Even before the settlement of the Germanic tribes, the Angles, Saxons and Jutes in the British Isles, there were trade relations between these tribes and the Romans, which left some traces in the languages of these tribes. The borrowings of this period, which is commonly called the first period of Latin borrowings, reflect the nature of the cultural, economic and military relations of the Roman and Germanic tribes. New words usually express new concepts that arose in connection with the introduction to the higher culture of the Roman people of this period. Such borrowings include the following words: port (Lat. portus), cycene (kitcen) from Lat. coquina, piper (pepper) from Lat. Piper et al.
The assumption that these words were borrowed by the Anglo-Saxons even before moving to the British Isles is based on comparative historical analysis. By comparing the lexical composition of various Germanic languages and dialects, comparative historical linguistics has established the commonality of many words Latin origin in these languages. Naturally, the assumption arose that the Anglo-Saxons brought these words with them. However, the presence of many of these words in the language of the Celts, with whom the Anglo-Saxons came into contact on the islands, does not make it possible to accurately establish, due to the lack of monuments, whether these words came into ancient English language directly from the Latin language or were borrowed from the Celtic language already in Britain.
The bulk of Latin borrowings are associated with the introduction of Christianity in 597. Most of these borrowings express church and religious concepts. The general rise of culture associated with the introduction of Christianity led to the emergence of new concepts that needed appropriate linguistic design. New words appeared from the Latin language, denoting concepts from the sphere of culture and everyday life.
Here are examples of Latin words that found their way into Old English and are preserved in modern English.
Household items, tools, implements: ancor (anchor) from Lat. ancora; box (box) from Lat. buxus; cealc (chalk) from Lat. calcem; paper (paper) from Lat. paryrus; pyle (pillow) from Lat. pulvinus; post (post) from Lat. postis; purs (purse) from Lat.bursa; sicol (sikle) from Lat. secula;
Items of clothing: cappe (cap) from Lat. cappa; socc (sock) from Lat. soccus.
Measures of weight and length: circul (circle) from Lat. circulus; pund (pound) from Lat. pondo; ynce (inch) from Lat. incia.
Names of animals, birds and fish: assa (ass) from Lat. asinus; camel (camel) from Lat. camelus; turtle (turtle) from Lat. turtur; truht (trout) from Lat. tructa.
Plant names: palm (palm) from Lat. palma; pere (pear) from Lat. pirum; rose (rose) from Lat. Rosa; lilie (lily) from Lat. lilium; plante (plant) from Lat. planta
Words related to religion:
engel (angel) from Lat. angelus; biscop (bishop) from Lat. episcopus; cyrice (church) from Lat. cyriaca; munuc (monk) from Lat. monachus; nunne (nun) from Lat. nonna; papa (pope) from Lat. papa.
In total, according to the calculations of the English linguist Bo, by the end of the Old English period there were about 450 Latin borrowings, not counting derivative words and proper names.
A significant number of Latin words entered the English language between the 11th and 13th centuries, during the Norman period. However, these words, for the most part, have already undergone, to a greater or lesser extent, phonetic, grammatical and semantic changes in the Norman dialect of French, which borrowed these words from Latin.
The largest number of words borrowed by the English language from the Latin language are so-called book borrowings. These are words that entered the language not as a result of direct, live communication between peoples, but through written documents, books, and so on. Book borrowings are qualitatively different from other types of borrowings. First of all, they are less susceptible to all kinds of changes, especially semantic ones. This is logical to explain by the fact that book borrowings, for a long period of time, are limited to the sphere of their use - the literary form of a given language. Further, these borrowings are usually abstract, abstract or terminological in nature.
Most of the Latin book borrowings in English occur during the 16th, as well as the 15th-16th centuries, that is, during the Renaissance in England. There are over a thousand Latin words in the works of Wycliffe, Langland and Chaucer that have not previously been attested in English. During the Renaissance, words from the fields of medicine, literature, theology, technical terms, etc. appeared. A list of these words cannot be given within a short chapter. To do this you need to compile a special dictionary.
Most of these borrowings can be distinguished by morphological characteristics, for example, verbs with the suffix –ate- in the infinitive, formed from the past participle of Latin verbs of the first conjugation, such as separate, translate, meditate, exaggerate, congratulate; verbs with the suffix –ute- in the infinitive, obtained from the stem of the past participle of the group of Latin verbs of the third conjugation, such as prosecute, execute; adjectives formed from Latin present participles with stems –ant- and –ent-, for example, evident, transparent, patient, triumphant, apparent, obedient.
The subsequent centuries - XVII, XVIII - witnessed book borrowings from the Latin language. In most cases, these are so-called “learned words”, often retaining the features of the morphological character of Latin words, such as inertia, sanatorium, genus, radius, curriculum, datum, vacuum.
Finally, in modern English there are also borrowings that have completely retained their Latin appearance, that is, they have not undergone and are not currently undergoing any linguistic assimilation. These words and expressions are used in the language as a kind of quotations from the Latin language. The scope of their use is very limited: they are usually used in scientific prose styles, in business documents, in an elevated oratorical style of speech. These borrowings include expressions such as: alma mater, bona fide, ex officio, conditio sine quanon, and so on.
As noted in the previous chapter, in the process of borrowing words by one language from another, there are cases when the same word is borrowed twice. This is possible only in cases of long-term historical and cultural ties between peoples whose languages come into contact. This is precisely the history of the influence of Latin on English. Many Latin words appear in English twice: once from French, another time from the Latin language itself. The second borrowing is usually removed from the first by a significant period of time, which is necessary for the newly borrowed word to be considered as new. The result is etymological French-Latin doublets.
Some word-forming elements - prefixes and suffixes - should also be included among the Latin borrowings of a bookish nature. These derivational morphemes were not borrowed from Latin as independent lexical units; they were borrowed as part of whole words and only later interpreted as word-forming morphemes. However, in linguistic literature they are usually called borrowed affixes.
Thus, the Latin language had a significant influence on the enrichment of the English language with new words. This is largely due to the fact that the Norman conquest of England, which brought with it a huge number of French words, prepared the way for a relatively free influx of Latin words due to etymological affinities. In historical lexicology, it is sometimes difficult to determine whether a particular word came into English from French or Latin.
Among the borrowed Latin words, a certain group of words stands out, which in one or another sound form, grammatical design and semantic content can be found in a number of languages - international words. It was the Latin language that gave the most significant number of such words. This is explained by the fact that Latin in the era of feudalism was for many countries of Western Europe the international language of science, and in some countries it was even a literary language. The Latin language retained its importance as the language of science until the 17th-18th centuries. Modern medicine, chemistry, botany, zoology, philosophy, politics, and art still widely use Latin bases to denote newly emerging concepts. Of the Latin words borrowed by the English language and which are international words, the following words can be mentioned: obligation, constitution, alibi, agriculture, microscope, modern, laboratory, program, system, socialism, communism, capitalism, climate, radius, tradition and so on.
It is a world-famous fact that borrowing in different languages influence the enrichment of the vocabulary of the languages themselves in different ways. Borrowings constitute a special part of the vocabulary, both in terms of naming and in terms of the validity of their use. What is universal for any language is that as a result of language contacts and the expansion of experience of a given language community, under the influence of the languages of other societies, as well as with the development of economic and cultural ties, borrowings become one of the means of satisfying the need for names of new directions of development of a given society. Borrowings are a kind of saving of linguistic effort to fill nominative gaps that have arisen in a given language.
The influence of Latin on the vocabulary of the German language is undeniable. The German language can boast of such an outstanding researcher vocabulary, like Jacob Grimm, who in his “History of the German Language” back in 1848 noted the importance of studying historical connections with other peoples in order to study the history of the language, which, in turn, will help to interpret the history of the people. Therefore, the purpose of this article is an attempt to reveal some aspects of Latin borrowings in close connection with historical events.
The presence of centuries-old trade, military and cultural ties between the Germans and Romans contributed to a huge number borrowings into the German language from Latin. Over 600 borrowing words are known from the ancient period. Since the Romans were at a higher stage of development, the Germans mastered new concepts along with their names. As a result, we have the following borrowings:
lat. caupo– sutler, merchant of food and drinks > modern. kaufen- trade, buy,
lat. coin>modern Mü nze- coin,
lat. saccus>modern Sack- bag,
lat. asinus>modern Esel- donkey,
lat. piper>modern Pfeffer- pepper.
There is especially a lot of borrowing in the agricultural sector (field farming, viticulture):
lat. vinum>modern We in– wine,
lat. caulis>modern Kohl- cabbage,
lat. cucurbita>modern Kurbis- pumpkin,
lat. s inapis>modern Senf- mustard,
lat. menta>modern Minze– mint.
Along with the development of trade relations, another obvious reason for the widespread penetration of Latin words into the German vocabulary was a clear process of ethnic mixing. Interethnic connections contributed to the transfer of new concepts, and with them new words, from the economic activities of the Romans. Mostly these are the names of agricultural tools, cultivated plants, defense structures, housing property, as well as some concepts in the field of trade and construction.
The Germans became acquainted with stone structures that were unknown to them:
lat. mṻrus>modern Mauer– stone wall,
lat. tẽgula>modern Ziegel- brick, tile,
lat. picem>modern Pech– resin.
We adopted the structural features of buildings and their names:
lat. cella>modern Keller- basement,
lat. coquina>modern Kü che- kitchen,
lat. fenestra>modern Fenster– window (set Windauge).
Items household and everyday life:
lat. cysta>modern Kisteh - box,
lat. tap(p)etum>modern Teppich - carpet,
lat. patina>modern Pfanne-pan,
lat. charte>modern Kerze- candle.
Borrowings from the culinary field:
lat. piscis>modern Fisch-fish,
lat. caseus>modern Kä se- hard cheese,
lat. butyrum>modern Butter- oil.
From the military case:
lat. Withampus>modern Kampf- fight, battle,
lat. pilum>modern Pfeil-arrow,
lat. titulus> modern Titel-rank.
The origin of the word is also associated with military roads
lat. viastrā ta> modern Straß e– paved street
lat. milia(thousand steps) > modern Meile mile
lat. distantia>modern Distanz distance
All of the above borrowings of the first wave fall under the phonetic laws of German and a number of Germanic languages. The reason for this is borrowing orally, directly from ordinary, spoken Latin, which provides more opportunities for deviations from the primary meaning or form - the phenomenon of assimilation. This pattern was noted in the work of Jacob Grimm “History of the German Language”
But the second wave of borrowings took place in writing, indirectly. This was also influenced by the spread of Christianity in the 8th-11th centuries. This may include the borrowing of some religious concepts:
lat. claustrum>modern Kloster- monastery,
lat. monachus>modern Mö nch- monk,
lat. cap(p) ella>modern Kapelle- chapel,
lat. crux>modern Kreuz-cross.
And also verbs:
lat. operari>modern opfern- sacrifice,
lat. signare>modern segnen- bless, be baptized.
Frankish and Anglo-Saxon missionaries introduced some concepts related to government:
lat. census>modern Zins– interest,
lat. scribere>modern schreiben – write ,
lat. par(a)veredus>modern Pferd- horse, originally had the meaning of a post horse.
With the spread of writing in monasteries and schools, the following concepts appeared:
lat. school>modern Schule-school ,
lat. tinctum>modern Tinte- ink,
lat. tabula>modern Tafel-board ,
lat. breve>modern Brief- letter.
The development of gardening, market gardening and floriculture in monasteries enriched the language with the following words:
lat. lilia>modern Lilie- lily,
lat. rosa>modern Rose - rose,
lat. petrosilium>modern Petersilie- parsley,
lat. mimus>modern Mimose- mimosa.
Note also that in the second wave of borrowings there are verbs and adjectives:
lat. sobrius>modern sauber- clean,
lat. spender>modern spenden- sacrifice,
lat. tractare>modern trachten- pursuit,
lat. praedicare>modern predigen- preach, teach,
lat. lavare>modern laben- refresh.
In comparison, the first wave represents exclusively nouns for naming new objects and phenomena of the surrounding reality.
The Renaissance and humanism reoriented worldviews and saw the flourishing of science, art, literature, education, music and painting. Therefore, the number of borrowings from Latin into the German language and in other areas of human activity has increased. Let's name just a few words:
Text-text, Logik-logics , Philosophy– philosophy, Astronomie-astronomy, Comet-comet, mixtur- potion, Medizin-medicine, Academy-academy, Auditorium-audience, Aula-Assembly Hall, Examen- exam, Fakultä t- faculty, Gymnasium-gymnasium, Doctor- doctor, Rector-rector, Professor- Professor, Student-student, Harmonie-harmony, Melodie-melody, Note-record, Pause-pause.
Some of the Latin borrowings listed above were so assimilated into the German language that they began to be perceived as native German:
der Tisch, das Fenster, die Mühle, der Wein, schreiben.
Thus, the lexical richness and diversity of the German language is associated with numerous borrowings from Latin. The use of Latin borrowings in German everyday life can be traced back to the Middle Ages. Today, these words function in almost all spheres of human activity, and are often found in Everyday life. Sometimes it's even hard to believe that some words are of Latin origin. During complete assimilation, these lexical units lost their original characteristics, obeyed the norms of the German language and are now perceived as native German. For linguists, the etymological study of Latin borrowings is important for understanding internal form words and the primary meaning of Latin words.
MODERN HUMANITIES UNIVERSITY
ABSTRACT
English language course
on the topic of: "Latin borrowings in English"
Completed: student I course
groups 1038
Filippov A.V.
Ulyanovsk
1998
I . Introduction
If we consider the vocabulary of the English language, then all the words included in it should be considered English, with the exception of those words that, by their form, betray their foreign origin. For example:
Padishah - padishah from Persian:
Khaliff - caliph (caliph) from Arabic, etc.
But there are relatively few such words in the English language. The overwhelming majority of words are perceived in the modern language as English words, whatever their actual origin. In fact, the original English words are those that have been known since the Old English period. They make up less than half of the English vocabulary. The rest vocabulary language- words of foreign origin that came from Latin, Greek, French, Scandinavian and other languages.
Words of foreign origin are called borrowings .
Borrowing lexical elements from one language to another is a very ancient phenomenon and is already known to the languages of the ancient world.
In the process of its development, the English language encountered many languages, from which it borrowed various words. They are not the same in quantity and specific gravity in the vocabulary of the English language.
II . Latin borrowings.
Latin elements occupy a significant place in the English vocabulary. The most ancient of them are the earliest borrowings in the English language. Among words of Latin origin in the English language, three layers are usually distinguished. They differ in the nature of the semantics (meaning, meaning) of words and the time of their borrowing.
1. First layer.
The ancient tribes, the ancestors of the Anglo-Saxons, who inhabited the northern part of Central Europe conducted trade exchanges with the Roman Empire, fought with it, clashed with Roman merchants and borrowed from the Romans a number of words associated with the concept of trade, or the type of goods and objects new to these tribes.
For example:
Latin word Modern English word
vinum - wine wine [‘wain] - wine
pondo - measure of weight pound - pound
uncia - ounce ounce [‘auns] - ounce
moneta - pieces of metal mint - mint coins
for exchange
cista - box (container chest [ʧest] - chest
for storage)
discum - dish, disc dish [‘diò] - dish
As we can see, these words are simple in form, with everyday content; they entered the English language orally, through direct live communication. This includes the names of food products and plants.
For example:
Latin word Modern English word
pipere - pepper [‘pepə]
persicum - peach peach [‘pi:ʧ]
pirum - pear (pirea) pear [‘pɛə]
prunum - plum plum [‘plʌm]
butyrum - butter [‘bʌtə]
plante - plant plant - plant,
plant a plant
caseus - cheese cheese[ʧi:z]
To measure long distances, the Romans used a unit of length equal to a thousand steps (»1.5 km). This measure was adopted by the ancient English along with its name.
Latin word Modern English word
millia passuum mile [‘mɑɪl] – mile
Roman merchants and soldiers crossed rivers and seas in flat-bottomed ships. This type of vessel was borrowed by the ancient English and the name entered the language:
Latin word Modern English word
ponto – flat-bottomed vessel punt [‘pʌnt] – flat-bottomed boat
Those places where it was possible to moor received Latin names:
Latin word Modern English word
portus – harbor port [‘pɔ:t] – pier, port, city
The first layer also includes words borrowed by the Anglo-Saxons later, already in the British Isles. These words are associated mainly with the construction techniques of the ancient Romans, traces of which the Anglo-Saxons found in Britain.
For example:
Latin word Modern English word
strata via - paved road street - street
campus - camp camp [‘kæmp] - camp
colonia - settlement colony [‘kɔlənɪ] - colony,
castra - chester fortress [‘ʧestə] - included in
Colchester, Lincoln city names Manchester,
Chester, Winchester, etc.
vallum - shaft, type of fortification wall - wall
2. Second layer.
The second layer of Latin borrowings is associated with Christianity, which was brought by Roman preachers who converted the pagan Anglo-Saxons to a new faith. The language of church services was Latin, so many Latin words of religious content penetrated into the ancient Roman language. Most of these words were not originally Latin, but came into the Latin language from Greek, since Christianity developed in the eastern part of the Roman Empire. Christian books were translated into Latin.
Here are some words related to this period:
Latin word Modern English word
episcopus - bishop bishop [‘bɪʃəp]
presbyter - priest priest [‘prɪ:st]
monachus - monk monk
scrinium - sacred tomb, shrine [‘ʃrɑɪn]
candela - candle candle [‘kændl]
monasterium - monastery mynster (minster) [‘mɪnstə]
Westminster - Western Priory
Eastmynster -Eastern monastery
The adoption of Christianity and the activities of preachers had a strong influence on the entire culture of the Anglo-Saxons. The Latin alphabet was introduced. Monastic schools, literary works in Latin, etc. appeared. Many words were borrowed, indicating the expansion of the horizons of the Anglo-Saxons.
For example:
Latin word Modern English word
schola - school school [‘sku:l]
magister - teacher schoolmaster [‘sku:lmʌstə]
rosa - rose rose[‘rouz]
palma - palma [‘pɑ:m]
phoenix - phoenix fenix
leo - lion [‘lɑɪən]
pardus - leopard leopard [‘lepəd]
The group of words is borrowed from the field of education, science, literature, study, and art.
For example:
Latin word Modern English word
canon - rule canon [‘kænən]
chronica - chronicle [k]chronical
versus - poetry verse [‘və:s]
grammatika nota - grammar evaluation [‘græmə]
notarius - scribe note [‘nout]
notary [‘noutərɪ] - notary
papirus - paper paper [‘peɪpə]
chorus - choir [k]chorus [‘kɔrəs]
theatrum - theater theater [‘ɵɪətə]
3. Third layer.
The Middle Ages were replaced by the Renaissance, which is characterized by the rapid development of science and technology, the unprecedented flowering of literature and art, the invention of printing, great geographical discoveries, the successes of materialist philosophy in the fight against church dogmas and the dominance of the church.
During this period, the English language borrowed many words from classical languages. They differed sharply from the previous ones in their character: these words are, as a rule, scientific. They penetrated the language through writing, through literature, scientific works, which contributed to the maximum preservation of the Latin form of the word.
For example:
animal - in English [‘ænɪməl] - animal
formula - in English - formula
inertia - in English [ɪn’ə:ʃʝə] - inertia
maximum - in English - maximum
minimum - in English - minimum
memorandum - in English [,memə’rændum] - memorandum
veto - in English [‘vɪ:tou] - veto
alibi - in English [‘ælɪbɑɪ] - alibi
autograph - in English [‘ɔ:təgrəf] - autograph
atmosphere - in English [‘ætmɔsfɪə] - atmosphere
excursion - in English [ɪks’kə:ʃn] - excursion
jurisprudence - in English [‘ʤuərɪs,pru:dəns] - jurisprudence
Latin borrowings of the Renaissance are divided into direct, that is, taken directly from the Latin language, and indirect, penetrating through the French language. Establishing the direct source of borrowing of individual words is not of fundamental importance, since ultimately, all these words are of Latin origin:
For example:
lat. factum - English fact (fact) – fr. fait – borrowed from English in the form feat (feat)
lat. radius (radius) – from French. ray (ray)
defect (disadvantage) – defeat (defeat)
turris (tower) - French. tour - English tower [‘tɑuə].
Many of the Latin borrowings belong to the so-called international vocabulary, i.e. are repeated in the languages of many peoples, united by common features of cultural and social development.
Even in the 17th century, scientific treatises were mostly written in Latin. English translations these treatises were replete with Latinisms in order to preserve scientific style presentation (associated with the Latin tradition).
The Latin loanwords of Middle English and Early Modern English are mainly abstract nouns and scientific words. Many of them are not currently used, but the number of Latinisms preserved in the vocabulary of the English language from the 13th to 18th centuries. is still very large.
For example:
locution - phrase, idiom of speech
magnanimity [,mægnə’nɪmɪtɪ] - generosity
medium [‘mɪ:dɪəm] - environment, condition
memory [‘memərɪ] - memory, memory
vortex [‘vɔ:teks] - whirlpool, whirlwind
to abhor [əb’hɔ:] - to feel disgusted
to absolve [əb’zɔlv] - forgive, let go (sins)
to add [‘æd] - add, add
to collide - collide
to discriminate - to distinguish, to differentiate
accurate [‘ækʝurɪt] - accurate
efficient [ɪ’fɪʃənt] - efficient, skillful
finite [‘fɑɪnɑɪt] - having a limit
igneous [‘ɪgnɪəs] - fiery, fiery
latent [‘leɪtənt] - hidden
Regarding these words, we can say with almost certainty that they came into English directly from Latin, bypassing French. Some of these words do not and never existed in the French language, while others were borrowed by the French language later than by English.
V.D. Narozhnaya, L. Sadykova
Greco-Latin borrowings in
Russian language
The article discusses Greek-Latin borrowings in the Russian language. Words of Greek and Latin origin are relevant for modern discourse, as they serve as nominations of political, economic, legal and other realities that arouse increased interest among native speakers.
Key words: language, words, borrowings, vocabulary, terminology
words borrowed from Greek and Latin
in the Russian language
The article studies words from Greek and Latin in the Russian language. Greek and Latin borrowed words are typical of modern discourse as they name political, economical, juridical and other phenomena, which arouse native speakers" interest.
Key words: language, words, borrowed words, vocabulary, terminology
Since ancient times, the Russian people have entered into cultural, trade, military, and political ties with other states, which could not but lead to linguistic borrowings. In the process of use, most of them were influenced by the borrowing language. Gradually, borrowed words, assimilated (from Latin assimilare - “to assimilate, liken”) by the borrowing language, became among the words in common use and were no longer perceived as foreign. At different times, words from other languages penetrated into the original language. Currently, words such as sugar, beets, banya and others are considered Russian, although they were borrowed from the Greek language. Such words as school (from Latin via Polish), pencil (from Turkic languages), a suit (from the French language), and many others. The national identity of the Russian language did not suffer at all from the penetration of foreign words into it, since borrowing is a completely natural way of enriching any language. The role of Latin borrowings in the formation and development of the cultural and historical layer of words is generally recognized in both Russian and foreign linguistics. Latinisms are the basis of the terminological fund of many languages. Words of Latin origin are also relevant for modern discourse, since they serve as nominations of political, economic, legal and other realities that arouse increased interest among native speakers.
The borrowing of foreign words by the Russian language in different eras reflects the history of the people. New words poured into the Russian language from other languages as a result of economic, political and cultural ties between the Slavs and other peoples, as a result of the introduction into life of realities that were new to Russia, but already had names in other languages.
most significant influence on language Ancient Rus' was influenced by the Greek language
ka. Kievan Rus conducted a lively trade with Byzantium, and the penetration of Greek elements into Russian vocabulary began even before the adoption of Christianity in Rus' (VI century) and intensified under the influence of Christian culture in connection with the baptism of the Kievites (IX century) and the spread of liturgical books translated from Greek into Old Church Slavonic. Foreign words, getting into the Russian language, they are gradually assimilated by it: they adapt to its sound system, obey the rules of Russian word formation and inflection, to one degree or another losing the features of their non-Russian origin.
Borrowings from the Greek language began to penetrate into the original vocabulary during the period of pan-Slavic unity. Such borrowings include, for example, the words chamber, dish, cross, bread (baked), bed, cauldron, etc. Borrowings were significant in the period from the 9th to the 11th centuries. and later (the so-called East Slavic).
Among the borrowings from the Greek language, the most significant is the richly developed terminological system. Term - “(from Latin terminus - “border, limit”) a word or phrase that is the name of a special concept of any sphere of production, science or art” [Russian language...1979: 349]. The term has such features as consistency, the presence of a definition, a tendency towards monosemy, lack of expression, and stylistic neutrality. Terms are words in a special function, therefore words and terms are functionally differentiated. The nominative function of commonly used words differs from the nominative function of a term primarily in that the meaning of the term is strictly conceptual, i.e. informs about the concept, participates in the formation of the concept. The term, unlike commonly used words, is limited in the manifestation of syntagmatic properties. Word formation
Vocalistic means are used selectively in the formation of a term, and means that can give words an emotional and expressive coloring are not characteristic of the terminological system. The nominative function in terminology uses the properties of commonly used words in the national language.
terminological vocabulary includes words or phrases used for a logically precise definition special concepts or subjects in any field of science, technology, Agriculture, art, etc. Unlike common words, which can have multiple meanings, terms within a particular science are usually unambiguous. They are characterized by a clearly limited, motivated specialization of meaning. Greek borrowings, which have become words-terms, cover almost all areas of science and art. These include the following concepts:
Names of sciences: anatomy, biology, botany, grammar, geometry, geography, dialectology, zoology, history, logic, mathematics, mechanics, onomastics, optics, pedagogy, physics, philology, philosophy, etc.
Biology (autogenesis, aleurones, allelopathy, amitosis, anabiosis, anabolia, anaphase, bacteria, glycogen, homology, dialysis, diapause, diapedesis, lysosomes, carpology, metamerism, microscope, etc.);
Astronomy (satrograph, astrolatry, anagalactic, telescope);
Geology and mineralogy (silt, alexandrite, diamond, amethyst, anamorphism, anhydride, barite, hematite, hyacinth, glauconite, di-optase, emerald, calcite, cinnabar, malachite, mesolite, pyrite, rhodochrosite, sapphire, sphalerite, chrysocolla, chrysolite, chrysotile, etc.);
Geography (aklina, arctogea, horizon, phytoclimate, etc.);
Physics (acoustics, analyzers, anaphoresis, slide, slide projector, diascope, magnet, prism, etc.);
Mathematics and geometry (hypotenuse, leg, parallelogram, parallelepiped, pyramid, prism, rhombus, trapezoid, chord);
Chemistry (ammonia, amphoteric, analysis, atom, barium, glycocol, glycols, glycolysis, glucose, isomers, catalysis, carbolite, synthesis, fluorine, etc.);
Economics (anatocism, etc.);
Medicine (aorta, acrocephaly, aleukemia, allergy, anamnesis, artery, hygiene, glaucoma, glycemia, homeopath, diagnosis, diarthrosis, diaphragm, meningitis, pneumonia, symptom, scoliosis, pharmacology, pharmacist, phlegmon, surgery, etc.);
Psychology (autophilia, melancholic, phlegmatic, etc.);
Architecture (acroteria, architectonics, architect, architecture, graphics, etc.);
Music (agogy, baritone, range, melody, music lover, symphony, choir, choreography, etc.);
Linguistics (alphabet, aphorism, diacritic, dialect, dialogue, calligraphy, catalogue, lexeme, vocabulary, lexicology, morphology, spelling, spelling, philology, phonetics, phraseology, syntax, etc.);
Literary studies (acmeism, anapest, hyperbole, dialogue, drama, comedy, lyric poetry, metaphor, monologue, ode, poetry, prologue, stanza, tragedy, trochee, reader, epigram, epigraph, epic, etc.).
Market terminology (acceptance, analogy, basis, dividend, identification, index, mortgage, oligopoly, oligarchy, oligopsony, ochlocracy, panic, paradox, parameter, policy, system, tactics, strategy, charisma, homologation, cycle).
The development of science and technology, the emergence of new branches of technology, is always accompanied by the abundant appearance of new terms. An international fund of scientific terminology is being created, which has been mastered by many European languages, including Russian. Scientific terms are often created from Greek roots, denoting concepts that were not yet known in the era
xy of antiquity: cosmonaut (gr. kosmos - “Universe” + gr. nautes - (sea) - “swimmer”).
Terminology is one of the most mobile, fast-growing and rapidly changing parts of the national vocabulary (cf. just some of the names of new sciences and branches of production: automation, allergology, aeronomy, biocybernetics, bionics, hydroponics, holography, cardiac surgery, cosmobiology, plasma chemistry, speleology, ergonomics etc.).
The wide dissemination of scientific and technical terminology, its penetration into various spheres of life leads to the fact that in the language, along with the process of terminology of commonly used words, there is also a reverse process - the mastery of terms in the literary language, i.e. their determinologization. For example, the frequent use of philosophical, art, literary, physical, chemical, medical, industrial and many other terms has made them words in common use, for example: anatomy, analysis, diagnosis, dialectics, etc. Often, when found in the context of common words, the terms are metaphorized and lose theirs special appointment, for example: anatomy of love, geography of feat, sclerosis of conscience.
Borrowings from the Latin language began to penetrate into the Russian language in Peter's time and played a significant role in enriching the vocabulary, especially in the field of scientific, technical, social and political terminology. Most Latin words came into the Russian language in the period from the 16th to the 18th centuries, especially through the Polish and Ukrainian languages, for example: school, auditorium, dean, office, vacation, director, dictation, exam, etc. Many words of Latin origin make up the group international fund of terms, for example: dictatorship, declaration, constitution, corporation, laboratory, meridian, maximum, minimum, proletariat, process, public, revolution, republic, erudition, etc.
Borrowings from the Latin language include the following:
Aviation (avis - bird), aviator, aviation, etc.;
Watercolor (aqua - water), aquarium, water area, scuba, etc.;
Antique (antiquus - ancient), antiques, etc.;
Arena (arena - area, sand);
Auditor (audio - listen), audience, audience, etc.;
Vacancy (vaco - to be free);
Fan (ventus - wind), ventilation, etc.;
Verbal (verbum - word, verb);
Visit (visito - to visit), visa, etc.;
Vitamin (vita - life), vitalism, vital, etc.;
Vocal (vocalis - calls, vowels);
Herbarium (herba - grass);
Student (studeo - study hard), studio, study, etc.;
Table (tabula - board, table), time sheet, scoreboard, etc.;
Compasses (circus - circle, circus), circulation, circus, etc.;
Lawyer (jus - law, court), jurisprudence, justice, etc. [Dictionary of Foreign Words, 1986].
Among Greek borrowings, a large group consists of words denoting minerals. Each mineral has its own biography. There are more than a hundred minerals, which were named in Greek for their amazing color and unique properties. This group includes the following definitions: diamond, amethyst, barite, beryllium, hematite, dioptase, emerald, calcite, malachite, pyrite, rhodochrosite, sphalerite, chrysocolla, etc. [Dictionary of Foreign Words, 1986]. Let us consider the etymology of some of the most interesting, in our opinion, names of minerals.
Diamond is a mineral whose name comes from the Greek adamas - “invincible, indestructible” [ShanskiI 1971:
25], the most wear-resistant, expensive, rare stone; usually colorless or painted in pale shades of yellow, brown, gray, green, pink, and very rarely black.
There is a whole legend associated with the name of hyacinth. The word is derived from the Greek gia-kinthos. It is believed that this mineral got its name from the hyacinth flower, with which the Greeks associated a legend about a beautiful young man - the son of the Spartan king Ebal, the favorite of the radiant god Apollo. One day Apollo threw a heavy disk towards the clouds. Hyacinth rushed to the place where this disk was supposed to fall, wanting to prove to his divine friend that he was not inferior to him in the art of throwing. But the god of the west wind, Zephyr, became inflamed with jealousy of the young man’s beauty and directed the disk directly at his head, mortally wounding him. Shocked by grief, Apollo grew a fragrant flower from his blood in memory of hyacinth [Milyukova, Maralieva 2007: 220].
Emerald is a talisman of mothers and sailors. Pregnant women wore emerald amulets, which after the birth of the child were immediately hung in his cradle. it gives joy and fun, spiritual harmony and hope, victory in battle, tact and generosity, talent and grace, eloquence without a shadow of falsehood and self-esteem, insight. he even bestows the ability of foresight.
Malachite - rare gem, it was used for small objects and exquisite decorations, and its name comes from the Greek malakhe - “mallow”. By the end of the 18th century. With increasing production, malachite is used for larger interior items: vases, boxes, tabletops. they are decorated with thin plates of malachite.
In the old days, turquoise was often replaced with an equally brightly colored mineral blue color- chrysocolla. Its name is derived from Greek words chrysos - “gold” and ^¡¡a - “glue” [Dictionary of Foreign Words, 1986: 550].
Thus, the word chrysocolla can be translated as “golden glue” (it is said that this mineral was used in ancient times for soldering gold). Chrysocolla received its other ancient name - Elat stone - from the mines of the legendary King Solomon, located near the Gulf of Elat in the Red Sea and the city of the same name, where in ancient times it was mined in fair quantities [Milyukova, Maralieva 2007: 221].
An interesting area of loanwords are names of Greek and Latin origin. Union Prince of Kyiv Vladimir with Byzantium in the 10th century. and the adoption of Christianity in Rus' inherited the names of Greek and Latin saints and entailed the naming of people with new Christian (calendar) names. All names of Russian people, “both pagan and Christian, were artificial and reflected the names of the everyday language” [Superanskaya 1962: 47]. For example, the name Evstolia translated from Greek means “well dressed”, Catherine - “purity”, “decency”, Alexander - “protector of people”, Alexey - “defender”, Irina
- “peace”, Evgeny - “noble”, Ksenia - “wanderer, foreigner”, Nikolai
- “victorious people”, Galina - “silence, calmness”, and many others. TO Greek names proper also include such masculine and female names, like Vasily, George, Zinovy, Hilarion, Plato, Stefan; Aglaya, Agrafena, Anastasia, Evdokia, Elena, Zinaida, Taisiya and others.
The following names came from the Latin language to the Russian language:
Augusta - sacred: an honorary title for the wife, mother, sister and daughter of the Roman emperor);
Aurora is the name of the goddess of the dawn;
Agnes - pure, immaculate;
Agrippina - derived from the Roman rho-
venerable name Agrippa;
Akulina - eagle-like, eagle-like; Virinea - green, portable. fresh, cheerful;
Dementius is a Roman generic name from domo - to tame;
Prov - honest;
Roman - Roman, Roman and many
others [Superanskaya 1962: 56].
Thus, Greekisms and Latinisms are an integral part of the Russian language picture of the world, they are closely related to many of its other elements and act as elementary units of cognitive processes, forming the worldview of a native speaker.
Literature
Milyukova N.N., Maralieva M.B. The role of minerals in Greek and modern culture// The role of Greek civilization in the development of world culture: Materials of the International scientific conference dedicated to the 185th anniversary of Greek independence. - Bishkek-Athens, 2007.
Russian language. Encyclopedia / Ed. F.P. Owl. - M., 1979. Dictionary of foreign words / Ed. A.G. Spirkina. - 13th ed., - M., 1986. Superanskaya A.V. Borrowing words and practical transcription. - M., 1962. Shansky N.M. and others. Brief etymological dictionary of the Russian language. - M., 1971.
Course 1 semester
Option 4
Example: Leges Romanorum severae sunt(erant).
Centum dare promise?– Promitto. Do you promise to give a hundred? - I promise.
Promitto, misi, missum 3 – promise; Promittis is a verb in the 2nd person, singular, present tense (2 p., sing., Praesens indicativi activi).
Causa iusta est. Legal basis.
Ius, iuris n – right; Iusta is a noun of the 2nd declension, neuter, in the dative case, plural (Dat., Pl.).
Est – esse, sum, es - to be, to exist; verb, 3 persons, singular (3p., sing.)
Patria in periculis a viris defendi debet Men must defend the country in times of danger.
Defendo, defendi, defensum 3 - to defend. Defendi – infinitive 3rd conjugation, present tense, passive voice(3 p., Infinitivus praesentis passivi.).
Determine the Latin base of the words. (What Latin words did they come from?)
Read, find the matches and remember.
LATIN LANGUAGE TEST
CORRESPONDENCE DEPARTMENT OF THE FACULTY OF LAW
Course 1 semester
Option 5
Read the words, write their dictionary forms, determine the declension, gender, case and number of nouns, translate into Russian.
Example: fabulam – Acc., sing., fable
Fabula, fabulae, f (1 letter) – fable
Determine the tense, voice, person and number of the following verbs, translate into Russian, having first written out their dictionary forms from the dictionary; write next to the conjugation number full form infinitive (Infinitivus prаesentis activi).
Example: auditur – Ch. 3 l., units Praesens indicativi passivi. They listen to him/her.
(audio, audivi, auditum, audire 4 – listen).
Read and translate the sentences. Do morphological analysis underlined words, writing out their full dictionary forms from the dictionary.
Example: Leges Romanorum severae sunt(erant).
Lex, legis f – law; leges – 3rd declension noun, female, in the nominative case, plural (Nom. Pl.)
Romanus,a,um - Roman, aya, oe: Romanus, i m - Roman; Romanorum - 2nd declension noun, masculine, genitive, plural (Gen.Pl.)
Severus, severa, severum – stern, strict; severae - adjective of the 1st group, agreed with the noun leges in gender (gender - 1st cl. adj.), case (noun), number (plural)
Sum, fui, -, esse – to be, to exist; sunt – verb, 3rd person plural present tense (3 p., pl., Praesens indicativi activi); erant – 3 p., pl., Imperfectum indicativi activi – imperfect (imperfect past tense in Russian).
The laws of the Romans are harsh. The laws of the Romans were strict (harsh).
Lingua Latina et lingua Graeca sunt linguae antiquae. Latin and Greek language- ancient languages.
Lingua, linguae f - language. Linguae - noun of the 1st declension, feminine, nominative case, plural (Nom.Pl.)
Papinianus libro quinto responsorum ita scribit. Papinian wrote this in the fifth book of judgments.
Quintus, quinta, quintum - fifth. Quinto - ordinal number, 2nd declension, masculine, in the dative case, singular (Dat.sing.)
Scribo, scripsi, scriptum3 - write. Scribit - Ch. in the 3rd person, singular, past tense (3p., sing,. Praesens indicativi activi.)
Vox populi– vox veritatis. (Vox populi – vox Dei.). The voice of the people is the voice of truth. (The voice of the people is the voice of God.)
Populus, populi m - people. Populi - noun of the 2nd declension, masculine, in the genitive case, singular (Get.sing.).
What words in the Russian language come from Latin words.