracy of word usage consists in compliance with the lexical norms of the Russian literary language, in the ability to use words in speech (oral and written) in full accordance with their established and fixed lexical meanings in the language.
If the speaker or writer knows the lexical meaning of a word poorly or is completely unfamiliar, then inaccuracy in use or error may occur. An incorrectly chosen word can distort the meaning of the message, create the possibility of double interpretation, or can impart an undesirable stylistic overtone.
Let's consider errors associated with misunderstanding the meaning of a word.
Using a word in a meaning that is unusual for it.
Accuracy as a quality of speech is always associated with the ability to think clearly, with knowledge of the subject of speech (conceptual and subject accuracy), with knowledge of the meaning of words. But first of all, the accuracy of speech is determined by the choice of words. An incorrectly chosen word can distort the meaning of the message and give it an undesirable stylistic overtone.
Use of paronyms.
Compare the two sentences: He leads a festive life. I'm in an idle mood today.
They have very similar words - the same root, with a similar emphasis. But do they have the same meaning, do they stand in the same place?
Festive - adjective from holiday (dinner, mood).
Idle - not busy with business (idle life).
To restore the meaning of the statements, you need to swap these words. There are many such words in the Russian language, these are paronyms.
Paronyms - (from the Greek para - next to and onyma - name) words with the same root, similar in sound and spelling, but differing in lexical meaning: Ignorant - ignorant, Addressee - addressee, Deed - misdemeanor, Every - every, Comical - comic.
Paronyms are not interchangeable in speech, as this leads to a distortion of the meaning of the statement. To avoid such errors, you can turn to explanatory dictionaries or paronym dictionaries for help.
Lexical compatibility
When choosing a word, you should take into account not only its meaning, but also lexical compatibility. Lexical compatibility is the ability of words to connect with each other.
Not all words can be combined with each other:
A good leader must set an example for his subordinates.
You can show by example, not by example. You can be a role model.
Sophia is of great importance for understanding the image of Chatsky.
An error is a confusion of two expressions that are close in meaning: to play a role and to have a meaning.
From the point of view of modern language, it is often difficult to explain the reasons for differences in the compatibility of words with similar meanings:
Pay attention/attribute importance to the development of sports.
Many combinations of words are fixed by linguistic tradition, and the ability to use them is part of a person’s linguistic culture.
Lexical compatibility has its limits. For example, the word strong
- 1. Something that is difficult to break or break (strong fabric, rope).
- 2. Strong in spirit, unshakable (strong in spirit old man).
- 3. Healthy, strong (body).
- 4. Reliable (strong friendship, love).
- 5. Reaching a strong degree (hard frost, wind).
- 6. Rich, potent, sharp (strong tea, tobacco).
- 7. Unwind Prosperous (strong owner).
Let's try to look at the fourth and fifth meanings of the word from the other side: friendship, love is a “designation of feelings,” just like hatred and envy. But one cannot say strong hatred. And frost and wind are “weather and climatic conditions”, just like heat and humidity. But you can't say it's intense heat.
It is necessary to distinguish from a speech error the deliberate combination of incompatible words, for example: ordinary miracle. This is a type of trope - an oxymoron.
Synonyms are words that are different in sound (spelling), but close or equal in meaning. Most synonyms differ either in shades of meaning (capable - talented - brilliant), or in the sphere of use, stylistic coloring (steal a book - steal a neutral - steal a colloquial). Synonyms help avoid monotony of presentation, eliminate repetition of identical words, help clarify thoughts, express them more clearly, strengthen and highlight them.
Synonyms enrich the language and make our speech figurative. Here is an example of the use of a number of synonyms: “Clavdia Ivanovna died,” said the customer.
Well, the kingdom of heaven,” Bezenchuk agreed. - That means the old lady passed away... Old women, they always pass away... Or they give their souls to God, it depends on what kind of old lady. Yours, for example, is small and in body, which means she has passed away. And, for example, the one who is larger and thinner is considered to give her soul to God... .
That is, how is it calculated? Who counts?
We count it. From the masters. Here you are, for example, a prominent man, tall, although thin. It is believed that if, God forbid, you die, you have played the game.
And whoever is a merchant, a former merchant guild, has, therefore, been given a long life.
And if someone of lesser rank, a janitor, for example, or one of the peasants, they say about him: he threw himself over or stretched out his legs.
But when the most powerful die, railway conductors or some of the authorities, it is considered that they give away oak. So they say about them: “But ours, you heard, gave oak.”
Shocked by this strange classification of human deaths, Ippolit Matveevich asked:
Well, when you die, what will the masters say about you?
I am a small person. They will say: “Bezenchuk died.” And they won’t say anything more.” (I. Ilf, E. Petrov, Twelve Chairs)
Antonyms are words with opposite meanings (light - dark, terrible - beautiful).
The existence of antonyms in language is determined by the nature of our perception of reality in all its contradictory complexity, in the unity and struggle of opposites.
Different meanings of the same word can have different antonyms. For example, close: 1) located at a short distance (close distance - far distance); 2) related by blood (close people - strangers); 3) similar, similar (close in content - different in content). Therefore, we cannot assume that antonyms form closed pairs.
Most of the words in Russian are polysemantic words. The meaning of such words depends on the context.
Polysemy means the ability of a word to have several meanings at the same time. In polysemantic words, the main, or primary, meanings are distinguished, which are characterized by the highest frequency and minimal dependence on context; and minor, secondary, meanings, less frequent and always determined by the context.
Homonyms (homos - same, onyma - name) are words that have the same sound (spelling), but have different meanings depending on the context.
Outwardly, homonymy resembles polysemy. However, the use of a word in different meanings does not give reason to talk about the appearance of new words each time, while with homonymy, completely different words collide, coinciding in sound and spelling, but having nothing in common in semantics. For example, marriage in the meaning of “matrimony” and marriage - “damaged products”.
Often homonyms in the same context create ambiguity: You listened to the announcement. You either heard the announcement or missed it.
In polysemantic words, different meanings are not isolated from one another, but are connected, systemic, while homonymy is outside the systemic connections in the word.
The possibility of using homonyms and polysemous words in the same context creates ambiguity.
There are various types of verbosity in speech.
Pleonasm (from the Greek pleonasmos - excess) - semantic redundancy, the use in speech of words that are close in meaning and therefore unnecessary. He has a peculiar facial expression. Facial expression is “facial expression”.
He has a peculiar “facial expression” on his face. Although some pleonasms in our speech are considered fixed in the language. For example, an exhibit of an exhibition (exhibit - “exhibited”)
Tautology (from the Greek tauto - the same, logos - word) - repetition of words with the same root (usually): A nourishing mask nourishes the skin. The hockey players launched a counterattack.
To correct this error, you need to replace the tautological word with a synonym or remove the extra morpheme: A nourishing mask enriches the skin. The hockey players launched a retaliatory attack.
But there are many tautological combinations in the language, the use of which is inevitable, because they use terminological vocabulary. For example, a dictionary of foreign words, foreman of the first brigade. And also phraseological phrases: walk around, jam-packed, go to hell.
Irregular grammatical forms are also tautological: The best is the best. More beautiful - more beautiful is more beautiful.
Predicate splitting is the replacement of a verbal predicate with a synonymous combination: The students decided to clean the school yard.
In an official business style, such combinations are quite appropriate, but in this speech situation it is better to say: The students decided to clean the school yard.
Lexical incompleteness of a statement is the omission of a necessary word in a sentence. This error is the opposite of verbosity. The advantage of Kuprin is that there is nothing superfluous.
Kuprin may have nothing superfluous, but this sentence is missing a few words.
The huge dictionary of the Russian language, in terms of scope of use, can be divided into two large groups:
- - vocabulary of an unlimited scope of use, which includes commonly used words;
- - vocabulary with a limited scope of use, that is, words used in a certain area - professional, territorial, social.
Common words should be understandable to all native speakers in all cases (bread, doctor, moon, frost, etc.).
The situation is much more complicated with the perception of words with a limited scope of use. They are called that because absolutely everyone cannot and should not understand them. These are neologisms, obsolete words, words of foreign origin, dialectisms, colloquial words, vernacular, professionalisms, jargon.
Neologisms are new words or expressions that have not yet received “citizenship rights” in the common language, and therefore are not perceived as the norm: new Russians - reduced stylistic coloring; cosmonaut is a neologism from the 60s.
Obsolete words are words that have fallen out of active use - archaisms and historicisms.
Archaisms are words that name those realities that exist, but for some reason have been forced out of use in the modern Russian language: But things are still there. (I. Krylov) Now - today. It's an open day at the university today. (archaism)
Historicisms are words that name realities that no longer exist and therefore are not used today: clerk, roommate, etc.
Language, like life itself, changes, as evidenced not only by the transition of words from active to passive, but also by the reverse process. Currently, the word governor has returned to the active reserve, because such a position has again appeared in Russia.
At the beginning of the 20th century, Mikhail Zoshchenko wrote: “Come on, now bother with the Russian phrase - trouble. The whole speech is peppered with words with foreign, vague meaning.” A hundred years have passed, but even now we have an addiction to foreign words, sometimes without even knowing their exact meaning.
Vernacular words are words of oral speech that are not included in the literary language system: get away, drift away, dunce, bungler, etc.
Professionalisms are colloquial synonyms of terms accepted in a professional group: Steering wheel - steering wheel (in the speech of drivers), Typo - blunder (among newspapermen).
The unmotivated transfer of professionalism into general literary speech is undesirable. Professionalisms serve to designate various production processes, production tools, raw materials, resulting products, etc. Unlike terms that are official scientific names of special concepts, professionalisms are perceived as “semi-official” words that do not have a strictly scientific character.
In terms of their limited use and the nature of their sound (jocular, reduced), professionalisms are similar to jargon and are an integral part of jargon.
Jargon is a type of colloquial speech used by a certain circle of native speakers, united by common interests, occupations, and position in society. This is a kind of social dialect, characteristic of professional or age groups of people (the jargon of athletes, students).
In modern Russian, youth jargon, or slang, is distinguished. The emergence of many jargons is associated with the desire of young people to express their attitude to a subject or phenomenon more clearly and emotionally. Hence such evaluative words: amazing, cool, awesome, laugh, go crazy, buzz, plow, etc.
This is everyday vocabulary with a reduced expressive coloring, which is not a literary norm: advanced, sucks, trick, etc.
Slang vocabulary is inferior to literary vocabulary in accuracy, which determines its inferiority as a means of communication. The meaning of jargon tends to vary depending on the context. For example, the adjective cool means good, attractive, interesting, reliable.
A special socially limited group of words in the modern Russian language is camp jargon, which is used by people placed in special living conditions.
He reflected the terrible life in places of detention: zek (prisoner), shmona (search), gruel (pottage), informer (informer) and so on. Such jargon finds application in realistic descriptions of camp life.
I would like to hope that there will be no extralinguistic conditions for their consolidation in the Russian language and that they will quickly become part of the passive vocabulary.
The rules for using words and phrases in strict accordance with their meanings are called lexical norms Russian literary language.
Violation lexical norms leads to ambiguity of statements and serious speech errors.
Compliance lexical norms Russian language presupposes the speaker’s ability to choose the right word from a number of similar or even identical in content, i.e., synonymous words, as well as the ability to distinguish between paronymous words.
Paronyms- these are words that are similar in sound, in lexico-grammatical affiliation, as well as in the unity of the root morpheme, but different in meaning: ignorant - ignorant, hated - hateful, draw - draw.
Paronyms form binary (paired) combinations, among which the following stand out:
full (absolute) paronyms - words of the same logical-grammatical series, denoting different concepts: earthly - earthly, contentment - contentment;
incomplete paronyms - single-root words with incomplete delimitation of meanings: dramatic - dramatic, tragic - tragic, fantastic - fantastic;
partial paronyms
(quasi-paronyms - “imaginary” paronyms) - single-root words belonging to the same part of speech, but characterized by sharp differences in the meanings of suffixes: frontal - frontal, granular - grain.
Single-root paronyms- a phenomenon in language is not accidental. They arise as a result of word-formation processes. Because of this, they have similarities not only in sound, but also in meaning.
Similar root paronyms may differ:
1) meaning or shade of meaning: subscription(the right to use something for a certain period of time) - subscriber(season ticket holder), weekday(not holiday, work) - everyday(not holiday, work, intended for everyday life, everyday, ordinary);
2) lexical compatibility: pay(pension, salary, fee, debt) - pay(expenses, losses, travel);
3) syntactic compatibility: pay(travel, telephone conversations) - pay(for travel, for telephone conversations);
4) lexico-syntactic compatibility: put on(coat) - dress(child);
5) stylistic coloring: boyish(special) - boyish(colloquial).
In progress historical development paronyms can come closer together, often in individual meanings of the word; For example, business And businesslike synonymized in meaning (expressing busyness, preoccupation with affairs).
The relationship of paronyms to homonyms, synonyms, antonyms
When studying paronyms, the question naturally arises about their relationship to other lexical categories - homonyms, synonyms and antonyms. Thus, some scientists consider paronymy as a kind of homonymy, and paronyms, therefore, as “pseudo-homonyms,” indicating their formal closeness.
Paronyms differ from homonyms in the following ways.
Firstly, paronyms have different spellings ; For example: dictation - dictation(paronyms), dacha1- portion given at one time, dacha2 - Vacation home, usually for summer holiday, dacha3- a piece of land under a forest (homonyms).
Secondly, paronymic words never have a complete coincidence in pronunciation ; for example: paronymous spitz - spire and homonymous hairpin1- device for pinning hair, hairpin2- thin heel.
In addition, the semantic proximity of paronyms is explained etymologically: initially they had a common root. And the similarity of homonym words is purely external, accidental (except for those cases when homonymy develops as a result of the collapse of the meanings of a polysemantic word).
The mixing of different words that are similar in pronunciation is observed, as a rule, in speech, since in the language system most of these words are quite clearly distinguished from each other, although in some cases similar-sounding words with the same root turn out to be very close to each other and the difficulties of distinguishing them do not arise. always easy to overcome.
For example: lyrical - lyrical, comical - comical, raspberry - raspberry modern researchers call them incomplete paronyms.
Words of this type are similar to synonyms of the same root, although they also have obvious distinctive features:
A) paronymic ones refer either only to native Russian words ( stray - stray, remains - remains, pay - pay, litters - marks), or only to borrowed ones ( subscriber-subscription, being - essence, fact - factor). And in a synonymous series both of them can be combined; For example: yoke - yoke, slavery, bondage, where the first two are original Russian, the third is an Old Slavic borrowing, the fourth is Turkic.
B) synonyms, denoting the same or similar concept, often semantically come very close, while paronyms always denote completely different concepts and differ from each other by clear semantic differentiation.
When distinguishing between paronyms and synonyms, it should be borne in mind that the discrepancy in the meanings of paronyms is usually so significant that replacing one of them with another is impossible. Mixing paronyms leads to gross lexical errors: "The mother put (should put) a coat on the child"; “There were business travelers sitting in the hotel lobby.” (need business travelers).
Synonyms are very often interchangeable. With all the originality of semantic structures, they provide the author with the right to a wide choice of the most appropriate word in meaning, not excluding options for synonymous replacement. At the same time, there are known cases of paronyms turning into synonyms.
So, relatively recently the word come to terms with mattered "to become meek, submissive, humble", its use in the meaning "to reconcile" was considered unacceptable. However, in colloquial speech this word increasingly began to mean - “having gotten used to something, to come to terms with something”: come to terms with poverty, come to terms with shortcomings. Modern explanatory dictionaries The Russian language notes this meaning as the main one.
Thus, former paronyms, as a result of their mixing in speech, can become closer and ultimately turn into synonyms. However, it should be borne in mind that the interchangeability of recent paronyms is permissible only if the new meaning that they have developed is fixed in the language.
The semantic difference between paronyms does not, as a rule, extend to the extreme opposite, i.e. paronyms do not enter into antonymic relationships. They can only be contrasted in context: “Duty, not position”; "Service, not service"(headlines of newspaper articles). However, such a contrast between paronyms is not reflected in their systemic connections in the vocabulary and is of an occasional nature.
Using paronyms in speech
Paronyms demand to themselves special attention, since mixing them in speech is unacceptable.
The inaccuracy of using paronyms is a consequence of various reasons.
In one case, their confusion arises as a result of the convergence of realities of the type denoted by these words: bottom-bottom, needle - needle - needle, chara - cup, bowl - cup.
It is characteristic that in almost all such words the sound similarity is insignificant, and their erroneous confusion is possible.
In another case, the reason for the incorrect use of words is the commonality of the scope of application of the concepts, objects, processes, actions, qualities they call, or the similarity of the associative connections that arise: gross - net, lancet - tweezers, pilot - boatswain, cooking - jam, molded - molded, baroque - rococo.
Sometimes the inaccuracy in the use of paronyms is a consequence of the possibility of their synonymous combination and the proximity or identity of the boundaries of lexical compatibility: anecdotal(anecdotal) march, apathetic (apathetic) state. Whereas in a number of other cases such a rapprochement is impossible and leads to an error: It was completely anecdotal(instead of anecdotal) story;He always seemed kind of apathetic(instead of apathetic).
The occurrence of speech errors also occurs as a result of failure to distinguish between the stylistic affiliation of words.
There is often a convergence between book and special words and colloquial words: antinomy mixed with the word antimony; interstyle words, stylistically neutral - with colloquial or colloquial words: meaninglessness with conversational nonsense; foulbrood- with vernacular foulbrood; rusty- with conversational rusty and colloquial outdated rusty; toothy- with conversational toothy.
The mixing of paronymic words is also facilitated by the close semantic connections of word-forming suffixes: -n- And -sk- ; -ovit- , -ov- And -n- ; -stvo- And -awn- and others ( inventive - inventive, businesslike - businesslike - efficient, improvement - livability).
The reason for the confusion may be the failure to distinguish paronymic words that are little familiar to a native speaker. This is what can explain the confusion of words in speech empire - vampire, distance - authority, excavator - escalator.
Despite the fact that the confusion of paronymic words is often observed, the phenomenon of paronymy itself is quite natural.
New paronyms arise in the Russian language constantly. This is facilitated by the active law of analogy in language. As well as the specifics of the author’s use of similar-sounding words.
The correct use of paronyms is a necessary condition for competent, cultural speech, and, on the contrary, mixing them is a sign of low speech culture.
Stylistic functions of paronyms
Paronymy As one of the linguistic phenomena, it has long been used by speakers, writers, poets, and publicists.
It underlies the creation of a special kind of stylistic figure, the so-called paronomasia , the essence of which is the deliberate confusion or deliberate clash of paronyms: not stupid, but oak; and deaf and stupid.
Paronyms can perform various stylistic functions. Thus, the deliberate combination of similar-sounding words is a means of creating an unusual image in order to enhance its persuasiveness. For example, the paronyms crown - wreath in the poem by M. Yu. Lermontov “The Death of the Poet”: And having taken off the former wreath, they put a crown of thorns entwined with laurels on it...
Paronyms are also used to highlight relevant concepts: The young Turgenevs personify honor and honesty; From the door of the barn... a hunched old woman came out, bent by life and experiences. Paronyms are often compared in the text: I would be glad to serve, but being served is sickening; their opposition is also possible: I craved deeds, not deeds.
Often the use of similar-sounding words is the basis of a pun and gives the speech a humorous tone; thanks to a completely unexpected play on words in familiar and stable expressions, which at the same time acquire new imagery and expressiveness; for example, the aphorism of E. Korotkov: The classics should not only be read, but also read.
For correct use words in speech are not enough to know their exact meaning; it is also necessary to take into account the peculiarities of the lexical compatibility of words, i.e. their ability to be combined with each other in speech.
Some words in Russian have limited compatibility. For example, the word pouring can only be combined with the word rain, word brown- with the word eyes, word bosom- with the word Friend etc.
The rules for using words in accordance with their stylistic coloring are called stylistic norms Russian language.
The stylistic coloring of a word is formed as a result of its constant functioning in one or another variety of the Russian language (literary language, in dialects, jargons or vernacular), as well as in one or another sphere of communication (scientific, official business, journalistic, aesthetic or everyday) .
Any word in the Russian language has a stylistic coloring. Wed: Human- lit., general lit.; potato- lit., official business; brow- lit., art-poet., outdated, high.; belly- simple, reduced
Stylistic coloring determines the appropriateness of using a particular linguistic device in a certain speech situation. The use in speech of words with a stylistic coloring unusual for the given communication situation and the given text is perceived as a speech error.
A high level of speech culture and compliance with lexical norms require speakers to be precise not only in the use of individual words, but also in the use of phraseological units, i.e. whole, stable combinations, which are not created in the process of communication, but are reproduced in finished form.