From the Caroline Empire, the “Kingdom of France” stands out in the Middle Ages. The Middle Ages bring decentralization to the country. The power of the princes reached its apogee in the 11th century. In 987, Hugo Capet founded the Capetian dynasty. Capetian rule opens the gates to religious wars. The king's vassals seize territories beyond the French border. The most significant was the Norman conquest of England by William I the Conqueror. The Battle of Hastings was immortalized in the Bayeux Tapestry.

Philip II Augustus (1180-1223) does a lot for his country. Thanks to Philip II, the University of Paris was founded, and the construction of Notre Dame Cathedral continued. He begins construction of the Louvre. During Philip's time it was a castle-fortress.

At the end of the 12th century, the French economy slowly began to rise, industry developed, and power was centralized, which allowed the country to defeat England and complete the unification of its lands. Built in the 12th and 13th centuries whole line architectural structures that have become national monuments of France. One of them is Reims Cathedral - a striking example of Gothic architecture. In 1239, Saint Louis brought the Crown of Thorns from Venice. To store this relic, the Saint-Chapelle chapel is being built.

With the death of the last descendant of the Capetians, a conflict ensued between the houses of Valois and Plantagenet for succession to the throne.

The Valois family on the throne of the French Empire (1328-1589)

During this period, the country's military activities took center stage. The Hundred Years' War begins. After the death of Charles IV, King Edward III of England decides to seize the French throne by force. France is a loser: the battle of Poitiers deprives the country of the color of knighthood, King John the Good is captured.

France has reached a dead end: no army, no king, no money. The entire burden of the current situation falls on the shoulders of ordinary French people. The people have risen: Paris and the Jacquerie are rebelling. The outrage was suppressed. The British decide to take Orleans to open the route to the south of France.

The Maid of Orleans, Joan of Arc, leads the French army and defeats the English near Orleans in 1429. She convinced the Dauphin to undergo the coronation ceremony in the cathedral in the Rhine under the name of Charles VII. After 2 years in Rouen, Jeanne dies in agony at the stake. The French people dedicated There is more than one architectural structure for this courageous girl. For example, a statue of Joan is also located in the Sacré-Coeur Basilica, which is located on the hill of Montmartre.

Only in 1453 did the confrontation between the dynasties end with the victory of the Valois, which strengthened the French monarchy. The struggle between the two powers for territory and the throne lasted for a long and painful 116 years. France becomes a colonial empire, powerful and strong. In the second half of the 18th century, the country would lose its position on all counts.

From Louis to Louis

In the meantime, in the 15th - 17th centuries, kings succeeded each other, ruling the country according to their capabilities and abilities. Under Louis XI (1461-1483), the country expanded its territory, science and art flourished, medicine developed, and postal service began to function again. It is he who makes the famous and formidable dungeon out of the fortress - the Bastille.

He is replaced by Louis XII (1498-1515), then the reins of government of the country are held by Francis I (1515-1547). Under him, a beautiful palace in the Renaissance style was built in the vicinity of Fontainebleau. Soon the palace was surrounded by buildings, and a whole city was formed. The palace is decorated with three gardens: the Grand Parterre, English garden and Diana's garden.

The next ruler of the country was Henry II (1547-1559), who became famous for increasing taxes. His life was cut short at the Place des Vosges during a tournament in 1559.

Under his son, Francis II, the Huguenots protested against taxation. The reign of Charles IX (1560-1574) plunges the country into religious wars. In fact, power was in the hands of Catherine de Medici (it was she who became one of the mistresses of the “Ladies' Castle” - Chenonceau Castle on the Cher River), under whom Catholics and Protestants were already openly expressing their irreconcilability towards each other.

Ten wars have passed in three decades. The most terrible page in them was the Night of Bartholomew from August 23 to 24, 1572, the mass extermination of the Huguenots on St. Bartholomew's Day. One of the best historical television series is “Queen Margot,” which shows these events colorfully and authentically.

At first they simply wandered peacefully through these lands with their herds of domestic animals. In 1200-900 BC. Celts began to settle mainly in the east of modern France.

At the end of the 8th century BC, after they mastered iron processing, stratification began in the Celtic tribes. Luxury items found during excavations show just how wealthy the Celtic aristocracy was. These items were made in different parts of the Mediterranean, including Egypt. Trade was already well developed in that era.

To strengthen their trading influence, the Phocian Greeks founded the city of Massalia (modern Marseille).

In the 6th century BC, during the La Tène culture in the history of France, the Celts began to rapidly conquer and develop new lands. They now had a plow with an iron coulter, which made it possible to cultivate the hard soil of central and northern modern France.

IN beginning of III century BC The Celts were greatly supplanted by the Belgian tribes, but at the same time, in the history of France, the Celtic civilization was experiencing its greatest flowering. Money appears, fortified cities arise, between which there is an active circulation of money. In the 3rd century BC. e. The Celtic tribe of Parisians settled on an island in the Seine River. It was from this name of the tribe that the name of the capital of France, Paris, came. A tour to Paris will allow you to visit this Ile de la Cité - the place where the first inhabitants of Paris - the Parisian Celts - settled.

In the 2nd century BC. Europe was dominated by the Celtic tribe Averni. At the same time, the Romans increased their influence in the south of France. It is to Rome that the residents of Massalia (Marseille) are increasingly turning to Rome for protection. The next step on the part of the Romans was the conquest of the lands of what is now France. At this stage of its history, France was called Gaul.

The Romans called the Celts Gauls. Between Gauls and the Romans constantly flared up military conflicts. Proverb " Geese saved Rome"appeared after the Gauls attacked this city in the 4th century BC.

According to legend, the Gauls, approaching Rome, scattered the Roman army. Some of the Romans fortified themselves on the Capitoline Hill. At night, the Gauls began their assault in complete silence. And no one would have noticed them if not for the geese, which made a lot of noise.

For a long time, the Romans had difficulty resisting the attacks of the Gauls, spreading their influence further and further into their territory.

In the 1st century BC. viceroy in Gaul was sent Julius Caesar. Main Headquarters Julius Caesar was located on the Ile de la Cité, on the site where Paris later grew up. The Romans named their settlement Lutetia. A trip to Paris necessarily involves a visit to this island, from which the history of Paris originates.

Julius Caesar began actions to finally pacify the Gauls. The struggle continued for eight years. Caesar tried to win over the population of Gaul to his side. A third of its inhabitants received the right of Roman allies or simply free citizens. Duties under Caesar were also quite mild.

It was in Gaul that Julius Caesar gained popularity among the legionnaires, which allowed him to enter the struggle for dominion over Rome. With the words “The die is cast,” he crosses the Rubicon River, leading the troops to Rome. For a long time, Gaul found itself under the rule of the Romans.

After the fall of the Western Roman Empire, Gaul was ruled by a Roman governor who declared himself an independent ruler.

In the 5th century, people settled on the left bank of the Rhine francs. Initially, the Franks were not a single people; they were divided into Salic and Ripuarian Franks. These two large branches were, in turn, subdivided into smaller “kingdoms”, ruled by their own “kings, who in essence were only military leaders.

The first royal dynasty in the Frankish state is considered Merovingians (late 5th century – 751). The dynasty received this name from the name of the semi-legendary founder of the clan - Merovea.

The most famous representative of the first dynasty in French history was Clovis (about 481 - 511). Having inherited his father's rather small possessions in 481, he began active military operations against Gaul. In 486, at the Battle of Soissons, Clovis defeated the troops of the last Roman governor of central Gaul and significantly expanded his possessions. This is how the rich region of Roman Gaul with Paris fell into the hands of the Franks.

Clovis did Paris the capital of his greatly expanded state. He settled on the island of Cité, in the palace of the Roman governor. Although tours to Paris include a visit to this place, almost nothing from the time of Clovis has survived to this day. Clovis later annexed the south of the country to these territories. The Franks also conquered many Germanic tribes east of the Rhine.

The most important event of Clovis's reign was his baptism. Under Clovis, in his possessions, the Franks adopted the Christian religion. This was an important stage in the history of France. Originated under Clovis Frankish state lasted about four centuries and became the immediate predecessor of the future France. In the V-VI centuries. all of Gaul became part of the vast Frankish monarchy.

The second dynasty in French history was Carolingians. They ruled the Frankish state from 751 of the year. The first king of this dynasty was Pepin the Short. He bequeathed a huge state to his sons - Charles and Carloman. After the death of the latter, the entire Frankish state was in the hands of King Charles. His main goal was to create a strong Christian state, which, in addition to the Franks, would also include pagans.

He was a prominent figure in history of France. Almost every year he organized military campaigns. The scope of the conquests was so great that the territory of the Frankish state doubled.

At this time, the Roman region was under the rule of Constantinople, and the popes were the governors of the Byzantine emperor. They turned to the Frankish ruler for help, and Charles supported them. He defeated the Lombard king, who threatened the Roman region. Having accepted the title of Lombard king, Charles began to introduce the Frankish system in Italy and united Gaul and Italy into one state. IN 800 was crowned in Rome by Pope Leo III with the imperial crown.

Charlemagne saw the support of royal power in the Catholic Church - he awarded its representatives with high positions, various privileges, and encouraged the forced Christianization of the population of the conquered lands.

Karl's extensive activities in the field of education were devoted to the task of Christian education. He issued a decree establishing schools in monasteries and tried to introduce compulsory education for the children of free people. He invited the most enlightened people of Europe to the highest government and church positions. The interest in theology and Latin literature that blossomed at the court of Charlemagne gives historians the right to call his era Carolingian Revival.

The restoration and construction of roads and bridges, the settlement of abandoned lands and the development of new ones, the construction of palaces and churches, the introduction of rational agricultural methods - all these are the merits of Charlemagne. It was after his name that the dynasty was called the Carolingians. The capital of the Carolingians was the city Aachen. Although the Carolingians moved the capital of their state from Paris, a monument to Charlemagne can now be seen on the Ile de la Cité in Paris. It is located on the square in front of Notre Dame Cathedral in the park named after him. A holiday in Paris will allow you to see the monument to this man, who left a bright mark on the history of France.

Charlemagne died in Aachen on January 28 814 of the year. His body was transferred to the Aachen Cathedral, which he built, and placed in a gilded copper sarcophagus.

The empire created by Charlemagne disintegrated within the next century. By Treaty of Verdun 843 it was divided into three states, two of which - West Frankish and East Frankish - became the predecessors of modern France and Germany. But the union of state and church he accomplished largely predetermined the character of European society for centuries to come. Charlemagne's educational and ecclesiastical reforms remained important for a long time.

The image of Charles after his death became legendary. Numerous tales and legends about him resulted in a series of novels about Charlemagne. According to the Latin form of the name Charles - Carolus - the rulers of individual states began to be called "kings".

Under Charlemagne's successors, a tendency towards the collapse of the state immediately appeared. Son and successor Charles Louis I the Pious (814–840) did not possess the qualities of his father and could not cope with the heavy burden of governing the empire.

After the death of Louis, his three sons began to struggle for power. Eldest son - Lothair- was recognized by the emperor and received Italy. Second brother - Louis the German- ruled the Eastern Franks, and the third, Karl Baldy, – Western francs. The younger brothers disputed the imperial crown with Lothair, and in the end the three brothers signed the Treaty of Verdun in 843.

Lothair retained his imperial title and received lands stretching from Rome through Alsace and Lorraine to the mouth of the Rhine. Louis took possession of the East Frankish Kingdom, and Charles took possession of the West Frankish Kingdom. Since then, these three territories have developed independently, becoming the predecessors of France, Germany and Italy. In the history of France came new stage: Never again in the Middle Ages was it united with Germany. Both of these countries were ruled by different royal dynasties and became political and military rivals.

The most serious danger was at the end of the 8th – beginning of the 10th centuries. were raids Vikings from Scandinavia. Sailing their long, maneuverable ships along the northern and western coasts of France, the Vikings plundered the inhabitants of the coast, and then began to seize and populate the lands in northern France. In 885–886 the Viking army besieged Paris, and only thanks to the heroic defenders who were led Count Odo and Bishop Gozlin of Paris, the Vikings were driven back from the city walls. Charles the Bald, a king from the Carolingian dynasty, was unable to provide assistance and lost his throne. The new king in 887 became a count Odo of Paris.

The Viking leader Rollo managed to gain a foothold between the Somme River and Brittany, and the king Karl Simple from the Carolingian dynasty was forced to recognize his rights to these lands, subject to recognition of the supreme royal authority. The area became known as the Duchy of Normandy, and the Vikings who settled here quickly adopted Frankish culture and language.

The troubled period between 887 and 987 in the political history of France was marked by the struggle between the Carolingian dynasty and the family of Count Odo. In 987, large feudal magnates gave preference to the Odo family and elected them king Hugo Capeta, Count of Paris. The dynasty began to be called by his nickname Capetians. It was third royal dynasty in French history.

By this time, France was greatly fragmented. The counties of Flanders, Toulouse, Champagne, Anjou, and smaller counties were quite strong. Tours, Blois, Chartres and Meaux. In fact, independent lands were the duchies of Aquitaine, Burgundy, Normandy and Brittany. The only difference that distinguished the Capetian rulers from the rest of the rulers was that they were the legally elected kings of France. They ruled only their ancestral lands in Ile-de-France, stretching from Paris to Orleans. But even here in Ile-de-France, they could not control their vassals.

Only during the 30-year reign Louis VI the Tolstoy (1108–1137) managed to curb rebellious vassals and strengthen royal power.

After this, Louis took up management affairs. He appointed only loyal and capable officials, who were called provosts. The provosts carried out the royal will and were always under the supervision of the king, who constantly traveled around the country.

The critical stage in the history of France and the Capetian dynasty falls on the years 1137–1214. Also in 1066 Duke of Normandy Wilgelm the conqueror defeated the army of the Anglo-Saxon king Harold and annexed his rich kingdom to his duchy. He became king of England and at the same time had possessions on the mainland in France. During the reign Louis VII (1137–1180) English kings captured almost half of France. The English king Henry created a vast feudal state that almost surrounded Ile-de-France.

If Louis VII had been replaced on the throne by another equally indecisive king, disaster could have befallen France.

But Louis's heir was his son Philip II Augustus (1180–1223), one of the greatest kings in the history of medieval France. He began a decisive struggle against Henry II, inciting a rebellion against the English king and encouraging his internecine struggle with his sons who ruled the lands on the mainland. Thus, Philip was able to prevent attacks on his power. Gradually he deprived the successors of Henry II of all possessions in France, with the exception of Gascony.

Thus, Philip II Augustus established French hegemony in Western Europe for the next century. In Paris, this king is building the Louvre. Then it was just a castle-fortress. For almost all of us, a trip to Paris includes a visit to the Louvre.

Philip's most progressive innovation was the appointment of officials to administer the newly formed judicial districts in the annexed territories. These new officials, paid from the royal treasury, faithfully carried out the king's instructions and helped unify the newly conquered territories. Philip himself stimulated the development of cities in France, giving them broad rights of self-government.

Philip cared a lot about the decoration and safety of cities. He strengthened the city walls, surrounding them with moats. The king paved roads and paved streets with cobblestones, often doing this at his own expense. Philippe contributed to the founding and development of the University of Paris, attracting renowned professors with awards and benefits. Under this king, the construction of Notre Dame Cathedral continued, a visit to which is included in almost every trip to Paris. A holiday in Paris usually involves a visit to the Louvre, the construction of which began under Philip Augustus.

During the reign of Philip's son Louis VIII (1223–1226) The county of Toulouse was annexed to the kingdom. France now extended from Atlantic Ocean to the Mediterranean Sea. His son succeeded him Louis IX (1226–1270), who was later named Saint Louis. He was able to resolve territorial disputes through negotiations and treaties, while displaying a sense of ethics and tolerance unprecedented in the medieval era. As a result, during the long reign of Louis IX, France was almost always at peace.

To the board Philip III (1270–1285) the attempt to expand the kingdom ended unsuccessfully. Philip's significant achievement in the history of France was the agreement on the marriage of his son to the heiress of the County of Champagne, which guaranteed the annexation of these lands to the royal possessions.

Philip IV the Handsome.

Philip IV the Fair (1285–1314) played a significant role in the history of France, in the transformation of France into a modern state. Philip laid the foundations for an absolute monarchy.

To weaken the power of large feudal lords, he used the norms of Roman law as opposed to church and common law, which in one way or another limited the omnipotence of the crown by biblical commandments or tradition. It was under Philip that the highest authorities - Paris Parliament, Supreme Court and Accounts Chamber(Treasury Department)- from more or less regular meetings of the highest nobility turned into permanent institutions, in which they served mainly legists - experts in Roman law, who came from among small knights or wealthy townspeople.

Guarding the interests of his country, Philip IV the Fair expanded the territory of the kingdom.

Philip the Fair pursued a decisive policy to limit the power of the popes over France. The popes sought to free the church from state power and give it a special supranational and supranational status, and Philip IV demanded that all subjects of the kingdom be subject to a single royal court.

The popes also sought the opportunity for the church not to pay taxes to secular authorities. Philip IV believed that all classes, including the clergy, should help their country.

In the fight against such a powerful force as the papacy, Philip decided to rely on the nation and convened in April 1302 the first in the history of France, the Estates General - a legislative meeting of representatives of the three classes of the country: the clergy, the nobility and the third estate, which supported the king’s position in relation to the papacy . A fierce struggle began between Philip and Pope Boniface VIII. And in this struggle, Philip IV the Handsome won.

In 1305, the Frenchman Bertrand de Gault was elevated to the papal throne, taking the name Clement V. This Pope was obedient to Philip in everything. In 1308, at the request of Philip, Clement V moved the papal throne from Rome to Avignon. So it began " Avignon Captivity of the Popes" when the Roman high priests turned into French court bishops. Now Philip felt strong enough to destroy the ancient knightly order of the Templars - a very strong and influential religious organization. Philip decided to appropriate the wealth of the order and thus eliminate the debts of the monarchy. He brought imaginary charges against the Templars of heresy, unnatural vices, money-grubbing and alliance with Muslims. During falsified trials, brutal torture and persecution that lasted for seven years, the Templars were completely ruined, and their property went to the crown.

Philip IV the Handsome did a lot for France. But his subjects did not like him. The violence against the Pope aroused the indignation of all Christians; large feudal lords could not forgive him for the restrictions on their rights, in particular, the right to mint their own coins, as well as the preference shown by the king to rootless officials. The tax-paying class was outraged by the king's financial policies. Even people close to the king were afraid of the cold, rational cruelty of this man, this unusually beautiful and surprisingly impassive man. With all this, his marriage to Jeanne of Navarre was happy. His wife brought him the kingdom of Navarre and the county of Champagne as a dowry. They had four children, all three sons successively became kings of France: Louis X the Grumpy (1314-1316), Philip V the Long (1316-1322), Charles IV (1322-1328). Daughter Isabel was married to Edward II, King of England from 1307 to 1327.

Philip IV the Fair left behind a centralized state. After Philip's death, the nobles demanded the return of traditional feudal rights. Although the protests of the feudal lords were suppressed, they contributed to the weakening of the Capetian dynasty. All three sons of Philip the Fair had no direct heirs; after the death of Charles IV, the crown passed to his closest male relative, cousin Philippe Valois– to the founder Valois dynasty – fourth royal dynasty in French history.

Philip VI of Valois (1328–1350) went to the most powerful state in Europe. Almost all of France recognized him as a ruler, the popes obeyed him in Avignon.

Just a few years have passed and the situation has changed.

England sought to regain vast territories in France that had previously belonged to it. King of England Edward III (1327–1377) laid claim to the French throne as the maternal grandson of Philip IV the Fair. But the French feudal lords did not want to see an Englishman as their ruler, even if he was the grandson of Philip the Fair. Then Edward III changed his coat of arms, on which delicate French lilies appeared next to the grinning English leopard. This meant that Edward was now subordinate not only to England, but also to France, for which he would now fight.

Edward invaded France with an army, small in number, but including many skilled archers. In 1337, the British launched a victorious offensive in northern France. This was the beginning Hundred Years' War (1337-1453). In the battle of Crecy V 1346 Edward completely defeated the French.

This victory allowed the British to take an important strategic point - fortress-port of Calais, breaking the eleven-month heroic resistance of its defenders.

In the early 50s, the British launched an offensive from the sea into southwestern France. Without much difficulty they captured Guillenne and Gascony. To these areas Edward III appointed his son Prince Edward, named after the color of his armor, as viceroy Black Prince. The English army, led by the Black Prince, inflicted a brutal defeat on the French in 1356 at the Battle of Poitiers. New French king John the Good (1350–1364) was captured and released for a huge ransom.

France was devastated by troops and gangs of mercenary bandits, and a plague epidemic began in 1348–1350. The discontent of the people resulted in uprisings that shook the already devastated country for several years. The largest uprising was Jacquerie in 1358. It was brutally suppressed, as was the uprising of the Parisians, led by the merchant foreman Etienne Marcel.

John the Good was succeeded on the throne by his son Charles V (1364–1380), which turned the tide of the war and recaptured almost all of the lost possessions, except for a small area around Calais.

For 35 years after the death of Charles V, both sides - both French and English - were too weak to conduct major military operations. The next king Charles VI (1380–1422), was insane for most of his life. Taking advantage of the weakness of royal power, the English king Henry V in 1415 inflicted a crushing defeat on the French army Battle of Agincourt, and then began to conquer northern France. Duke of Burgundy, having become a virtually independent ruler on his lands, entered into an alliance with the British. With the help of the Burgundians, the English king Henry V achieved great success and in 1420 forced France to sign a difficult and shameful peace in the city of Troyes. According to this treaty, the country lost its independence and became part of the united Anglo-French kingdom. But not at once. According to the terms of the treaty, Henry V was supposed to marry the daughter of the French king Catherine and after the death of Charles VI become king of France. However, in 1422, death overtook both Henry V and Charles VI, and the one-year-old son of Henry V and Catherine, Henry VI, was proclaimed king of France.

In 1422 the British held most of France north of the Loire River. They launched attacks on fortified cities that defended the southern lands that still belonged to the son of Charles VI, the Dauphin Charles.

IN 1428 English troops besieged Orleans. It was a very strategically important fortress. The capture of Orleans opened the road to the south of France. An army led by Joan of Arc. Rumor spread the news of a girl being guided by God.

Orleans, besieged by the British for six months now, was in a difficult situation. The blockade ring was tightening. The townspeople were eager to fight, but the local military garrison showed complete indifference.

in spring 1429 army led Joan of Arc, managed to expel the British, and the siege of the city was lifted. Amazingly, besieged for 200 days, Olean was liberated 9 days after the arrival of Joan of Arc, nicknamed Maid of Orleans.

Peasants, artisans, and impoverished knights flocked from all over the country to the banner of the Maid of Orleans. Having liberated the fortresses on the Loire, Jeanne insisted that the Dauphin Charles go to Reims, where French kings had been crowned for centuries. After the ceremonial coronation Charles VII became the sole legitimate ruler of France. During the celebrations, the king wanted to reward Jeanne for the first time. She didn’t want anything for herself, she just asked Karl to exempt the peasants of her native land from taxes. village of Domremy in Lorraine. None of the subsequent rulers of France dared to take away this privilege from the inhabitants of Domremy.

IN 1430 year Joan of Arc was captured. In May 1431, nineteen-year-old Jeanne was burned at the stake in the central square of Rouen. The burning site is still marked with a white cross on the stones of the square.

Over the next 20 years, the French army liberated almost the entire country from the British, and in 1453 After the capture of Bordeaux, only the port of Calais remained under English rule. Ended Hundred Years' War, and France regained its former greatness. In the second half of the 15th century, France once again became the most powerful state in its history. Western Europe.

This is what France got Louis XI (1461–1483). This king despised knightly ideals, even feudal traditions irritated him. He continued the fight against powerful feudal lords. In this struggle, he relied on the strength of cities and the help of their most prosperous inhabitants, attracted to public service. Through years of intrigue and diplomacy, he undermined the power of the Dukes of Burgundy, his most serious rivals in the struggle for political dominance. Louis XI managed to annex Burgundy, Franche-Comté and Artois.

At the same time, Louis XI began the transformation of the French army. Cities were freed from military service, and vassals were allowed to buy their way out of military service. The bulk of the infantry were Swiss. The number of troops exceeded 50 thousand. In the early 80s of the 15th century, Provence (with an important trading center on the Mediterranean Sea - Marseille) and Maine were annexed to France. Of the large lands, only Brittany remained unconquered.

Louis XI took a significant step towards an absolute monarchy. Under him, the Estates General met only once and lost real significance. The prerequisites were created for the rise of the economy and culture of France, and the foundations were laid for relatively peaceful development in the following decades.

In 1483, a 13-year-old prince took the throne. Charles VIII (1483-1498).

From his father Louis XI, Charles VIII inherited a country in which order was restored, and the royal treasury was significantly replenished.

At this time, the male line of the ruling house of Brittany ceased; by marrying Duchess Anne of Brittany, Charles VIII included the previously independent Brittany into France.

Charles VIII organized a triumphal campaign in Italy and reached Naples, declaring it his possession. He was unable to hold Naples, but this expedition provided an opportunity to get acquainted with the wealth and culture of Renaissance Italy.

Louis XII (1498–1515) also led the French nobles on an Italian campaign, this time laying claim to Milan and Naples. It was Louis XII who introduced the royal loan, which played a fatal role in the history of France 300 years later. And before, French kings borrowed money. But the royal loan meant the introduction of a regular banking procedure in which tax revenues from Paris became a guarantee for the loan. The royal loan system provided investment opportunities for wealthy citizens of France and even bankers in Geneva and northern Italy. It was now possible to have money without resorting to excessive taxation and without recourse to the Estates General.

Louis XII was succeeded by his cousin and son-in-law, the Count of Angoulême, who became king Francis I (1515–1547).

Francis was the embodiment of the new spirit of the Renaissance in French history. He was one of the main political figures in Europe for more than a quarter of a century. During his reign, the country enjoyed peace and achieved prosperity.

His reign began with a lightning-fast invasion of Northern Italy, culminating in the victorious battle of Marignano; in 1516, Francis I concluded a special agreement with the pope (the so-called Bologna Concordat), according to which the king began to partially manage the property of the French church. Francis's attempt to proclaim himself emperor in 1519 ended in failure. And in 1525 he undertook a second campaign in Italy, which ended in the defeat of the French army at the Battle of Pavia. Francis himself was then captured. Having paid a huge ransom, he returned to France and continued to rule the country, abandoning grandiose foreign policy plans.

Civil wars in France. Henry II (1547-1559), succeeding his father on the throne, must have seemed a strange anachronism in Renaissance France. He recaptured Calais from the British and established control over dioceses such as Metz, Toul and Verdun, which had previously belonged to the Holy Roman Empire. This king had a long-term love affair with the court beauty Diana de Poitiers. In 1559 he died fighting in a tournament with one of the nobles.

Henry's wife Catherine de' Medici, who came from a family of famous Italian bankers, played a decisive role in French politics for a quarter of a century after the death of the king. At the same time, her three sons officially ruled, Francis II, Charles IX and Henry III.

The first one is painful Francis II, was engaged to Mary Stuart (Scottish). A year after taking the throne, Francis died and his ten-year-old brother Charles IX took the throne. This boy king was completely under the influence of his mother.

At this time, the power of the French monarchy suddenly began to shake. Francis I began a policy of persecuting non-Protestants. But Calvinism continued to spread widely throughout France. French Calvinists were called Huguenots. The policy of persecution of the Huguenots, which became more severe under Charles, ceased to justify itself. The Huguenots were predominantly townspeople and nobles, often rich and influential.

The country split into two opposing camps.

All the contradictions and conflicts in the country - and the disobedience of the local feudal nobility to the king, and the dissatisfaction of the townspeople with the heavy exactions of royal officials, and the protests of the peasants against taxes and church land ownership, and the desire for independence of the bourgeoisie - all this took on the usual religious slogans of that time led to the beginning Huguenot wars. At the same time, the struggle for power and influence in the country intensified between two side branches of the old Capetian dynasty - Gizami(Catholics) and Bourbons(Huguenots).

To the Guise family, ardent defenders catholic faith, both moderate Catholics, like Montmorency, and Huguenots, like Condé and Coligny, opposed. The struggle was punctuated by periods of truces and agreements, under which the Huguenots were given limited rights to be in certain areas and create their own fortifications.

The condition of the third agreement between Catholics and Huguenots was the marriage of the king's sister Margaritas With Henry of Bourbon, the young king of Navarre and the main leader of the Huguenots. Many Huguenot nobles came to the wedding of Henry of Bourbon and Margaret in August 1572. On the night of the feast of St. Bartholomew (August 24) Charles IX organized a terrible massacre of his opponents. Catholics dedicated to the case marked in advance the houses where their future victims were located. It is characteristic that among the killers there were mainly foreign mercenaries. After the first alarm, a terrible massacre began. Many were killed right in their beds. The killings spread to other cities. Henry of Navarre managed to escape, but thousands of his companions were killed

Two years later, Charles IX died and was succeeded by his childless brother. Henry III. There were other contenders for the royal throne. The greatest chances were with Henry of Navarre, but being the leader of the Huguenots, he did not suit the majority of the country's population. Catholics sought to place their leader on the throne Henry of Guise. Fearing for his power, Henry III treacherously killed both Guise and his brother, the Cardinal of Lorraine. This act caused general indignation. Henry III went over to the camp of his other rival, Henry of Navarre, but was soon killed by a fanatical Catholic monk.

Although Henry of Navarre was now the only contender for the throne, in order to become king, he had to convert to Catholicism. Only after this he returned to Paris and was crowned at Chartres in 1594 year. He became the first king Bourbon dynasty - the fifth royal dynasty in French history.

Henry IV's great merit was his acceptance into 1598 year Edict of Nantes- the law on religious tolerance. Catholicism remained the dominant religion, but the Huguenots were officially recognized as a minority with the right to work and self-defense in some areas and cities. This edict stopped the devastation of the country and the flight of the French Huguenots to England and the Netherlands. The Edict of Nantes was drawn up very cunningly: if the balance of power between Catholics and Huguenots changed, it could be revised (which Richelieu later took advantage of).

During the reign Henry IV (1594-1610) order was restored in the country and prosperity was achieved. The king supports major officials, judges, lawyers, and financiers. He allows these people to buy positions for themselves and pass them on to their sons. A powerful apparatus of power is in the hands of the king, allowing him to rule without regard to the whims and whims of the nobles. Henry also attracts large merchants to himself, he strongly supports the development large production and trade, establishes French colonies in overseas lands. Henry IV was the first of the French kings to begin to be guided in his policy by the national interests of France, and not just by the class interests of the French nobility.

In 1610, the country plunged into deep mourning when it learned that its king had been murdered by the Jesuit monk François Ravaillac. His death threw France back into a state close to the anarchy of the regency, as the young Louis XIII (1610-1643) was only nine years old.

The central political figure in the history of France at this time was his mother, the Queen. Maria Medici, who then secured the support of the Bishop of Luzon, Armand Jean du Plessis (who is better known to us as Cardinal Richelieu). IN 1 624 Richelieu became the king's mentor and representative and actually ruled France until the end of his life in 1642 . The beginning of the triumph of absolutism is associated with the name of Richelieu. In Richelieu, the French crown found not only an outstanding statesman, but also one of the prominent theorists of absolute monarchy. In his " Political testament"Richelieu named two main goals that he set for himself when he came to power: " My first goal was the greatness of the king, my second goal was the power of the kingdom" The first minister of Louis XIII directed all his activities towards the implementation of this program. Its main milestones were the attack on the political rights of the Huguenots, who, according to Richelieu, shared power and state with the king. Richelieu considered his task to be the liquidation of the Huguenot state, the deprivation of power of rebellious governors and the strengthening of the institution of general governors-intendants.

Military operations against the Huguenots lasted from 1621 to 1629. In 1628, the Huguenot stronghold of the seaport of La Rochelle was besieged. The fall of La Rochelle and the loss of self-government privileges by the cities weakened the resistance of the Huguenots, and in 1629 they capitulated. Adopted in 1629 " Edict of Grace"confirmed the main text of the Edict of Nantes concerning the right to freely practice Calvinism. All articles that related to the political rights of the Huguenots were repealed. The Huguenots lost their fortresses and the right to maintain their garrisons.

Richelieu began strengthening the state apparatus of the absolute monarchy. The main event in solving this problem was the final approval of the institution of quartermasters.

Locally, the king's policies were hampered by governors and provincial states. Acting as representatives of both royal and local authorities, governors became virtually independent rulers. The quartermasters became the instrument for changing this order. They became plenipotentiary representatives of royal power on the ground. At first, the mission of the quartermasters was temporary, then gradually it became permanent. All the threads of the provincial administration are concentrated in the hands of the intendants. Only the army remains outside their competence.

The First Minister speeds up the economic development of the state. From 1629 to 1642, 22 trading companies were formed in France. The beginning of French colonial policy dates back to the reign of Richelieu.

In foreign policy, Richelieu consistently defended the national interests of France. Beginning in 1635, France, under his leadership, participated in the Thirty Years' War. The Peace of Westphalia in 1648 contributed to France gaining a leading role in international relations in Western Europe.

But 1648 was not the end of the war for France. Spain refused to sign peace with the French monarch. The Franco-Spanish War lasted until 1659 and ended with the victory of France, which received Roussillon and the province of Artois under the Iberian Peace. Thus, the long-standing border dispute between France and Spain was resolved.

Richelieu died in 1642, and a year later Louis XIII died.

To the heir to the throne Louis XIV (1643-1715) I was only five years old at the time. The Queen Mother assumed guardianship duties Anne of Austria. State control was concentrated in her hands and the hands of the Italian Richelieu’s protege Cardinal Mazarin. Mazarin was an active conductor of the king's policies until his death in 1661. He continued Richelieu's foreign policy until the successful conclusion of the Westphalian (1648) and Pyrenees (1659) peace treaties. He was able to solve the problem of preserving the monarchy, especially during the uprisings of the nobility, known as Fronde (1648–1653). The name Fronde comes from the French word for sling. Throwing from a sling in a figurative sense means acting in defiance of authority. In the turbulent events of the Fronde, anti-feudal actions of the masses and part of the bourgeoisie, the conflict of the judicial aristocracy with absolutism, and opposition to the feudal nobility were contradictorily intertwined. Having coped with these movements, absolutism emerged stronger from the political crisis of the Fronde period.

Louis XIV.

After the death of Mazarin, Louis XIV (1643-1715), who had reached the age of 23 by that time, took control of the state into his own hands. Drawing on for 54 years " century of Louis XIV“This is both the apogee of French absolutism and the beginning of its decline. The king plunged headlong into state affairs. He skillfully selected active and intelligent associates for himself. Among them are the Minister of Finance Jean Baptiste Colbert, the Minister of War the Marquis de Louvois, the Minister of Defense Fortifications Sebastian de Vauban and such brilliant generals as the Viscount de Turenne and the Prince of Condé.

Louis formed a large and well-trained army, which, thanks to Vauban, had the best fortresses. A clear hierarchy of ranks, a uniform military uniform, and quartermaster service were introduced in the army. Matchlock muskets were replaced by a hammer-operated gun with a bayonet. All this increased the discipline and combat effectiveness of the army. An instrument of foreign policy, the army, along with the police created at that time, was widely used as an instrument of “internal order.”

With the help of this army, Louis pursued his strategic line during four wars. The hardest was last war– the War of the Spanish Succession (1701–1714) – a desperate attempt to confront all of Europe. An attempt to win the Spanish crown for his grandson ended with the invasion of enemy troops on French soil, the impoverishment of the people and the depletion of the treasury. The country lost all previous conquests. Only a split among the enemy forces and a few very recent victories saved France from complete defeat. At the end of his life, Louis was accused of being “too fond of war.” Thirty-two war years out of Louis's 54-year reign were a heavy burden for France.

The economic life of the country followed a policy of mercantilism. It was especially actively pursued by Colbert, Minister of Finance in 1665-1683. A major organizer and tireless administrator, he tried to put into practice the mercantilist doctrine of the “active balance of trade.” Colbert sought to minimize the import of foreign goods and increase the export of French goods, thus increasing the amount of taxable monetary wealth in the country. Absolutism introduced protectionist duties, subsidized the creation of large manufactories, and granted them various privileges (“royal manufactories”). The production of luxury goods (for example, tapestries, i.e., carpet-pictures at the famous royal Gobelins manufactory), weapons, equipment, and uniforms for the army and navy was especially encouraged.

For active overseas and colonial trade, monopoly trading companies were created with the participation of the state - East India, West India, Levantine, and the construction of the fleet was subsidized.

In North America, the vast territory of the Mississippi basin, called Louisiana, became the possession of France, along with Canada. The importance of the French West Indies Islands (Saint-Domingue, Guadeloupe, Martinique) increased, where plantations of sugar cane, tobacco, cotton, indigo, and coffee, based on the labor of black slaves, began to be created. France took possession of a number of trading posts in India.

Louis XIV revoked the Edict of Nantes, which established religious tolerance. The prisons and galleys were filled with Huguenots. The Protestant areas were hit by dragonnades (dragoon quarters in the houses of the Huguenots, during which the dragoons were allowed “necessary outrages”). As a result, tens of thousands of Protestants fled the country, among them many skilled artisans and wealthy merchants.

The king chose the place of his residence Versailles, where a grandiose palace and park ensemble was created. Louis sought to make Versailles cultural center all over Europe. The monarchy sought to lead the development of the sciences and arts and use them to maintain the prestige of absolutism. Under him, an opera house, an Academy of Sciences, an Academy of Painting, an Academy of Architecture, an Academy of Music were created, and an observatory was founded. Pensions were paid to scientists and artists.

Under him, absolutism in the history of France reached its apogee. " The state is me».

By the end of the reign of Louis XIV, France was devastated by grueling wars, the goals of which exceeded the capabilities of France, the costs of maintaining a huge army at that time (300-500 thousand people at the beginning of the 18th century versus 30 thousand in the middle of the 17th century), and heavy taxes. Agricultural production fell, industrial production and trade activity decreased. The population of France has decreased significantly.

All these results of the “century of Louis XIV” indicated that French absolutism had exhausted its historical progressive possibilities. The feudal-absolutist system entered a stage of disintegration and decline.

Decline of the monarchy.

In 1715, Louis XIV, already decrepit and old, died.

His five-year-old great-grandson became heir to the French throne Louis XV (1715-1774). While he was a child, the country was ruled by a self-appointed regent, the ambitious Duke of Orleans.

Louis XV tried to imitate his brilliant predecessor, but in almost every respect the reign of Louis XV was a pathetic parody of the reign of the “Sun King”.

The army nurtured by Louvois and Vauban was led by aristocratic officers who sought their posts for the sake of a court career. This had a negative impact on the morale of the troops, although Louis XV himself paid great attention to the army. French troops fought in Spain and took part in two major campaigns against Prussia: the War of the Austrian Succession (1740–1748) and the Seven Years' War (1756–1763).

The royal administration controlled the trade sphere and did not take into account its own interests in this sphere. After the humiliating Peace of Paris (1763), France was forced to give up most of its colonies and renounce its claims to India and Canada. But even then, the port cities of Bordeaux, La Rochelle, Nantes and Le Havre continued to prosper and enrich themselves.

Louis XV said: “ After me - even a flood" He was little concerned about the situation in the country. Louis devoted his time to hunting and his favorites, allowing the latter to interfere in the affairs of the country.

After the death of Louis XV in 1774, the French crown went to his grandson, twenty-year-old Louis XVI. At this time in French history, the need for reform was obvious to many.

Louis XVI appointed Turgot as Comptroller General of Finance. An extraordinary statesman and prominent economic theorist, Turgot tried to implement a program of bourgeois reforms. In 1774-1776. he abolished the regulation of the grain trade, abolished the guild corporations, freed the peasants from the state road corvee and replaced it with a cash land tax that fell on all classes. Turgot harbored plans for new reforms, including the abolition of feudal dues for ransom. But under the pressure of reactionary forces, Turgot was dismissed and his reforms were canceled. Reform “from above” within the framework of absolutism was impossible to solve the pressing problems of the further development of the country.

In 1787-1789 a commercial and industrial crisis unfolded. Its emergence was facilitated by the agreement concluded by French absolutism with England in 1786, which opened the French market to cheaper English products. Decline and stagnation of production engulfed cities and industrial rural areas. The national debt rose from 1.5 billion livres in 1774 to 4.5 billion in 1788. The monarchy found itself on the verge of financial bankruptcy. Bankers refused new loans.

Life in the kingdom seemed peaceful and calm. In search of a way out, the government again turned to attempts at reform, in particular to Turgot’s plans to impose part of the taxes on the privileged classes. A draft of an estate-less direct land tax was developed. Hoping to gain the support of the privileged classes themselves, the monarchy convened a meeting in 1787 notables" - eminent representatives of the classes chosen by the king. However, the notables categorically refused to approve the proposed reforms. They demanded to convene Estates General, which have not met since 1614. At the same time, they wanted to preserve the traditional order of voting in the states, which made it possible to carry out decisions that were beneficial to them. The privileged elite hoped to occupy a dominant position in the Estates General and achieve a limitation of royal power in their own interests.

But these calculations did not come true. The slogan of convening the Estates General was taken up by wide circles of the third estate, led by the bourgeoisie, which came up with its own political program.

The convening of the Estates General was scheduled for the spring of 1789. The number of deputies of the third estate doubled, but the important question of the voting procedure remained open.

The deputies of the third estate, feeling popular support and pushed by it, went on the offensive. They rejected the class principle of representation and on June 17 declared themselves National Assembly, i.e. plenipotentiary representative of the entire nation. On June 20, having gathered in the large ballroom (the regular meeting room was closed and guarded by soldiers by order of the king), the deputies of the national assembly vowed not to disperse until a constitution was drawn up.

In response to this, on June 23, Louis XVI announced the abolition of the decisions of the Third Estate. However, the deputies of the third estate refused to obey the king's order. They were joined by some of the deputies of the nobility and clergy. The king was forced to order the remaining deputies of the privileged classes to join the National Assembly. On July 9, 1789, the Assembly proclaimed itself Constituent Assembly.

Court circles and Louis XVI himself decided to put a stop to the beginning revolution by force. Troops were brought to Paris.

Wary of the entry of troops, the Parisians understood that the dispersal of the National Assembly was being prepared. On July 13, the alarm sounded and the city was engulfed in uprising. By the morning of July 14, the city was in the hands of the rebels. The culmination and final act of the uprising was the assault and storming of the Bastille– a powerful eight-tower fortress with high 30-meter walls. Since the time of Louis XIV, it served as a political prison and became a symbol of arbitrariness and despotism.

The storming of the Bastille was the beginning of the history of France French Revolution and her first victory.

The onslaught of peasant uprisings prompted the Constituent Assembly to solve the agrarian problem - the main socio-economic issue of the French Revolution. The decrees of August 4-11 abolished church tithes, the right of seigneurial hunting on peasant lands, etc. free of charge. The main “real” duties associated with land are qualifications, shampars, etc. were declared the property of the lords and subject to redemption. The Assembly promised to establish the terms of the buyout later.

On August 26, the Assembly adopted “ Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen" - introduction to the future constitution. The influence of this document on the minds of his contemporaries was extremely great. The 17 articles of the Declaration in succinct formulas proclaimed the ideas of the Enlightenment as the principles of the revolution. " People are born and remain free and equal in rights", read her first article. " Natural and inalienable“Security and resistance to oppression were also recognized as human rights. The Declaration proclaimed the equality of all before the law and the right to occupy any position, freedom of speech and press, and religious tolerance.

Immediately after the storming of the Bastille, the emigration of counter-revolutionary aristocrats began. Louis XVI, having declared his accession to the revolution, in fact refused to approve the Declaration of Rights and did not approve the decrees of August 4-11. He declared: " I will never agree to rob my clergy and my nobility».

Military units loyal to the king were gathered at Versailles. The masses of Paris grew alarmed about the fate of the revolution. The ongoing economic crisis, food shortages, and high prices increased the discontent of Parisians. On October 5, about 20 thousand city residents moved to Versailles, the residence of the royal family and the National Assembly. Parisians from the working classes played an active role - about 6 thousand women who took part in the campaign were the first to march to Versailles.

The Parisian National Guard followed the people, carrying away their commander, Marshal Lafayette. At Versailles, people broke into the palace, pushed back the royal guards, demanded bread and the king's move to the capital.

On October 6, yielding to popular demand, the royal family moved from Versailles to Paris, where it was under the supervision of the revolutionary capital. The National Assembly also settled in Paris. Louis XVI was forced to unconditionally approve the Declaration of Rights, authorizing the decrees of August 4-11, 1789.

Having strengthened its position, the Constituent Assembly energetically continued the bourgeois reorganization of the country. Following the principle of civil equality, the Assembly abolished class privileges, abolished the institution of hereditary nobility, noble titles and coats of arms. By asserting freedom of enterprise, it destroyed state regulation and the guild system. The abolition of internal customs and the 1786 trade agreement with England contributed to the formation of a national market and its protection from foreign competition.

By decree of November 2, 1789, the Constituent Assembly confiscated church property. Declared national property, they were put on sale to cover the national debt.

In September 1791, the Constituent Assembly completed the drafting of a constitution that established a bourgeois constitutional monarchy in France. Legislative power was vested in a unicameral Legislative Assembly, executive - to the hereditary monarch and the ministers appointed by him. The king could temporarily reject laws approved by the Assembly, having the right of a “suspending veto”. France was divided into 83 departments, power in which was exercised by elected councils and directories, in cities and villages - by elected municipalities. The new unified judicial system was based on the election of judges and the participation of juries.

The election system introduced by the Assembly was by qualification and two-stage. “Passive” citizens who did not meet the qualification conditions were not given political rights. Only “active” citizens - men over 25 years of age, paying a direct tax of at least 1.5-3 livres - had the right to vote and were members of the National Guard created in cities and villages. Their number was slightly more than half of adult men.

At this time, the importance of political clubs was great - in fact, they played the role of political parties that had not yet arisen in France. Created in 1789, the Jacobin Club, who met in the hall of the former monastery of St. James. It united supporters of the revolution of different orientations (including Mirabeau, And Robespierre), but in the early years it was dominated by the influence of moderate monarchist constitutionalists.

Was more democratic Cordeliers Club. “Passive” citizens, women, were allowed into it. Supporters of universal suffrage had a great influence in it Danton, Desmoulins, Marat, Hebert.

On the night of June 21, 1791 years, the royal family secretly left Paris and moved to the eastern border. Relying on the army stationed here, on detachments of emigrants and the support of Austria, Louis hoped to disperse the National Assembly and restore his unlimited power. Identified on the way and detained in the town of Varennes, the fugitives were returned to Paris under the protection of the National Guard and the alarm of many thousands of armed peasants.

Now the democratic movement took on a republican character: the monarchical illusions of the people were dispelled. The center of the republican movement in Paris was the Cordeliers Club. However, moderate monarchist constitutionalists strongly opposed these demands. " It's time to end the revolution now- said one of their leaders in the Assembly Barnav, - she has reached her extreme limit».

On July 17, 1791, the National Guard, using the “martial law” law, opened fire on unarmed demonstrators who, at the call of the Cordeliers, had gathered on the Champ de Mars to accept the Republican petition. 50 of them were killed and several hundred were wounded.

Political division in former third class also caused a split in the Jacobin Club. More radical bourgeois figures remained in the club who wanted to continue the revolution together with the people. It emerged from moderate liberal monarchists, supporters of Lafayette and Barnave, who wanted to end the revolution and strengthen the constitutional monarchy. They founded their own club in the building of the former Feuillant monastery.

In September 1791, the Assembly approved the final text of the constitution adopted by Louis XVI. Having exhausted its functions, the Constituent Assembly dispersed. It was replaced by a Legislative Assembly elected on the basis of a qualification system, the first meeting of which took place on October 1, 1791.

The right wing of the meeting consisted of Feuillants, the left consisted mainly of members of the Jacobin Club. Among the Jacobins then the deputies from the department prevailed Gironde. Hence the name of this political group - Girondins.

On the basis of hostility to the revolution, the contradictions between France's neighbors in the east - Austria and Prussia - seemed to be smoothed out. On August 27, 1791, the Austrian Emperor Leopold II and the Prussian King Frederick William II signed a declaration at the Saxon Pillnitz Castle, in which they declared their readiness to provide military assistance to Louis XVI and called on other European monarchs to do the same. On February 7, 1792, Austria and Prussia entered into a military alliance against France. The threat of foreign intervention loomed over France.

In France itself, from the end of 1791, the question of war became one of the main ones. Louis XVI and his court wanted war - they counted on intervention and the fall of the revolution as a result of the military defeat of France. The Girondins sought war - they hoped that the war would consolidate the decisive victory of the bourgeoisie over the nobility and at the same time push back the social problems posed by the popular movement. Mistakenly assessing the strength of France and the situation in European countries, the Girondins hoped for an easy victory and that the people would rise up against their “tyrants” when French troops appeared.

Robespierre, supported by some of the Jacobins, including Marat, spoke out against the militant agitation of the Girondins. Realizing the inevitability of war with the European monarchies, he considered it reckless to hasten its start. Robespierre also disputed the assertion Brisso about an immediate uprising in countries where French troops will enter; " Nobody likes armed missionaries ».

The majority of Feuillants were also against the war, fearing that in any case the war would overthrow the regime of constitutional monarchy they had created.

The influence of the war supporters prevailed. On April 20, France declared war on Austria. The start of the war was unsuccessful for France. The old army was disorganized, half of the officers emigrated, and the soldiers did not trust their commanders. The volunteers who joined the troops were poorly armed and untrained. On July 6, Prussia entered the war. The invasion of enemy troops into French territory was inexorably approaching, the enemies of the revolution were expecting it, and the royal court became their center. Queen Marie Antoinette, who was the sister of the Austrian Emperor, forwarded French military plans to the Austrians.

Danger looms over France. The revolutionary people were seized with patriotic enthusiasm. Volunteer battalions were hastily formed. In Paris, 15 thousand people signed up within a week. Detachments of federates arrived from the provinces, despite the king's veto. These days, for the first time, the Marseillaise- a patriotic song of the revolution, written back in April Rouget de Lisle m and brought to Paris by a battalion of Marseille federates.

In Paris, preparations began for an uprising with the goal of removing Louis XVI from power and developing a new constitution. On the night of August 10, 1792, the alarm sounded over Paris - the uprising began. The commissioners elected by the Parisians gathered at the town hall. They formed the Paris Commune, which took power in the capital. The rebels took possession of the royal palace of the Tuileries. The Assembly deprived Louis XVI of the throne, the Commune, with its power, imprisoned the royal family in the Temple Castle.

The political privileges of the upper bourgeoisie, enshrined in the constitution of 1791, also fell. All men over 21 years of age who were not in personal service were allowed to participate in the elections to the Convention. Lafayette and many other Feuillant leaders fled abroad. The Girondins became the leading force in the Assembly and in the new government.

On September 20, the National Convention began its work; On September 21, he adopted a decree abolishing royal power; On September 22, France was declared a republic. Its constitution was to be drafted by the Convention. However, from the very first steps of his activity, a fierce political struggle broke out within him.

On the upper benches of the Convention sat the deputies who made up its left wing. They were called the Mountain or Montagnards (from the French montagne - mountain). The most prominent leaders of the Mountain were Robespierre, Marat, Danton, Saint-Just. Most Montagnards were members of the Jacobin Club. Many Jacobins adhered to egalitarian ideas and strove for a democratic republic.

The right wing of the Convention was formed by Girondist deputies. The Girondins opposed the further deepening of the revolution.

The approximately 500 deputies who made up the center of the Convention were not part of any grouping; they were called the “plain” or “swamp”. During the first months of the Convention, the Plain strongly supported the Gironde.

By the end of 1792, the question of the fate of the king was at the center of the political struggle. Brought to trial by the Convention, Louis XVI was found “guilty” of treason, relations with emigrants and foreign courts, and malicious intent against the freedom of the nation and the general security of the state. January 21, 1793 year he was guillotined.

In the spring of 1793, the revolution entered a period of new acute crisis. In March, a peasant revolt broke out in northwestern France, reaching unprecedented strength in the Vendée. The royalists took control of the uprising. The Vendée rebellion, which raised tens of thousands of peasants, caused bloody excesses and for several years became an open wound of the republic.

In the spring of 1793, the country's military situation deteriorated sharply. After the execution of Louis XVI, France found itself at war not only with Austria and Prussia, but also with Holland, Spain, Portugal, the German and Italian states.

The danger that again loomed over the republic required the mobilization of all the forces of the people, for which the Gironde was incapable.

May 31 – June 2 An uprising broke out in Paris. Forced to submit to the rebellious people, the Convention decided to arrest Brissot, Vergniaud and other leaders of the Gironde. (total 31 people). They came to political leadership in the republic Jacobins.

On June 24, 1793, the Convention adopted a new constitution for France. It provided for a republic with a unicameral Legislative Assembly, direct elections and universal suffrage for men over 21, and proclaimed democratic rights and freedoms. Article 119 declared non-interference in the internal affairs of other nations to be a principle of French foreign policy. Later, on February 4, 1794, the Convention adopted a decree abolishing slavery in the colonies.

The leading wing of the ruling Jacobin party were the Robespierrists. Their ideal was a republic of small and medium-sized producers, in which state-supported strict morality moderates "private interest" and prevents extremes of wealth inequality.

In the autumn-winter of 1793, a movement of moderates took shape among the Jacobins. The leader of this movement was Georges-Jacques Danton, and its talented publicist was Camille Desmoulins. One of the most prominent Montagnards, tribune of the first years of the revolution, Danton considered it natural to increase wealth and freely enjoy its benefits; his fortune increased 10 times during the revolution.

On the opposite flank were the “extreme” revolutionaries - Chaumette, Hébert and others. They sought further equalizing measures, confiscation and division of property of the enemies of the revolution.

The struggle between the currents became more and more fierce. In March 1794, Hébert and his closest associates appeared before a revolutionary tribunal and were guillotined. Soon their fate was shared by the ardent defender of the poor, the prosecutor of the Commune Chaumette.

At the beginning of April, a blow fell on the leaders of the moderates - Danton, Desmoulins and several of their like-minded people. They all died on the guillotine.

The Robespierrists saw that the position of Jacobin power was weakening, but could not put forward a program that could gain broad public support.

In May-June 1794, the Robespierrists tried to unite the people around a civil religion in the spirit of Rousseau. At the insistence of Robespierre, the Convention established the “cult of the Supreme Being,” which included veneration of republican virtues, justice, equality, freedom, and love of the fatherland. The bourgeoisie did not need the new cult; the masses remained indifferent to it.

Trying to strengthen their positions, the Robespierrists passed a law on toughening terror on June 10. This multiplied the number of dissatisfied people and accelerated the formation of a conspiracy in the Convention to overthrow Robespierre and his supporters. On July 28 (10 Thermidor), outlawed Robespierre, Saint-Just and their associates (22 people in total) were guillotined. On 11-12 Thermidor their fate was shared by 83 more people, most of them members of the Commune. Jacobin dictatorship fell.

In August 1795, the Thermidorian Convention adopted a new French constitution to replace the Jacobin one, which was never implemented. While maintaining the republic, the new constitution introduced a bicameral legislative body ( Council of Five Hundred And Council of Elders of 250 members are at least 40 years old), two-stage elections, age and property qualifications. Executive power was vested in a five-member Directory elected by the Legislative Corps. The Constitution confirmed the confiscation of emigrant possessions and guaranteed the property of buyers of foreign property.

Four years Directory mode in the history of France were a time of socio-economic and political instability. France was going through a difficult period of adaptation to new conditions (in the long term, deeply favorable for its progress). The war, the English blockade and the decline of the maritime colonial trade that flourished until 1789, and the acute financial crisis complicated this process.

The owners wanted stability and order, strong power that would protect them both from the revolutionary uprisings of the people and from the claims of supporters of the Bourbon restoration and the old order.

The most suitable person to carry out a military coup turned out to be Napoleon Bonaparte. Influential financiers provided him with money.

The coup happened 18th Brumaire(November 9, 1799). Power passed to three temporary consuls, virtually headed by Bonaparte. The coup of the 18th Brumaire in the history of France opened the way for a regime of personal power - military dictatorship of Napoleon Bonaparte.

Consulate (1799-1804)

Already in December 1799 year a new one was adopted French constitution. Formally, France remained a republic with a very complex branched power structure. The executive power, the rights and powers of which were significantly expanded, was vested in three consuls. The first consul - and this was Napoleon Bonaparte - was elected for 10 years. He concentrated virtually all executive power in his hands. The second and third consuls had the right of advisory vote. For the first time, consuls were identified by name in the text of the constitution.

All men who had reached the age of 21 enjoyed the right to vote, but they did not choose deputies, but candidates for deputies. From among them, the government selected members of the local administration and higher legislative bodies. Legislative power was distributed among several bodies - State Council, Tribunate, Legislative Corps - and made dependent on the executive power. All bills, having passed these levels, went to the Senate, whose members were approved by Napoleon himself, and then went to the first consul for signature.

The government also took the legislative initiative. In addition, the constitution gave the first consul the right to introduce bills directly to the Senate, bypassing the legislative bodies. All ministers were subordinate directly to Napoleon.

In fact, this was the regime of Napoleon’s personal power, but it was possible to impose a dictatorship only by preserving the main gains of the revolutionary years: the destruction of feudal relations, the redistribution of land property and a change in its nature.

The new constitution in French history was approved by plebiscite (popular vote). The results of the plebiscite were predetermined. The voting took place publicly, in front of representatives of the new government; many then already voted not for the constitution, but for Napoleon, who gained considerable popularity.

Napoleon Bonaparte (1769 -1821)- an outstanding statesman and military figure of the time when the bourgeoisie was still a young, rising class and sought to consolidate its gains. He was a man with an unyielding will and an extraordinary mind. Under Napoleon, a whole galaxy of talented military leaders emerged ( Murat, Lannes, Davout,Her and many others).

A new plebiscite in 1802 secured the post of first consul for life to Napoleon Bonaparte. He was given the right to appoint a successor, dissolve the Legislative Corps, and personally approve peace treaties.

The strengthening of the power of Napoleon Bonaparte was facilitated by continuous, successful wars for France. In 1802, Napoleon's birthday was declared a national holiday, and from 1803 his image appeared on coins.

First Empire (1804-1814)

The power of the first consul increasingly took on the character of a one-man dictatorship. The logical result was the proclamation of Napoleon Bonaparte in May 1804 Emperor of France under the name Napoleon I. He was solemnly crowned by the Pope himself.

In 1807, the Tribunate, the only body where there was opposition to the Bonapartist regime, was abolished. A magnificent court was created, court titles were restored, and the title of marshal of the empire was introduced. The atmosphere, morals, and life of the French court imitated the old pre-revolutionary royal court. The address “citizen” disappeared from everyday life, but the words “sovereign” and “your imperial majesty” appeared.

In 1802, a law was issued on amnesty for emigrant nobles. The old aristocracy, returning from emigration, gradually strengthened its position. More than half of the prefects appointed in Napoleonic times belonged to the old nobility by origin.

Along with this, the French emperor, trying to strengthen his regime, created a new elite; it received noble titles from him and owed everything to him.

From 1808 to 1814, 3,600 titles of nobility were granted; Lands were distributed both in France and abroad - land ownership was an indicator of wealth and social status.

However, the revival of titles did not mean a return to the old feudal structure of society. Class privileges were not restored; Napoleon's legislation consolidated legal equality.

Napoleon made all his brothers kings in the countries of Europe conquered by France. In 1805 he declared himself king of Italy. At the height of his power in 1810, Napoleon I, due to the childlessness of Empress Josephine, began searching for a new wife in one of the reigning houses of feudal Europe. He was denied marriage to the Russian princess.

But the Austrian court agreed to the marriage of Napoleon I with the Austrian princess Marie-Louise. With this marriage, Napoleon hoped to join the ranks of the “legitimate” monarchs of Europe and establish his own dynasty.

Napoleon sought to solve the most acute internal political problem since the beginning of the revolution - the relationship between the bourgeois state and the church. In 1801, a concordat was concluded with Pope Pius VII. Catholicism was declared the religion of the majority of the French. The separation of church and state was destroyed, the state again obliged to provide maintenance for clergy and restore religious holidays.

The Pope, in turn, recognized the sold church lands as the property of the new owners and agreed that the highest church officials should be appointed by the government. The Church introduced a special prayer for the health of the consul and then the emperor. Thus, the church became the support of the Bonapartist regime.

During the years of the Consulate and the Empire in the history of France, the democratic gains of the revolution were mostly eliminated. Elections and plebiscites were formal in nature, and declarations of political freedom became convenient demagogy to cover up the despotic nature of government.

At the time Napoleon came to power, the financial situation of the country was extremely difficult: the treasury was empty, civil servants had not received salaries for a long time. Streamlining finances has become one of the government's top priorities. By increasing indirect taxes the government managed to stabilize financial system. Direct taxes (on capital) were reduced, which was in the interests of the big bourgeoisie.

Successful wars and protectionist policies boosted exports. Napoleon imposed trade terms favorable to France on European states. As a result of the victorious march of the French army, all European markets were open to French goods. Protectionist customs policy protected French entrepreneurs from competition from English goods.

In general, the time of the Consulate and the Empire was favorable for the industrial development of France.

The regime established in France under Napoleon Bonaparte was called " Bonapartism" The dictatorship of Napoleon was a special form of the bourgeois state, in which the bourgeoisie itself was excluded from direct participation in political power. Maneuvering between various social forces, relying on a powerful apparatus government controlled, Napoleon's power gained a certain independence in relation to social classes.

In an effort to unite the majority of the nation around the regime, to present himself as a spokesman for national interests, Napoleon adopted the idea of ​​national unity, born of the French Revolution. However, this was no longer a defense of the principles of national sovereignty, but propaganda of the national exclusivity of the French, the hegemony of France in the international arena. Therefore, in the field of foreign policy, Bonapartism is characterized by pronounced nationalism. The years of the Consulate and the First Empire were marked by almost continuous bloody wars waged by Napoleonic France with the states of Europe. In the conquered countries and vassal states of France, Napoleon pursued a policy that was aimed at turning them into a market for French goods and a source of raw materials for French industry. Napoleon repeatedly said: “ My principle is France first" In the dependent states, in the interests of the French bourgeoisie, economic development was slowed down by imposing unfavorable trade deals and establishing monopoly prices for French goods. Huge indemnities were siphoned out of these states.

Already by 1806, Napoleon Bonaparte had formed a huge empire, reminiscent of the times of Charlemagne. In 1806, Austria and Prussia were defeated. At the end of October 1806, Napoleon entered Berlin. Here, on November 21, 1806, he signed a decree on the continental blockade, which played a big role in the fate of European countries.

According to the decree, trade with the British Isles was strictly prohibited throughout the French Empire and its dependent countries. Violation of this decree and smuggling of English goods were punishable by severe repressions, including the death penalty. With this blockade, France sought to crush the economic potential of England and bring it to its knees.

However, Napoleon did not achieve his goal - the economic destruction of England. Although the English economy experienced difficulties during these years, they were not catastrophic: England owned extensive colonies, had well-established contacts with the American continent and, despite all the prohibitions, made extensive use of smuggled trade in English goods in Europe.

The blockade was difficult for the economies of European countries. French industry could not replace the cheaper and higher quality goods of English enterprises. The break with England gave rise to economic crises in European countries, which led to restrictions on the sale of French goods in them. The blockade to a certain extent contributed to the growth of French industry, but very soon it became clear that French industry could not do without English industrial products and raw materials.

The blockade paralyzed the life of such large port cities of France as Marseille, Le Havre, Nantes, and Toulon for a long time. In 1810, a system of licenses was introduced for the right to limited trade in English goods, but the cost of these licenses was high. Napoleon used the blockade as a means of protecting the developing French economy and as a source of revenue for the treasury.

At the end of the first decade of the 19th century, the crisis of the First Empire in France began. Its manifestations were periodic economic downturns and the growing fatigue of broad sections of the population from continuous wars. In 1810-1811, an acute economic crisis began in France. The negative consequences of the continental blockade were felt: there was a shortage of raw materials and industrial products, and the cost of production was rising. The bourgeoisie moved into opposition to the Bonapartist regime. The final blow to Napoleonic France was dealt by the military defeats of 1812-1814.

On October 16-19, 1813, a decisive battle took place near Leipzig between Napoleon's army and the united army of the allied states of Europe. The battle of Leipzig was called the Battle of the Nations. Napoleon's army was defeated.

On March 31, 1914, the Allied army entered Paris. Napoleon abdicated the throne in favor of his son. However, the Senate, under pressure from European powers, decided to once again elevate the Bourbon dynasty - the Count of Provence, brother of the executed Louis XVI - to the French throne. Napoleon was exiled for life to the island of Elba.

On May 30, 1814, a peace treaty was signed in Paris: France was deprived of all territorial acquisitions and returned to the borders of 1792. The agreement provided for the convening international congress in Vienna for the final resolution of all issues related to the collapse of the Napoleonic Empire.

10 months of Bourbon rule was enough for pro-Napoleonic sentiment to revive again. Louis XVIII published a constitutional charter in May 1814. By " Charters of 1814“The king’s power was limited by a parliament consisting of two chambers. The upper house was appointed by the king, and the lower house was elected based on a high property qualification.

This ensured power for large landowners, nobles, and partly the upper strata of the bourgeoisie. However, the old French aristocracy and clergy demanded from the government the complete restoration of feudal rights and privileges and the return of land holdings.

The threat of the restoration of feudal orders and the dismissal of more than 20 thousand Napoleonic officers and officials caused an explosion of discontent with the Bourbons.

Napoleon took advantage of this situation. He also took into account the fact that negotiations at the Congress of Vienna were progressing with difficulty: acute disagreements emerged between the recent allies in the fight against Napoleonic France.

On March 1, 1815, with a thousand guards, Napoleon landed in the south of France and launched a victorious campaign against Paris. All along the way, French military units went over to his side. On March 20 he entered Paris. The Empire was restored. However, Napoleon could not resist the enormous forces of England, Russia, Prussia and Austria.

The Allies had a huge superiority of forces, and on June 18, 1815, at the Battle of Waterloo (near Brussels), Napoleon's army was finally defeated. Napoleon abdicated the throne, surrendered to the British and was soon exiled to the island of St. Helena in the Atlantic Ocean, where he died in 1821.

The defeat of Napoleon Bonaparte's army Battle of Waterloo led to the second restoration of the Bourbon monarchy in France. Louis XVIII was returned to the throne. According to the Peace of Paris of 1815, France had to pay an indemnity of 700 million francs and maintain occupation troops (they were withdrawn in 1818 after the payment of the indemnity).

Restoration was marked by a political reaction in the country. Thousands of emigrant nobles who returned with the Bourbons demanded reprisals against political figures from the times of the revolution and the Napoleonic regime, and the restoration of their feudal rights and privileges.

“White terror” unfolded in the country, and it took especially cruel forms in the south, where royalist gangs killed and persecuted people known as Jacobins and liberals.

However, a complete return to the past was no longer possible. The Restoration regime did not encroach on those changes in the distribution of land property that occurred as a result of the Great French Revolution and were consolidated during the years of the First Empire. At the same time, the titles (but not class privileges) of the old nobility were restored, which to a large extent managed to preserve their land ownership. Lands confiscated by the revolution, but not sold in 1815, were returned to the emigrant nobles. The titles of nobility granted under Napoleon I were also recognized.

From the beginning of the 1820s, the influence on state policy of the most reactionary part of the nobility and clergy, who did not want to adapt to the conditions of post-revolutionary France and were thinking about the most complete return to the old order, increased. In 1820, the heir to the throne, the Duke of Berry, was killed by the artisan Louvel. This event was used by the reaction to attack constitutional principles. Censorship was restored, education was placed under the control of the Catholic Church.

Louis XVIII died in 1824. Under the name Charles X his brother, Count d'Artois, ascended the throne. He was called the king of emigrants. Charles X began to pursue an openly pro-noble policy and thereby completely upset the balance that had developed in the first years of the Restoration between the top of the bourgeoisie and the nobility in favor of the latter.

In 1825, a law was passed on monetary compensation to emigrant nobles for the lands they lost during the revolution (25 thousand people, mainly representatives of the old nobility, received compensation in the amount of 1 billion francs). At the same time, a “law on sacrilege” was issued, which provided for severe punishment for actions against religion and the church, including the death penalty by quartering and wheeling.

In August 1829, a personal friend of the king, one of the inspirers of the “White Terror” of 1815-1817, became the head of government. Polignac. Polignac's ministry was one of the most reactionary in all the years of the Restoration regime. All its members belonged to ultra-royalists. The very fact of the formation of such a ministry caused indignation in the country. The Chamber of Deputies demanded the resignation of the ministry. In response, the king interrupted the meeting of the chamber.

Public discontent was intensified by the industrial depression that followed the economic crisis of 1826 and the high cost of bread.

In such a situation, Charles X decided to carry out a coup d'etat. On July 25, 1830, the king signed ordinances (decrees), which were a direct violation of the Charter of 1814. The Chamber of Deputies was dissolved, and the right to vote was henceforth granted only to large landowners. The ordinances abolished freedom of the press by introducing a system of prior permission for periodicals.

The Restoration regime clearly sought to restore the absolutist system in the country. In the face of such a danger, the bourgeoisie had to decide to fight.

July bourgeois revolution of 1830. "Three glorious days."

On July 26, 1830, the orders of Charles X were published in newspapers. Paris responded to them with violent demonstrations. The very next day, an armed uprising began in Paris: the streets of the city were covered with barricades. Almost every tenth resident of Paris participated in the battles. Part of the government forces went over to the side of the rebels. On July 29, the royal Tuileries Palace was taken in battle. The revolution has won. Charles X fled to England.

Power passed into the hands of the Provisional Government, created by deputies of the liberal bourgeoisie; it was headed by the leaders of the liberals - banker Laffite And General Lafayette. The big bourgeoisie did not want and was afraid of the republic; it advocated the preservation of the monarchy, led by the Orleans dynasty, traditionally close to bourgeois circles. July 31 Louis Philippe d'Orléans was declared governor of the kingdom, and on August 7 - king of France.

The July Revolution finally resolved the dispute: which social class should have political dominance in France - the nobility or the bourgeoisie - in favor of the latter. A bourgeois monarchy was established in the country; It was no coincidence that the new king Louis Philippe, the largest forest owner and financier, was called the “bourgeois king.”

Unlike the constitution of 1814, which was declared as a grant of royal power, the new constitution is “ Charter of 1830“- was declared an inalienable property of the people. The King, the new charter declared, ruled not by divine right, but by invitation of the French people; from now on, he could not repeal or suspend laws, and lost the right of legislative initiative, being the head of the executive branch. Members of the House of Peers had to be elected, just like members of the Lower House.

The “Charter of 1830” proclaimed freedom of the press and assembly. Age and property qualifications were lowered. Under Louis Philippe, the financial bourgeoisie and big bankers dominated. The financial aristocracy received high positions in the state apparatus. It enjoyed huge government subsidies, various benefits and privileges that were provided to railway and commercial companies. All this increased the budget deficit, which became a chronic phenomenon under the July Monarchy. Its consequence was a steady increase in public debt.

Both were in the interests of the financial bourgeoisie: government loans, which the government used to cover the deficit, were given at high interest rates and were a sure source of its enrichment. The growth of public debt increased the political influence of the financial aristocracy and the government's dependence on it.

The July Monarchy resumed the conquest of Algeria, which had begun under Charles X. The population of Algeria offered stubborn resistance; many “Algerian” generals of the French army, including Cavaignac, became famous for their cruelties in this war.

In 1847, Algeria was conquered and became one of France's largest colonies.

In the same 1847, a cyclical economic crisis broke out in France, which caused a sharp decline in production, a shock to the entire monetary system and an acute financial crisis (the gold reserves of the French Bank fell from 320 million francs in 1845 to 42 million at the beginning of 1848), a huge increase government deficit, a wide wave of bankruptcies. The banquet campaign launched by the opposition covered the entire country: in September-October 1847, about 70 banquets were held with 17 thousand participants.

The country was on the eve of a revolution - the third in a row since the end of the 18th century.

On December 28, the legislative session of parliament opened. It took place in an extremely stormy atmosphere. Internal and foreign policy was subjected to severe criticism from opposition leaders. However, their demands were rejected, and the next banquet of supporters of electoral reform, scheduled for February 22, 1848, was prohibited.

Nevertheless, thousands of Parisians took to the streets and squares of the city on February 22, which became rallying points for a government-banned demonstration. Clashes with the police began, the first barricades appeared, and their number quickly increased. On February 24, all of Paris was covered with barricades, all important strategic points were in the hands of the rebels. Louis Philippe abdicated the throne in favor of his young grandson, the Count of Paris, and fled to England. The Tuileries Palace was captured by the rebels, the royal throne was dragged to the Place de la Bastille and burned.

An attempt was made to preserve the monarchy by establishing the regency of the Duchess of Orleans, mother of the Count of Paris. The Chamber of Deputies defended the regency rights of the Duchess of Orleans. However, these plans were thwarted by the rebels. They burst into the meeting room of the Chamber of Deputies shouting: “No regency, no king! Long live the republic!” Deputies were forced to agree to the election of a Provisional Government. The February Revolution was victorious.

The de facto head of the Provisional Government was a moderate liberal, a famous French romantic poet. A. Lamartine, who took over the post of Minister of Foreign Affairs. Workers were included in the Provisional Government as ministers without portfolio Alexander Albert, member of secret republican societies, and popular petty-bourgeois socialist Louis Blanc. The provisional government was of a coalition nature.

February 25, 1848 The Provisional Government proclaimed France a republic. A few days later, a decree was issued introducing universal suffrage for men over 21 years of age.

On May 4, the Constituent Assembly opened. On November 4, 1948, the Constituent Assembly adopted the constitution of the Second Republic. Legislative power belonged to a unicameral Legislative Assembly, elected for 3 years on the basis of universal suffrage for men over 21 years of age. The executive branch was represented by the president, who was elected not by parliament, but by popular vote for 4 years (without the right of re-election) and was endowed with enormous power: he formed the government, appointed and removed officials, and led the armed forces of the state. The President was independent of the Legislative Assembly, but could not dissolve it and cancel the decisions taken by the assembly.

Presidential elections were scheduled for December 10, 1848. The nephew of Napoleon I won - Louis Napoleon Bonaparte. He had already tried to seize power in the country twice before.

Louis Napoleon waged a frank struggle to move from the presidential chair to the imperial throne. On December 2, 1851, Louis Napoleon carried out a coup d'etat. The Legislative Assembly was dissolved and a state of siege was introduced in Paris. All power in the country was transferred to the hands of the president, who was elected for 10 years. As a result of the coup d'etat of 1851, a Bonapartist dictatorship was established in France. A year after the usurpation of power by Louis Napoleon, on December 2, 1852, he was proclaimed emperor under the name Napoleon III.

The time of empire is a chain of wars, aggressions, conquests and colonial expeditions of French troops in Africa and Europe, Asia, America, Oceania in order to establish French hegemony in Europe and strengthen its colonial power. Military operations continued in Algeria. The Algerian question played an increasingly important role in the life of France. In 1853, New Caledonia became a colony. Since 1854, military expansion was carried out in Senegal. French troops, together with English ones, fought in China. France actively participated in the “opening” of Japan to foreign capital in 1858. In 1858, the French invasion of South Vietnam began. The French company began construction of the Suez Canal in 1859 (opened in 1869).

Franco-Prussian War.

The ruling court circles of Napoleon III decided to raise the prestige of the dynasty through a victorious war with Prussia. Under the auspices of Prussia, the unification of the German states successfully took place. A powerful militaristic state grew up on the eastern borders of France - the North German Union, whose ruling circles openly sought to seize the rich and strategically important regions of France - Alsace and Lorraine.

Napoleon III decided to prevent the final creation of a unified German state by war with Prussia. Chancellor of the North German Union O. Bismarck was intensively preparing for final stage reunification of Germany. The saber-rattling in Paris only made it easier for Bismarck to implement his plan to create a unified German empire through war with France. Unlike France, where Bonapartist military leaders made a lot of noise but cared little about the combat effectiveness of the army, in Berlin they secretly but purposefully prepared for war, rearmed the army and carefully developed strategic plans for upcoming military operations.

On July 19, 1870, France declared war on Prussia. Napoleon III, when starting the war, miscalculated his forces. “We are ready, we are absolutely ready,” the French Minister of War assured the members of the Legislative Corps. It was bragging. Disorder and confusion reigned everywhere. The army had no general leadership, there was no specific plan for waging war. Not only soldiers, but also officers needed the bare necessities. The officers were given 60 francs each to purchase revolvers from merchants. There were not even maps of the theater of operations on French territory, since it was assumed that the war would be fought on Prussian territory.

From the very first days of the war, Prussia's overwhelming superiority was revealed. She was ahead of the French in mobilizing troops and concentrating them near the border. The Prussians had an almost double numerical superiority. Their command persistently carried out the previously developed war plan.

The Prussians almost immediately cut the French army into two parts: one part, under the command of Marshal Bazaine, retreated to the Metz fortress and was besieged there, the other, under the command of Marshal MacMahon and the emperor himself, was thrown back to Sedan under the onslaught of a large Prussian army. Near Sedan, near the Belgian border, on September 2, 1870, a battle took place that decided the outcome of the war. The Prussian army defeated the French. Three thousand French fell in the battle of Sedan. McMahon's 80,000-strong army and Napoleon III himself were captured.

The news of the emperor's capture shook Paris. On September 4, crowds of people filled the streets of the capital. At their request, France was proclaimed a republic. Power passed to the Provisional Government of National Defense, which represented a wide bloc of political forces opposing the empire - from monarchists to radical republicans. In response, Prussia made openly aggressive demands.

The Republicans who came to power considered it dishonorable to accept Prussian conditions. After all, the republic, even during the revolution of the late 18th century, had earned a reputation as a patriotic regime, and the republicans were afraid that the republic would be suspected of betraying national interests. But the scale of the losses suffered by France in this war left no hope for an early victory. On September 16, Prussian troops appeared in the vicinity of Paris. Within a short time they occupied the entire north-east of France. For some time, France remained defenseless against the enemy. The government's efforts to restore military potential did not bear fruit until the end of 1870, when the Army of the Loire was formed south of Paris.

In a similar situation, the revolutionaries of 1792 called for a nationwide war of liberation in France. But fear of the threat of the national liberation war escalating into a civil war kept the government from such a step. It came to the conclusion that peace was inevitable on the terms proposed by Prussia, but waited for a favorable moment for this, and in the meantime imitated national defense.

As soon as news of the government's new attempt to enter into peace negotiations became known, an uprising broke out in Paris. On October 31, 1870, National Guard soldiers arrested and held the ministers hostage for several hours until they were rescued by troops loyal to the government.

Now the government was more concerned with how to calm the restless Parisians than with national defense. The uprising of October 31 thwarted the truce plan prepared by Adolphe Thiers. French troops tried unsuccessfully to break the blockade of Paris. By the beginning of 1871, the position of the besieged capital seemed hopeless. The government decided that it was impossible to delay the conclusion of peace any longer.

On January 18, 1871, in the Hall of Mirrors of the Palace of Versailles of the French kings, the Prussian King William I was proclaimed German Emperor, and on January 28 an armistice was signed between France and a united Germany. Under its terms, the forts of Paris and army weapons stocks were transferred to the Germans. Peace was finally signed in Frankfurt on May 10, 1873. According to its terms, France ceded Alsace and Lorraine to Germany, and also had to pay 5 billion francs in indemnity.

The Parisians were extremely indignant at the terms of the peace, but despite the seriousness of the disagreements with the government, no one in Paris thought about an uprising, much less prepared it. The uprising was provoked by the actions of the authorities. After the blockade was lifted, payments to National Guard soldiers were stopped. In a city whose economy has not yet recovered from the consequences of the blockade, thousands of residents were left without a livelihood. The pride of the inhabitants of Paris was also hurt by the decision of the National Assembly to choose Versailles as its seat.

Paris Commune

On March 18, 1871, on government orders, troops attempted to capture National Guard artillery. The soldiers were stopped by the residents and retreated without a fight. But the guards captured Generals Leconte and Thomas, who commanded the government troops, and shot them on the same day.

Thiers ordered the evacuation of government offices to Versailles.

On March 26, elections were held for the Paris Commune (as the city government of Paris was traditionally called). Of the 85 members of the Council of the Commune, the majority were workers or their recognized representatives.

The Commune declared its intention to carry out profound reforms in many areas.

First of all, they took a number of measures to alleviate the situation of low-income residents of Paris. But many global plans could not be realized. The main concern of the Commune at that moment was war. At the beginning of April, clashes began between the federates, as the fighters of the armed detachments of the Commune called themselves, and the Versailles troops. The forces were obviously unequal.

The opponents seemed to compete in cruelty and outrages. The streets of Paris were filled with blood. There was unprecedented vandalism shown by the Communards during street battles. In Paris, they deliberately set fire to the city hall, the Palace of Justice, the Tuileries Palace, the Ministry of Finance, and Thiers' house. Countless cultural and artistic treasures were destroyed in the fire. The arsonists also attempted to destroy the treasures of the Louvre.

The “Bloody Week” of May 21-28 ended the short history of the Commune. On May 28, the last barricade on Rampono Street fell. The Paris Commune lasted only 72 days. Very few communards managed to escape the subsequent massacre by leaving France. Among the Communard emigrants was a French worker, poet, and author of the proletarian anthem “The Internationale” - Eugene Potier.

A troubled time began in the history of France, when three dynasties laid claim to the French throne: Bourbons, Orleans, Bonapartes. Although September 4, 1870 of the year As a result of a popular uprising, a republic was proclaimed in France; in the National Assembly, the majority belonged to monarchists, the minority was made up of republicans, among whom there were several movements. There was a “republic without republicans” in the country.

However, the plan to restore the monarchy in France failed. The bulk of the French population was for the establishment of a republic. The question of defining the political system of France was not resolved for a long time. Only in 1875 In 2010, the National Assembly, by a majority of one vote, adopted an amendment to the basic law recognizing France as a republic. But even after this, France was on the verge of a monarchical coup several times more.

May 24, 1873 an ardent monarchist was elected president of the republic McMahon, on whose name three monarchist parties that hated each other agreed when they were looking for a successor to Thieroux. Under the patronage of the president, monarchist intrigues were carried out to restore the monarchy.

In November 1873, McMahon's powers were extended for seven years. IN 1875 MacMahon was a strong opponent of the republican constitution, which, nevertheless, was adopted by the National Assembly.

The Constitution of the Third Republic was a compromise between monarchists and republicans. Forced to recognize the republic, the monarchists tried to give it a conservative, undemocratic character. Legislative power was transferred to parliament, consisting of the Chamber of Deputies and the Senate. The Senate was elected for 9 years and renewed after three years by one third. The age limit for senators was 40 years. The Chamber of Deputies was elected for 4 years only by men who had reached the age of 21 and had lived in the community for at least 6 months. Women, military personnel, youth, and seasonal workers did not receive voting rights.

Executive power was vested in the president, elected by the National Assembly for a 7-year term. He was given the right to declare war, make peace, as well as the right of legislative initiative and appointment to senior civil and military positions. Thus, the power of the president was great.

The first parliamentary elections held on the basis of the new constitution brought victory to the Republicans. IN 1879 year McMahon is forced to resign. Moderate Republicans came to power. The new president was elected Jules Grevy, and the chairman of the Chamber of Deputies Leon Gambetta.

Jules Grévy was the first president of France, who was a staunch republican and actively opposed the restoration of the monarchy.

The removal of Marshal MacMahon was greeted in the country with a sense of relief. With the election of Jules Grévy, the conviction took root that the republic had entered a period of smooth, calm and fruitful development. Indeed, the years of Grevy's rule were marked by colossal successes in strengthening the republic. December 28th 1885 he was again elected president Third Republic. The second period of Jules Grevy's presidency turned out to be very short. At the end 1887 he was forced to resign as President of the Republic under the influence of public indignation caused by revelations about the reprehensible actions of Grevy's son-in-law, Deputy Wilson, who was trading in the highest state award - the Legion of Honor. Grevy was not personally compromised.

From 1887 to 1894 was the president of France Sadi Carnot.

The seven years of Carnot's presidency occupied a prominent place in the history of the Third Republic. This was a period of consolidation of the republican system. His ultimate failure Boulanger and Boulangism (1888-89) made the republic even more popular in the eyes of the population. The strength of the republic was not at all shaken even by such unfavorable events as "Panamanian scandals" (1892-93) and sudden manifestations anarchism (1893).

During the presidencies of Grevy and Carnot, the majority in the Chamber of Deputies belonged to moderate Republicans. On their initiative, France actively seized new colonies. IN 1881 a French protectorate was established over Tunisia, V 1885 The right of France to Annam and Tonkin was secured. In 1894, the war for Madagascar began. After two years of bloody war, the island became a French colony. At the same time, France was leading the conquest of West and Central Africa. At the end of the 19th century, France's possessions in Africa were 17 times larger than the size of the metropolis itself. France became the second (after England) colonial power in the world.

Colonial wars required large amounts of money, and taxes increased. The authority of moderate Republicans, who expressed the interests only of the big financial and industrial bourgeoisie, was falling.

This led to the strengthening of the radical left wing in the ranks of the Republican Party, led by Georges Clemenceau (1841-1929).

Georges Clemenceau - the son of a doctor, the owner of a small estate, Clemenceau's father and he himself opposed the Second Empire and were persecuted. During the Paris Commune, Georges Clemenceau served as one of the Paris mayors and tried to be a mediator between the Commune and Versailles. Having become the leader of the radicals, Clemenceau sharply criticized the domestic and foreign policies of moderate Republicans and sought their resignation, receiving the nickname “overthrower of ministers.”

In 1881, the radicals broke away from the Republicans and formed an independent party. They demanded the democratization of the government system, the separation of church and state, the introduction of a progressive income tax, and social reforms. In the parliamentary elections of 1881, the radicals already acted independently and won 46 seats. However, the majority in the Chamber of Deputies remained with moderate Republicans.

The political positions of monarchists, clerics, and moderate republicans increasingly converged on a common anti-democratic platform. This was clearly manifested in connection with the so-called Dreyfus affair, around which a sharp political struggle unfolded.

The Dreyfus affair.

In 1884, it was discovered that secret military documents had been sold to the German military attache in Paris. This could only be done by one of the officers of the General Staff. Suspicion fell on the captain Alfred Dreyfus, Jewish by nationality. Despite the fact that no serious evidence of his guilt was established, Dreyfus was arrested and court-martialed. Anti-Semitic sentiments were strong among French officers, mostly from noble families who were educated in Catholic educational institutions. The Dreyfus affair was the impetus for an explosion of anti-Semitism in the country.

The military command did everything possible to support the charge of espionage against Dreyfus, he was found guilty and sentenced to life hard labor.

The movement that unfolded in France to reconsider the Dreyfus case was not limited to the defense of an innocent officer, it turned into a struggle of the forces of democracy against reaction. The Dreyfus affair excited wide circles of the population and attracted the attention of the press. Among the supporters of the review of the verdict were the writers Emile Zola, Anatole France, Octave Mirabeau and others. Zola published an open letter entitled “I Accuse”, addressed to President Faure, an opponent of the review of the Dreyfus affair. The famous writer accused him of trying to save a real criminal by falsifying evidence. Zola was brought to justice for his speech, and only emigration to England saved him from imprisonment.

Zola's letter excited the whole of France; it was read and discussed everywhere. The country split into two camps: Dreyfusards and anti-Dreyfusards.

It was clear to the most far-sighted politicians that it was necessary to end the Dreyfus affair as soon as possible - France was on the verge civil war. The verdict in the Dreyfus case was revised, he was not acquitted, but then the president pardoned him. The government in this way tried to hide the truth: the innocence of Dreyfus and the name of the real spy - Esterhazy. It was not until 1906 that Dreyfus was pardoned.

At the turn of the century.

The French people could not forget the national humiliation experienced in connection with the defeat of France in the war with Prussia. The country was struggling to heal the wounds caused by the war. The original French lands of Alsace and Lorraine were included in German territory. France was in dire need of an ally for a future war with Germany. Russia could become such an ally, which, in turn, did not want to remain isolated in the face of the Triple Alliance (Germany, Austria, Italy), which had a clearly anti-Russian orientation. IN 1892 In 1893, a military convention was signed between France and Russia, and a military alliance was concluded in 1893.

From 1895 to 1899 was the President of the Third Republic Felix Faure.

He introduced almost royal court etiquette into the Elysee Palace, unusual until then in France, and demanded its strict observance; he considered himself unworthy to appear at various celebrations next to the prime minister or presidents of the chambers, everywhere trying to emphasize his special importance as head of state.

These features began to appear especially sharply after Emperor Nicholas II and the Empress visited Paris in 1896. This visit was the result of the rapprochement between France and Russia, which the governments before and under Faure had worked on; he himself was an active supporter of rapprochement. In 1897, the Russian imperial couple paid a second visit.

Industrialization proceeded more slowly in France than in Germany, the USA, and England. If France was significantly behind other capitalist countries in terms of concentration of production, then in terms of concentration of banks it was ahead of others and took first place.

Since the beginning of the 20th century, there has been a general shift to the left in the mood of the French. This was clearly evident during the parliamentary elections in 1902, when the left parties - socialists and radicals - received the majority of votes. After the elections, the radicals became the masters of the country. The radical government of Combe (1902-1905) launched an attack on the Catholic Church. The government ordered the closure of schools run by priests. The clergy resisted fiercely. Several thousand schools of religious orders turned into fortresses. The unrest was especially strong in Brittany. But “Papa Comba,” as the new prime minister was called, stubbornly pursued his line. Things came to a break in diplomatic relations with the Vatican. Friction increased with senior army leadership, dissatisfied with the government's attempts to carry out army reform. At the end of 1904, information leaked to the press that the government was maintaining a secret file on senior army ranks. A loud scandal broke out, as a result of which the Combes government was forced to resign.

In 1904, France entered into an agreement with England. Creation of the Anglo-French Alliance - Entente– was an event of international significance.

In December 1905, the cabinet of the right-wing radical Rouvier, which replaced Combe's cabinet, passed a law on the separation of church and state. At the same time, the property of the church was not confiscated, and the clergy received the right to state pensions.

By the middle of the first decade of the 20th century, France ranked first in Europe in terms of the number of strikers. The miners' strike in the spring of 1906 caused great resonance. It was caused by one of the largest mining disasters in French history, which killed 1,200 miners. There is a threat of traditional labor conflicts escalating into street clashes.

This was taken advantage of by the radical party, which sought to present itself as the wisest political force, capable of simultaneously carrying out the necessary reforms and ready to show cruelty in order to preserve civil peace.

At the parliamentary elections in 1906, the radical party became even stronger. Georges Clemenceau (1906-1909) became the head of the Council of Ministers. A bright, extraordinary figure, he initially sought to emphasize that it was his government that would begin to truly carry out the work of reforming society. It turned out to be much easier to declare this idea than to implement it. True, one of the first steps of the new government was the re-establishment of the Ministry of Labor, the leadership of which was entrusted to the “independent socialist” Viviani. This, however, did not solve the problem of stabilizing labor relations. Acute labor conflicts periodically flared up throughout the country, more than once escalating into open clashes with the forces of law and order. Unable to cope with the task of normalizing the social situation, Clemenceau resigned in 1909.

The new government was headed by the “independent socialist A. Briand.” He passed a law on workers' and peasants' pensions from the age of 65, but this did not strengthen the position of his government.

There was a certain instability in the political life of France: none of the parties represented in parliament could carry out their political line alone. Hence the constant search for allies, the formation of various party combinations, which disintegrated at the first test of strength. This situation continued until 1913, when he won the presidential election Raymond Poincaré, who went to success under the slogan of creating a “great and strong France.” He quite obviously sought to shift the center of political struggle from social problems towards foreign policy ones and thus consolidate society.

World War I.

IN 191 In 3 years he was elected President of France Raymond Poincaré. Preparing for war became the main task of the new president. France wanted in this war to return Alsace and Lorraine, taken from it by Germany in 1871, and to seize the Saar basin. The last months before the outbreak of the First World War were filled with acute internal political struggle, and only France’s entry into the war removed the question of what course it should take from the agenda.

The First World War began on July 28, 1914. France entered the war on August 3. The German command planned to defeat France as soon as possible, and only then concentrate on the fight against Russia. German troops launched massive offensives in the West. In the so-called “border battle,” they broke through the front and began an offensive deep into France. In September 1914, a grandiose Battle of the Marne, on the outcome of which the fate of the entire campaign on the Western Front depended. In fierce battles, the Germans were stopped and then driven back from Paris. The plan for the lightning defeat of the French army failed. The war on the Western Front became protracted.

In February 1916 The German command launched the largest-scale offensive operation, trying to capture the strategically important French Verdun fortress. However, despite colossal efforts and huge losses, German troops were never able to take Verdun. The Anglo-French command tried to take advantage of the current situation and launched a major offensive in the summer of 1916. operation in the Somme River area, where they first tried to seize the initiative from the Germans.

However, in April 1917, when the United States entered the war on the side of the Entente, the situation became more favorable for Germany's opponents. The inclusion of the United States in the military efforts of the Entente guaranteed its troops a reliable advantage in terms of logistics. Realizing that time was working against them, the Germans made several desperate attempts in March-July 1918 to achieve a turning point in military operations on the Western Front. At the cost of huge losses, which completely depleted the German army, it managed to approach Paris to a distance of about 70 km.

On July 18, 1918, the Allies launched a powerful counteroffensive. November 11, 1918 Germany capitulated. The peace treaty was signed at the Palace of Versailles June 28, 1919. Under the terms of the treaty, France received Alsace, Lorraine, Saar coalfield.

Interwar period.

France was at the height of its power. She completely defeated her mortal enemy, she had no serious opponents on the continent, and in those days hardly anyone could have imagined that a little more than two decades later the Third Republic would collapse like a house of cards. What happened, why did France not only fail to consolidate its very real success, but ultimately suffered the largest national catastrophe in the history of France?

Yes, France achieved victory in the war, but this success cost the French people dearly. Every fifth resident of the country (8.5 million people) was mobilized into the army, 1 million 300 thousand French died, 2.8 million people were injured, of which 600 thousand remained disabled.

A third of France, where the fighting took place, was seriously destroyed, and it was there that the main industrial potential of the country was concentrated. The franc depreciated 5 times, and France itself owed the United States a huge amount - more than 4 billion dollars.

There were fierce debates in society between a wide range of leftist forces and the nationalists in power, led by Prime Minister Clemenceau, about how and at what cost to solve numerous internal problems. Socialists believed that it was necessary to move towards building a more just society, only in this case all the sacrifices that were made on the altar of victory would be justified. To do this, it is necessary to more evenly distribute the hardships of the recovery period, alleviate the situation of the poor, and take key sectors of the economy under state control so that they work for the whole society, and not for the enrichment of a narrow clan of the financial oligarchy.

Nationalists of all different colors were united by a common idea - Germany must pay for everything! The implementation of this goal does not require reforms, which will inevitably split society, but its consolidation around the idea of ​​a strong France.

In January 1922, the government was headed by Raymond Poincaré, who had already established himself as a fierce opponent of Germany before the war. Poincaré stated that the main task current moment– recover reparations from Germany in full. However, it was impossible to implement this slogan in practice. Poincaré himself became convinced of this a few months later. Then, after some hesitation, he decided to occupy the Ruhr region, which was done in January 1923.

However, the consequences of this step turned out to be completely different than Pkankare expected. There was no money coming from Germany - they had already gotten used to it, but now coal had stopped coming in, which hit French industry hard. Inflation has increased. Under pressure from the USA and England, France was forced to withdraw its troops from Germany. The failure of this adventure caused a regrouping of political forces in France.

The parliamentary elections in May 1924 brought success to the Left Bloc. The leader of the radicals became the head of government E. Herriot. First of all, he dramatically changed the country's foreign policy. France established diplomatic relations with the USSR and began to establish contacts with the country in a variety of areas. But the implementation of the internal political program of the Left Bloc caused active resistance from conservative forces. An attempt to introduce a progressive income tax failed, which jeopardized the entire financial policy government. France's largest banks also entered into confrontation with the prime minister. In the most radical party he had many opponents. As a result, on April 10, 1925, the Senate condemned the government's financial policy. Herriot resigned.

This was followed by a period of government leapfrog - five governments changed in a year. In such conditions, carrying out the Left Bloc program turned out to be impossible. In the summer of 1926, the Left Bloc collapsed.

The new “government of national unity,” which included both representatives of right-wing parties and radicals, was headed by Raymond Poincaré.

Poincare proclaimed the fight against inflation as his main task.

Government spending was noticeably reduced by reducing the bureaucracy, new taxes were introduced and at the same time large benefits were provided to entrepreneurs. From 1926 to 1929 France had a deficit-free budget. Poincaré's government managed to bring down inflation, stabilize the franc, and stop the rise in the cost of living. Intensified social activities state, benefits were introduced for the unemployed (1926), old-age pensions, as well as benefits for illness, disability, and pregnancy (1928). It is not surprising that the prestige of Poincaré and the parties supporting him grew.

In such a situation, the next parliamentary elections took place in 1928. As one would expect, right-wing parties won the majority of seats in the new parliament. The successes of the right were largely based on Poincaré's personal prestige, but in the summer of 1929 he became seriously ill and was forced to leave his post and politics altogether.

The Third Republic was again in serious trouble: from 1929 to 1932. 8 governments have changed. All were dominated by right-wing parties, which had new leaders - A. Tardieu and P. Laval. However, none of these governments could stop the French economy from sliding downhill.

In this situation, France approached the next parliamentary elections in May 1932, which were won by the newly reconstituted Left Bloc. The government was headed by E. Herriot. He immediately faced a set of problems generated by the global economic crisis. The budget deficit increased every day, and the government faced an increasingly pressing question: where to get the money? Herriot was against the plans advocated by the communists and socialists to nationalize a number of industries and introduce additional taxes on large capital. In December 1932, the Chamber of Deputies withdrew his proposal to continue paying off war debts. The Herriot government fell, and ministerial leapfrog began again, from which France was not only seriously tired, but also seriously suffering.

The position of those political forces in the country that believed that democratic institutions had exhausted their capabilities and should be discarded began to strengthen. In France, these thoughts were propagated by a number of pro-fascist organizations, the largest of which were the Action Française and the Combat Crosses. The influence of these organizations among the masses grew rapidly; they had many adherents in the ruling elite, in the army, and the police. As the crisis worsened, they louder and more decisively declared the incapacity of the Third Republic and their readiness to take power.

By the end of January 1932, fascist organizations achieved the resignation of the government of K. Shotan. However, the government was headed by the radical socialist E. Daladier, hated by the right. One of his first steps was the removal from his post of police prefect Chiappa, known for his sympathies towards the fascists.

The latter's patience has come to an end. On February 6, 1934, more than 40 thousand fascist activists stormed the Bourbon Palace, where parliament was sitting, intending to disperse it. Clashes with the police began, during which 17 people were killed and more than 2 thousand were injured. They were unable to capture the palace, but the government they disliked fell. Daladier was replaced by the right-wing radical G. Doumergue. There was a serious shift in forces in favor of the right. The threat of the establishment of a fascist regime really loomed over the country.

All this forced the anti-fascist forces, forgetting about their differences, to fight against the fascisation of the country. In July 1935 arose Popular Front, which included communists, socialists, radicals, trade unions and a number of anti-fascist organizations of the French intelligentsia. The effectiveness of the new association was tested by the parliamentary elections held in the spring of 1936 - Popular Front candidates received 57% of all votes. The formation of the government was entrusted to the leader of the parliamentary faction of socialists L. Blum. Under his chairmanship, negotiations began between representatives of trade unions and the General Confederation of Employers. Under the terms of the agreements reached, wages increased by an average of 7-15%, collective agreements became mandatory for all enterprises where trade unions demanded it, and, finally, the government undertook to introduce a number of laws on social protection of workers to parliament.

In the summer of 1936, parliament with unprecedented speed adopted 133 laws that implemented the main provisions of the Popular Front. Among the most important are the law banning the activities of fascist leagues, as well as a series of socio-economic legislation: on a 40-hour work week, on paid holidays, on raising the minimum wage, on the organization of public works, on deferment of payments on debt obligations for small entrepreneurs and their preferential lending, the creation of a National Grain Bureau for the purchase of grain from peasants at fixed prices.

In 1937, tax reform was carried out and additional loans were allocated for the development of science, education, and culture. The French Bank was placed under state control, the National Society of Railways with mixed capital was created, in which 51% of the shares belonged to the state, and, finally, a number of military factories were nationalized.

These measures significantly increased the state budget deficit. Large entrepreneurs sabotaged the payment of taxes and transferred capital abroad. total amount capital withdrawn from the French economy amounted, according to some estimates, to 60 billion francs.

The law prohibited only paramilitary, but not political organizations of a fascist persuasion. Supporters of the fascist idea immediately took advantage of this. “Combat Crosses” was renamed the French Social Party, “Patriotic Youth” became known as the Republican National and Social Party, etc.

Taking advantage of democratic freedoms, the pro-fascist press launched a campaign of persecution against the Socialist Interior Minister Salangro, who was driven to suicide.

In the summer of 1937, Blum presented to parliament a “financial recovery plan” that included increasing indirect taxes, taxes on corporate income and introducing government controls over foreign exchange transactions abroad.

After the Senate rejected this plan, Blum decided to resign.

The right managed to approve public consciousness the idea that the deteriorating situation in the country is directly related to the “irresponsible social experiments” of the Popular Front. The right claimed that the Popular Front was preparing for the "Bolshevisation" of France. Only a sharp turn to the right, a reorientation toward Germany, could save the country from this, the right argued. Right-wing leader P. Laval said: “Better Hitler than the Popular Front.” This slogan was adopted in 1938 by most of the political establishment of the Third Republic. In the end, this was her undoing.

In the fall of 1938, the Daladier government, together with England, sanctioned the Munich Agreement, which handed Czechoslovakia over to Nazi Germany. Anti-communist sentiments outweighed even the traditional fear of Germany in the eyes of a significant part of French society. In essence, the Munich Agreement opened the way to the outbreak of a new world war.

One of the first victims of this war was the Third Republic itself. June 14, 1940 German troops entered Paris. Today we can safely say: the path of the German army to Paris began in Munich. The Third Republic paid a terrible price for the short-sighted policies of its leaders.

The epiphany came too late. Hitler had already completed preparations for delivering a decisive blow on the Western Front. On May 10, 1940, the Germans bypassed defensive line The Maginot, built along the Franco-German border, invaded Belgium and Holland, and from there into Northern France. On the very first day of the offensive, German aviation bombed the most important airfields on the territory of these countries. The main forces of French aviation were destroyed. In the Dunkirk area, a 400,000-strong Anglo-French group was surrounded. Only with great difficulty and huge losses was it possible to evacuate its remnants to England. The Germans, meanwhile, were rapidly advancing towards Paris. On June 10, the government fled from Paris to Bordeaux. Paris, declared an “open city,” was occupied by the Germans on June 14 without a fight. A few days later the government was headed Marshal Pétain, who immediately turned to Germany asking for peace.

Only individual representatives of the bourgeoisie and senior officers opposed the capitulatory policy of the government. Among them was General Charles de Gaulle, who at that time was conducting negotiations in London on military cooperation with England. In response to his radio address to French soldiers stationed outside the metropolis, many patriots united in the Free France movement to fight for the national revival of their homeland.

June 22, 1940 in the Compiègne forest The act of surrender of France was signed. In order to humiliate France, the Nazis forced its representatives to sign this act in the same carriage in which Marshal Foch dictated the terms of the truce to the German delegation in November 1918. The Third Republic fell.

According to the terms of the armistice, Germany occupied 2/3 of France, including Paris. South part France formally remained independent. The small town of Vichy was chosen as the seat of government for Pétain, who began to cooperate closely with Germany.

The question arises: why did Hitler decide to at least formally retain part of France’s sovereignty? Behind this lay a completely pragmatic calculation.

Firstly, in this way he avoided raising the question of the fate of the French colonial empire and the French navy. In the event of the complete liquidation of French independence, the Germans would hardly have been able to prevent the sailors from leaving for England and would certainly not have been able to prevent the transition of the huge French colonial empire and the troops stationed there to British control.

And so the French Marshal Pétain categorically forbade the fleet and colonial troops to leave their bases.

In addition, the presence of a formally independent France hampered the development Resistance movements, which in the conditions of Hitler’s preparations for jumping across the English Channel was very relevant for him.

Petain was proclaimed the sole head of the French state. The French authorities pledged to supply Germany with raw materials, food and labor. The economy of the entire country was brought under German control. The French armed forces were subject to disarmament and demobilization. The Nazis got a huge amount of weapons and military materials.

Hitler later ordered the occupation of southern France after the French colonial army at its core defected to the Allied side, against Pétain's orders.

The Resistance movement developed in France. On August 19, 1944, French patriots rebelled in Paris. When Allied troops approached Paris on August 25, most of the city had already been liberated.

Four years of occupation, aerial bombing and military action caused great damage to France. Economic situation the country was extremely difficult. The government was headed by General Charles de Gaulle, whom most French people considered a national hero. One of the most important demands of the majority of the French was to punish the traitorous collaborators. Laval was shot, but Petain's death sentence was commuted to life imprisonment, and many lower-ranking traitors escaped retribution.

In October 1945, elections were held to the Constituent Assembly, which was to develop a new constitution. They brought victory to the left forces: the PCF (French Communist Party) received the largest number of votes, and the SFIO (French Socialist Party) was slightly behind it.

The government was headed again de Gaulle, his deputy became Maurice Thorez. The communists also received portfolios as ministers of economics, industrial production, weapons and labor. On the initiative of communist ministers in 1944-1945. power plants, gas plants, coal mines, aviation and Insurance companies, the largest banks, Renault automobile factories. The owners of these factories received large financial rewards, with the exception of Louis Renault, who collaborated with the Nazis, who committed suicide. But while Paris was starving, three-quarters of the population was malnourished.

A sharp struggle unfolded in the Constituent Assembly over the nature of the future political system. De Gaulle insisted on concentrating power in the hands of the president of the republic and reducing the prerogatives of parliament; bourgeois parties advocated a simple restoration of the 1875 constitution; The communists believed that the new republic should be truly democratic, with a full-power parliament expressing the will of the people.

Convinced that with the existing composition of the Constituent Assembly the adoption of its constitutional draft was impossible, de Gaulle resigned in January 1946. A new three-party government was formed.

After a tense struggle (the first draft of the constitution was rejected in a referendum), the Constituent Assembly developed a second draft, which was approved by popular vote, and the constitution came into force at the end of 1946. France was declared a “single and indivisible secular democratic and social republic” in which sovereignty belonged to the people.

The preamble contained a number of progressive provisions on the equality of women, on the right of persons persecuted in their homeland for activities in defense of freedom to political asylum in France, on the right of all citizens to obtain work and material security in old age. The Constitution proclaimed the obligation not to wage wars of conquest and not to use force against the freedom of any people, declared the need for nationalization of key industries, economic planning, and participation of workers in the management of enterprises.

Legislative power belonged to parliament, consisting of two chambers - the National Assembly and the Council of the Republic. The right to approve the budget, declare war, make peace, express confidence or distrust in the government was granted to the National Assembly, and the Council of the Republic could only delay the entry into force of the law.

The President of the Republic was elected for 7 years by both chambers. The president appoints one of the leaders of the party with the largest number of seats in parliament as head of government. The composition and program of the government are approved by the National Assembly.

The Constitution declared the transformation of the French colonial empire into the French Union and proclaimed the equality of all its constituent territories.

The Constitution of the Fourth Republic was progressive; its adoption meant the victory of democratic forces. However, later many of the freedoms and obligations proclaimed in it turned out to be unfulfilled or were violated.

IN 1946 year began war in indochina, which lasted almost eight years. The French rightly called the Vietnam War a “dirty war.” A peace movement developed, which took on a particularly wide scale in France. Workers refused to load weapons for shipment to Vietnam, under the Stockholm Proclamation demanding a ban atomic weapons, 14 million French people signed up.

IN 1949 France entered NATO.

In May 1954 France suffered a crushing defeat in Vietnam: The French garrison, surrounded in the Dien Bien Phu area, capitulated. 6 thousand soldiers and officers surrendered. On July 20, 1954, agreements were signed to restore peace in Indochina. The “Dirty War,” on which France spent an astronomical amount of 3,000 billion francs, losing several tens of thousands of lives, has ended. France also pledged to withdraw troops from Laos and Cambodia.

On November 1, 1954, France began a new colonial war - this time against Algeria. The Algerians repeatedly appealed to the French government with a request to grant Algeria at least autonomy, but were invariably refused under the pretext that Algeria was allegedly not a colony, but an organic part of France, its “overseas departments,” and therefore could not lay claim to autonomy. Since peaceful methods did not yield results, the Algerians took up arms.

The uprising grew and soon spread throughout the country; the French government was unable to suppress it. The violent rallies and demonstrations that unfolded in Algeria spread to Corsica, and the metropolis was under the threat of civil war or a military coup. June 1, 1958 the National Assembly elected Charles de Gaulle head of government and granted him emergency powers.

De Gaulle began with what he failed to achieve in 1946 - the proclamation of a constitution that corresponded to his political views. The President of the Republic gained enormous power by reducing the prerogatives of Parliament. Thus, the president determines the main directions of the country’s domestic and foreign policy, is the commander-in-chief of the armed forces, appoints all senior positions, starting with the prime minister, can dissolve the National Assembly early and delay the entry into force of laws adopted by parliament. In emergency circumstances, the president has the right to take full power into his hands.

Parliament still consists of two chambers - the National Assembly, elected by universal suffrage, and the Senate, which replaced the Council of the Republic. The role of the National Assembly has decreased significantly: the agenda of its sessions is set by the government, their duration has been reduced, and when discussing the budget, deputies cannot make proposals that would reduce revenues or increase state expenditures.

Expressing no confidence in the government by the National Assembly is complicated by a number of restrictions. The deputy mandate is incompatible with responsible positions in the government, state apparatus, trade unions and other national organizations.

In a referendum held on September 28, 1958, this constitution was adopted. The Fourth Republic was replaced by the Fifth. The majority of referendum participants voted not for the constitution, which many did not even read, but for de Gaulle, hoping that he would be able to restore the greatness of France, put an end to the war in Algeria, government leapfrog, financial crisis, dependence on the United States and parliamentary intrigues.

After members of Parliament and a special electoral college elected President in December 1958 Fifth Republic General de Gaulle, the process of constituting the Fifth Republic was completed.

Pro-fascist elements hoped that de Gaulle would ban the Communist Party, establish a totalitarian regime and, by unleashing the military power of France on the Algerian rebels, achieve their pacification based on the slogan: “Algeria was and will always be French!”

However, possessing the qualities of a large-scale political figure and taking into account the current balance of power, the president chose a different political course and, in particular, did not ban the Communist Party. De Gaulle hoped that he would be able to win over all the French to his side.

The Algerian policy of the Fifth Republic went through several stages. At first, the new government tried to achieve a solution to the Algerian problem from a position of strength, but soon became convinced that these attempts were leading nowhere. The Algerian resistance is only intensifying, French troops are suffering defeat after defeat, the campaign for Algerian independence is expanding in the metropolis, and in the international arena, a broad movement of solidarity with the struggle of the Algerian people entails the isolation of France. Since the continuation of the war could only lead to the complete loss of Algeria, and with it the oil, the French monopolies began to advocate the search for an acceptable compromise. A reflection of this turn was de Gaulle’s recognition of Algeria’s right to self-determination, which gave rise to a number of speeches and terrorist acts by ultra-colonialists.

And yet, on March 18, 1962, an agreement was signed in the city of Evian to grant independence to Algeria. In order to avoid new wars, the French government had to grant independence to a number of states in Equatorial and West Africa.

In the fall of 1962, de Gaulle submitted to a referendum a proposal to change the procedure for electing the president of the republic. According to this bill, the president would henceforth be elected not by the electoral college, but by popular vote. The reform was aimed at further understanding the authority of the President of the Republic and eliminating the last remnants of his dependence on parliament, whose deputies had until then participated in his election.

Many parties that previously supported him spoke out against de Gaulle's proposal. The National Assembly expressed no confidence in the government, which was headed by one of the president's closest associates, Georges Pompidou. In response, de Gaulle dissolved the meeting and called new elections, threatening to resign if his project was rejected.

The referendum supported the president's proposal. After the elections, supporters of General de Gaulle retained the majority in the National Assembly. The government was again headed by Georges Pompidou.

In December 1965, elections were held for the President of the Republic, who was elected by universal suffrage for the first time. The left forces managed to agree on the nomination of a common candidate. He became the leader of a small left-bourgeois party, Francois Mitterrand, a participant in the Resistance movement, one of the few non-communists who opposed the regime of personal power. In the second round of voting, 75-year-old General de Gaulle was re-elected president of the republic for the next seven years with a majority of 55% of the votes; 45% of voters voted for Mitterrand.

In the field of foreign policy, General de Gaulle sought to ensure the increasing role of France in the modern world, its transformation into an independent great power capable of withstanding the competition of other powers in world markets. To do this, de Gaulle considered it necessary, first of all, to free himself from American tutelage and unite continental Western Europe under French hegemony, opposing it to the United States.

At first, he relied on cooperation between France and Germany within the European Economic Community (EEC, “Common Market”), hoping that in exchange for political support from France, West Germany would agree to give her a leading role in this organization. This perspective was the basis for the rapprochement between France and Germany, which began in 1958 and became known as the Bonn-Paris “axis.”

Soon, however, it became obvious that Germany was not going to cede first place to France in the EEC and preferred not to spoil relations with the United States, considering their support more significant than that of France. The contradictions between the countries intensified. Thus, Germany advocated the admission of England to the EEC, and de Gaulle vetoed this decision, calling England “the Trojan horse of the United States” (January 1963). There were other contradictions that led to the gradual weakening of the Bonn-Paris axis. The Franco-German “friendship,” as de Gaulle put it, “withered like a rose,” and he began to look for other ways to strengthen France’s foreign policy positions. These new paths were expressed in rapprochement with the countries of Eastern Europe, primarily with the Soviet Union, and in support of the course towards détente, which de Gaulle had previously disapproved of.

In February 1966, de Gaulle decided to withdraw France from the military organization of the North Atlantic bloc. This meant the withdrawal of French troops from NATO command, the evacuation from French territory of all foreign troops, NATO headquarters, warehouses, air bases, etc., and the refusal to finance NATO military activities. By April 1, 1967, all these measures had been implemented, despite protests and pressure from the United States, France remained only a member of the political union.

In the internal life of the country, contradictions had been brewing for many years, which resulted in May-June 1968 in one of the most massive popular movements in the entire history of the country.

The first to speak were students who demanded a radical restructuring of the higher education system. The fact is that during the 50-60s there was a rapid growth in the number of students, but higher education was unprepared for such growth. There were not enough teachers, classrooms, dormitories, libraries, funds for higher education were scanty, only a fifth of students received scholarships, so about half of university students were forced to work.

The teaching system has hardly changed since the 19th century - often professors read not what life and the level of science required, but what they knew.

On May 3, 1968, the police, called by the rector of the Sorbonne, dispersed the student meeting and arrested a large group of its participants. In response, the students went on strike. On May 7, a mass demonstration demanding the immediate release of those arrested, the removal of police from the university and the resumption of classes was attacked by large police forces - on that day, more than 800 people were injured and about 500 were arrested. The Sorbonne was closed, and in protest, students began to build barricades in the Latin Quarter. On May 11, there was a new clash with the police. Students barricaded themselves in the university building.

The massacre of students caused outrage throughout the country. On May 13, a general strike began in solidarity with the student movement. From that day on, although student unrest continued for a long time, the initiative of the movement passed into the hands of the workers. The one-day strike grew into a long strike that lasted almost four weeks and spread throughout the country. Solidarity with the students was only a pretext for action by workers who had long-standing and much more serious claims against the regime. Engineers, technicians, and office workers joined the strike movement; Radio and television workers, employees of some ministries, department store clerks, communications workers, and bank officials went on strike. The total number of strikers reached 10 million.

As a result, by mid-June, the strikers achieved satisfaction of almost all their demands: the minimum wage was doubled, the working week was shortened, benefits and pensions were increased, collective agreements with entrepreneurs were revised in the interests of workers, the rights of trade unions in enterprises were recognized, student self-government was introduced in higher educational institutions, etc.

Contrary to the hopes of the government and businessmen, the concessions of 1968 did not lead to the fading of the class struggle. From May 1968 to March 1969, the cost of living increased by 6%, which significantly devalued the gains of working people. In this regard, workers continued to fight for lower taxes, higher wages, and the introduction of a sliding wage scale, providing for its automatic increase as prices rise. On March 11, 1969, a massive general strike took place, and anti-government demonstrations took place in Paris and other cities.

In this situation, Chal de Gaulle scheduled a referendum on April 27 on two bills - on the reform of the administrative structure of France and the reorganization of the Senate. The government had the opportunity to put them into effect without a referendum, through a parliamentary majority obedient to its will, but de Gaulle decided to test the strength of his power, threatening that in the event of a negative outcome of the referendum he would resign.

As a result, 52.4% of referendum participants spoke out against the bills. On the same day, General Charles de Gaulle resigned, no longer took any part in political life, and died on November 9, 1970 at the age of 80.

General de Gaulle was undoubtedly an outstanding political figure and had many services to France. He played a major role in the fight against fascism during the Second World War, contributed to the revival of France in the early post-war years, and after his second rise to power in 1958, he achieved strengthening of the country's independence and increasing its international prestige.

But over the years, the number of French people supporting him steadily fell, and de Gaulle could not come to terms with this. He understood that the results of the April 1969 referendum were a direct consequence of the May-June events of 1968, and he had the courage to resign from the post of President of the French Republic, which he had the right to remain until December 1972.

Elections for a new president were scheduled for July 1. During the second round he won Georges Pompidou, candidate from the government coalition parties.

The new president of the republic basically maintained de Gaulle's course. Foreign policy has hardly changed. Pompidou rejected US attempts to return France to NATO and actively opposed many aspects of American policy. However, Pompidou withdrew his objections to England's admission to the Common Market.

In April 1974, the President of the Republic, Georges Pompidou, suddenly died, and early presidential elections were held in May. The leader of the government party Federation of Independent Republicans won the second round. Valéry Giscard d'Estaing. This was the first president of the Fifth Republic who was not a Gaullist, but since the majority in the National Assembly belonged to the Gaullists, he had to appoint a representative of this party as Prime Minister Jacques Chirac.

Among the reforms of Valéry Giscard d'Estaing are: lowering the voting age to 18 years, decentralizing the management of radio and television, increasing pensions for the elderly, and facilitating divorce procedures.

In relation to the United States, the president persistently emphasized that France is a reliable ally of the United States. France stopped opposing the prospect of political unification of Western Europe and agreed to participate in the 1978 European Parliament elections, giving it supranational prerogatives. For the sake of rapprochement with Germany, it was decided to abandon the celebration of Victory Day over Nazi Germany, which caused violent public protests. However, this decision did not ease the Franco-German contradictions.

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History of ancient France

Celts.

In the second millennium BC. the territory of modern Czechoslovakia, Austria, Hungary and Southern Germany was inhabited by tribes Celts. They settled in different directions and reached the territory of present-day France. Has begun Celtic period in French history. Celtic invasions, which lasted for centuries, intensified with the beginning of the Iron Age (in the 10th-9th centuries BC) and reached their greatest intensity in the 6th-5th centuries. BC. The Celtic tribes were called by different names. They never created a single strong state. One of the Celtic tribes - parisia- settled on the banks of the Seine. They hid from their enemies on the island, which is now called Ile de la Cité. It was the Celtic Parisians who were the first inhabitants of the future Paris; the name of the city came from the name of this tribe. A tour to Paris will allow you to see this island and its attractions. Read more about the Celts...

Gaul.

Around the middle of the 2nd century. BC. Roman conquests began in the extreme southeast. In seven years (125-118 BC), the Romans conquered the entire Mediterranean coast of France and formed one of their many provinces here. The period of Roman rule in the history of France began. The Romans called the Celts Gauls, and the conquered province - the Narbonne province. The Gauls simply called this territory the Province, which is where the designation of southeastern France that has survived to this day came from - Provence. The remaining territory of what is now France, free from the Romans, was then called Gaul. The proconsul of the conquered part was then Julius Caesar. He launched a vigorous campaign to conquer all of Gaul, and not only military. Caesar took advantage of differences in various Celtic tribes, managed to win over part of the population to his side, and in the end all of Gaul - up to the shores of the ocean and the Pyrenees - came under the rule of Rome. This is the second Roman conquest (58-51 BC) marked the beginning of the five hundred year reign of Rome in Gaul, and all these five centuries were filled with the intense struggle of the Gauls against Rome. The Romans chose the settlement of the Celtic tribe of Parisians on the Isle of Cité as the capital of the conquered territory. A palace was built on the island for the Roman governor. The Romans called their capital Lutetia parisii. Several centuries passed, and the name Paris was firmly attached to the settlement. Almost nothing has survived in Paris from the times of Roman rule. Fragments of buildings erected by the Romans were included in subsequent developments. You can visit the Ile de la Cité during your holiday in Paris.

The Romans built several important roads in Gaul, cutting through the entire country right up to the shores of the English Channel. Paved with stone and sometimes reaching a width of 13 meters, they allowed Roman legionaries to travel 30-40 km. per day, and couriers have to travel 75 km per day. These roads formed the backbone of the French road network for almost a thousand years.

As a result of the Roman conquest in Gaul, the Celtic languages ​​were replaced by Latin. This was also facilitated by the fact that Latin, unlike Celtic, had its own written language.

Historians have different assessments of the role of the Roman conquest in the history of France. Some consider it completely harmful. Others believe that the Roman conquest was the only way to overcome the impasse in which Celtic society had reached.

The power of the Roman governors in Gaul formally remained until the last quarter of the 5th century, however, the Roman Empire, weakened from within, was unable to withstand the onslaught of barbarians advancing on its borders from all sides. Gaul found itself at the mercy of Germanic tribes that poured in from Central and Eastern Europe.

Franks

Already in the middle of the 3rd century. A Frankish tribal union is formed on the northeastern borders of Gaul. Word " franc" means brave, courageous. At the end of the 3rd - beginning of the 4th century, the Franks raided northeastern Gaul, and settled there as allies of Rome.

Beginning in 407, the Franks, taking advantage of the weakening of the Empire, moved westward, settling on free lands, without conflicting with the local Gallo-Roman population.

By 450, the Franks split into two large groups: the Ripuarian Franks and the Salic (maritime) Franks. They create numerous kingdoms, rarely united in alliances. In 457, the kingdom of Tournai appeared, whose king, after the death of his father, was Clovis from the dynasty Merovingian.

Merovingian Dynasty (481-751)

Clovis (481-511)

At his accession to the throne in 482, the Western Roman Empire had already ceased to exist. The last Roman possession in Gaul was Soissons. In 486 Clovis is taking over this region. He was then a pagan, but Saint Remy, Archbishop of Reims, sends him a message of congratulations. Clovis also tries not to quarrel with the Christian Church; he even wanted to return to the church a beautiful cup, which was among the spoils during the conquest of Soissons. The other warriors did not like this, since it violated the usual order of dividing the spoils. One of these warriors cut the bowl with a sword. In subsequent years, Clovis actively conquered more and more lands; Understanding the effectiveness of the union with the church, he accepts Christianity. His baptism was solemnly celebrated in Reims on Christmas Eve 498.

By 511, Hdovig is already the head of a kingdom stretching from the Rhine Valley to the Pyrenees. He settles in Paris, which he makes "the residence of the king." In Paris, Clovis lives in a palace built for the Roman governor. So it’s not for nothing that the Ile de la Cité, a visit to which includes any tour to Paris, is called the cradle of Paris.

Clovis dies in the same year 511 in the Church of the Holy Apostles, which he built on the burial site of St. Genevieve, leaving the kingdom to her four sons.

Merovingian kings - successors of Clovis

Throughout the 6th century, the Franks, led by the Merovingians, continued their conquests, and the kingdom grew significantly stronger. It becomes the main power of Western and Central Europe, but after the death of Clovis, long-term civil strife began.

The last Merovingian kings received the nickname "lazy". Biologically degenerate child kings, without power and without wealth, are forced to vegetate in their miserable domains, looking for a means of subsistence.

The last ruler of the Merovingian dynasty was King Childeric III. He was replaced on the throne by the first monarch from another dynasty - the Carolingian dynasty, Pepin by nickname Short.

Carolingian Dynasty (751-987)

Carolingians became the second dynasty in French history.

Pepin the Short ruled France between 751-768. The name of the dynasty itself came from Pepin's son, Charles, known by the nickname "The Great".

Charlemagne (768-814)

Thanks to numerous campaigns of conquest, he expanded the borders of his kingdom so much that almost the entire territory of modern Western Europe came under his rule.

Charlemagne subjugated the Lombards, Saxons and Bavarians and advanced the eastern border deep into German lands. There he created a line of border districts to protect against Avars and Slavs. Along the Pyrenees, he organized the so-called Spanish March - a border strip that held back the onslaught of Muslims.

Charlemagne managed to establish effective government by appointing officials in each duchy or county

Numerous decrees (capitularies) of Charlemagne have been preserved, affecting every aspect of government - from church organization to the structure of royal estates. Continuously traveling around the country, he established direct control even over remote provinces.

IN 800 Charlemagne was crowned in Rome by Pope Leo III with the imperial crown.

In Paris, on the Ile de la Cité, there is a monument to Charlemagne. While on vacation in Paris, you can go up to this monument, located next to Notre Dame Cathedral, and remember the deeds of this great man.

Under other Carolingian kings

His eldest son became his heir, Louis I "The Pious".

From that time on, the tradition according to which the kingdom was divided equally among all heirs was abolished, and only the eldest son succeeded the father.

Charlemagne's grandchildren began a war of succession that greatly weakened the empire and ultimately led to its collapse.

The last king of this dynasty was Louis V. After his death in 987 year, the nobility elects a new king - Hugo nicknamed " Capet".

Capetian Dynasty (987-1328)

This nickname gave the name to the new dynasty Capetian- the third dynasty in the history of France.

By this time, France was already severely fragmented. The first kings of the Capetian dynasty inherited a narrow territory stretching north and south of Paris. The king was not the master even of his own domains. The castles of rebellious feudal lords rose on its lands.

In 1066, Duke William of Normandy conquered England, as a result of which Normandy and England united with each other. Most of what was then France was under the rule of the English kings.

Under the Capetians, religious wars acquired an unprecedented scale. It was the time of the Crusades. The First Crusade began in 1095.

The “gathering” of France began Philip II Augustus (1180-1223), which acquired Vermandois, part of Artois, Normandy, Brittany, Anjou, Maine, Touraine, Auvergne. He was the last king of France to be crowned during the lifetime of the current king, his father. In an effort to avoid difficulties in the transfer of power and opposition from the all-powerful barons, the aging King Louis VII the Young decided to crown his son in Reims, which happened on November 1, 1179. Philip Augustus ascended the throne at the age of 15; it was then that he declared that he wished that by the end of his reign the kingdom would be as powerful as it had been during the time of Charlemagne. The energetic and gifted ruler largely achieved this goal.

He did a lot to strengthen and improve the cities of France, often investing his own money in this. He built defensive towers and paved the streets with cobblestones. Under this king, construction of Notre Dame Cathedral continued, a visit to which often involves a vacation in Paris. Philip II Augustus contributed to the founding and development of the University of Paris, attracting famous professors with awards and benefits. Under him, the construction of the Louvre began, which everyone who buys a tour to Paris now tries to get to. The population of Paris during his reign increased from 25,000 to 50,000 people, turning the French capital into one of the most populous cities in Europe.

The policy of annexing more and more new territories was continued by the grandson of Philip II, Louis IX Saint (1226-1270). He forced the counts of Toulouse to recognize the authority of the king of France over themselves and cede to him a significant part of their possessions. Under Philip III, the rest of these territories were annexed to the royal lands. About Saint Louis...

About the appearance of this amazing king and man...

After the death of Philip IV the Fair, France was ruled by his sons. In 1328, his last son, Charles IV, died. There are no more direct heirs, except for the grandson of Philip IV the Fair - King of England Edward III. But who would want to see an Englishman as their ruler? Therefore, they chose one of the relatives of the Capetian dynasty, Philip of Valois, to the French throne. This king marked the beginning of the reign of the fourth dynasty in the history of France - the Valois dynasty.

Valois Dynasty (1328-1589)

Hundred Years' War (1337-1453)

Edward III decided to take the French crown by force. Thus began the Hundred Years' War. During this war, France suffered defeat after defeat. In the Battle of Poitiers, the entire flower of French chivalry was killed, and King John the Good was captured. It was a real tragedy for France. The army is defeated, the king is captured. There were no funds to create a new army, and the king still needed to be ransomed from captivity. The entire burden of the situation was shifted onto the shoulders of the people, who responded with uprisings. Uprising in Paris, followed by Jacquerie, an uprising of peasants whom the knights contemptuously called " Jacques the simpletons", were depressed. The situation was getting worse and there was a threat of losing the independence of France. The entire people of France rose to defend the independence of their country. A guerrilla war began, the British became very uncomfortable in the occupied territories. The British decided to improve matters by seizing new territories of France. So, it was planned to take Orleans, which was a first-class fortress. With the capture of Orleans, the road to the south of France opened. In 1428 the city was besieged by English troops. At this time, a young peasant woman appeared to Charles VII, whom the people already called the Virgin, sent by God to save unfortunate France. It was Joan of Arc, and she managed to convince the king to give her an army. The army, led by Joan of Arc, liberated Orleans and the fortresses on the Loire and Champagne. In 1430, Joan of Arc was captured and died at the stake a year later. But the French army continued to win. Under pressure from the French, the British were forced to leave Normandy, Bordeaux, and Paris. Only Calais remained in their hands, which France returned in 1558. In 1453 the war ended. It took 116 years to end England's claims to the French throne and lands.

Louis XI (1461-1483)

In 1461 after death Charles VII, his son became king of France Louis XI. This king despised knightly ideals. A cautious and cunning diplomat, he began the fight against the feudal lords. The feudal opposition was led by the brother of Louis XI, Charles the Bold. The war has begun. Through cunning and violence, Louis XI strengthened himself in the south of France. In 1477, the corpse of Charles the Bold, naked and eaten by wolves, was found in the icy mud of a pond.

Louis XI rejoiced. The widow of Charles the Bold asked for patronage. Taking advantage of this, Louis occupied Burgundy, Artois, and Franche-Comté. A few years later, Provence and Maine were annexed. Of the large lands, only Brittany remained unconquered. The king patronized cities, opened markets, and built roads. He encouraged trade and industry, under him science and art flourished, medicine developed, and postal service was revived.

Charles VIII (1483-1498)

Under Charles VIII, the male line of the ruling house of Brittany ceased; the heir to his rights was the wife of Charles VIII, who after his death married Louis XII (1498-1515), which prepared the annexation of Brittany.

Huguenot Wars

Under the last representatives of the Valois dynasty, religious wars began again in the history of France. The North and South of the country fought for about thirty years. The French South, which remembered the Albigensian heresy and developed independently for a long time, was the center of opposition to royal power. Many Southerners became Calvinists. In France, Calvinists were called Huguenots. The North and the royal house remained Catholic.

In the last years of his reign Henry II of Valois (1547-1559) Royal taxes increased sharply. Under Henry's son Francis II, protests began for a reduction in taxes, led by the Huguenots. At the same time, the struggle for power between two side branches of the Capetian dynasty intensified - Gizami(Catholics) and Bourbons(Huguenots). After the unexpected death of Francis under the king's young brother Charles IX, actual power was in the hands of their mother - Catherine de' Medici. Under her, open clashes began between Catholics and Protestants. Over a thirty-year period, ten wars occurred.

The most terrible episode of the Huguenot wars was St. Bartholomew's Night. On the night of the feast of St. Bartholomew (August 24), the massacre of unsuspecting Huguenots who came to the wedding of Henry of Bourbon with the king's sister Margaret began. The massacre continued for three days. It is believed that at least 30 thousand people died.

Bourbon Dynasty (1589-1792, 1814-1848)

Both the last king of the Valois dynasty, Henry III, and Henry of Guise fell victims of the Huguenot wars. Henry of Bourbon remained, who also laid claim to the throne. To become king, he had to convert to Catholicism. Only after this, in 1589, the gates of Paris opened before him. France was now ruled by kings from the Bourbon dynasty. According to legend, Henry IV said, entering the gates of the capital: “ Paris is worth a mass" The Bourbons became the fifth dynasty in French history. In 1598, under Henry IV, it was adopted Edict of Nantes- law on religious tolerance.

This king realized that it was impossible to build a strong French state relying only on the nobility. He supports major officials and merchants, encourages in every possible way the development of large-scale production and trade, and establishes French colonies in overseas lands. The first of the Bourbons found a new, solid basis for royal power - the interests of the nation.

On May 14, 1610, Henry IV was assassinated by a religious fanatic, the Jesuit monk François Ravaillac.

History of France XVII century.

To the new king Louis XIII was only nine years old, power was in the hands of his mother Marie de Medici and her favorite Concino Concini. During the seven years of their reign, this couple managed to destroy everything that Henry IV had created with such difficulty.

Louis XIII, Cardinal Richelieu

But the young monarch Louis XIII was burdened by Concini’s impudence and his mother’s lust for power. On his orders, Concini was killed. At the same time, the reign of Marie de Medici ended. She was expelled from Paris and joined the king's opponents who raised uprisings in the provinces. In the end, Marie de' Medici seeks the right to return to Paris. The Bishop of Luzon, who has done so much for her, comes with her - yes, that same famous Cardinal Richelieu. In Paris, Cardinal Richelieu managed to prove to Louis XIII his indispensability and in 1624 he headed the new government. For 18 years, Cardinal Richelieu held power at court. Being extremely unpopular among almost all classes of France, he did a lot for the good of the country. The cardinal carried out a number of reforms designed to strengthen royal power. First it was necessary to establish peace in the long-suffering country. A strict course was taken to curb the rebellious aristocrats. The cardinal was not afraid to shed the blood of the rebels, regardless of their high position. The execution of the Duke of Montmorency, one of the country's leading figures, caused the aristocracy to shudder in horror.

Richelieu then pacified the resistance of the Huguenots, capturing their main fortress La Rochelle. Freedom of religion was preserved in the country, but the Huguenots lost their privileges. No religious persecution followed. For Richelieu, the interests of the state were above all. He said: “Both Huguenots and Catholics were equally French in my eyes.” The religious wars that tore the country apart for more than 70 years ended.

Richelieu did a lot to raise the prestige of France in Europe. He managed to prevent Spain's intention to crush all of Europe.

Cardinal Richelieu can rightfully be called one of the founding fathers of the French nation and the creators of modern Europe.

Louis XIV (1643-1715)

Louis XIII died, leaving the French crown to his son Louis XIV, who was then less than 5 years old. The country was ruled by his mother, Anne of Austria, and Cardinal Mazarin. Until the death of the cardinal, Louis XIV showed no interest in governing the state. But then he seemed to be reborn, plunging headlong into state affairs. Under him, veneration of royal power took on a semi-religious character: (“The State is me”). Under Louis XIV, absolutism in France reached its apogee. Any reference to the law or right was considered criminal. Wars and the maintenance of a large army, retinue, and palaces brought most of the country's population to extreme poverty.

Being an ardent Catholic, Louis XIV revoked the famous Edict of Nat, as a result of which tens of thousands of Huguenots left their homeland.

The residence of the French kings was now in Versailles. A grandiose palace and park ensemble was created here. The Grand Trianon, the main palace, was decorated with unbridled luxury. Louis sought to ensure that the entire flower of the French nation revolved in Versailles. The entertainment in Versailles did not stop. Many European monarchs envied the life of the Versailles court and imitated Louis even in his weaknesses.

History of France 18th century

Louis XV (1715-1774)

In 1715-1774. occupied the French throne Louis XV. He was little concerned about the situation in the country. Fed up with amusements, the king devoted his time to hunting and favorites who interfered in politics. The famous Madame de Pompadour was especially active. Huge expenses on the sophisticated luxury of the courtyard intensified the financial crisis of the state. And yet, the reign of Louis XV was in many respects a pathetic parody of the reign of his predecessor.

Louis XV paid great attention to the army. French troops first fought in Spain and then participated in two major campaigns against Prussia: the War of the Austrian Succession (1740–1748) and the Seven Years' War (1756–1763).

The events of the Seven Years' War led to the loss of almost all colonies, loss of international prestige and an acute social crisis.

Louis XVI (1774-1792)

In 1774, the twenty-year-old grandson of Louis XV ascended the throne. Louis XVI. The new king was not distinguished by his grandfather’s vices, but had neither strength of character nor political talents. He preferred hunting and his hobby of plumbing to government affairs.

Life in the kingdom seemed peaceful and calm. But virtually all segments of the population were dissatisfied with the existing order of things. The reason for the revolution was the state budget deficit. The royal treasury has not made ends meet for a long time.

Great French Revolution (1789-1799)

To improve the situation, Louis XVI had to convene the Estates General, which had not been convened since 1614. On May 5, 1789 they opened. The first conflict arose over the procedural issue of how to vote.

The first stage of the revolution: June 17, 1789 - October 5-6, 1789.

On July 9, the National Assembly, consisting of all three classes, proclaimed itself Constituent. The drafting of a constitution began. Louis XVI considered this as an attempt on power and began to gather troops.

A striking episode of this stage in French history was the storming of the Bastille. Bastille Day July 14, 1789 Since then it has been a national holiday in France.

Absolutism was overthrown, and the emigration of the nobility began. Real political power was in the hands of the Constituent Assembly, which consisted mainly of representatives of the third estate.

The Constituent Assembly adopts 2 important bills:

• personal dependence of peasants and, accordingly, conscription was abolished.
• "Declaration of the Rights of Man and the Citizen." The people became the source of power, the supremacy of law, the rights to freedom of conscience, press, speech, life, etc. were proclaimed.

Second stage of the revolution: October 5-6, 1789 - August 10, 1792 (before the fall of the monarchy).

This was the peaceful constitutional stage of the revolution. A law on the procedure for the redemption of feudal dues was adopted, tax reform was carried out, titles of nobility and privileges of the clergy were abolished. Civil marriage was introduced, and Catholics and Protestants had equal rights.

In September 1791 it was adopted first Constitution. France was proclaimed a constitutional monarchy. The executive branch is the king, who retains many rights, and the legislative branch is the unicameral Legislative Assembly. 60% of the male population over 25 had the right to vote. A new administrative division into 83 departments was introduced.

On April 20, 1792, the king and the Legislative Assembly declared war on Austria. This war was destined to drag on (with the involvement of most European powers) and claim millions of lives. In the spring of 1792, a few days after the start of the war, a young sapper captain Claude Joseph Rouget de Lisle, in a fit of inspiration, wrote the text of the famous “La Marseillaise” overnight, which later became the French national anthem.

The reason for a new political crisis was the unsuccessful escape attempt of Louis XVI in July 1792. After this, the influence of Republicans in the country increased. The king nevertheless approved the Constitution and announced elections to the Legislative Assembly.

Despite the elections, the political situation in the country has not improved. On August 10, 1792, the uprising began. The Insurrectionary Commune of Paris arose and took power into its own hands. The rebels took possession of the royal palace. On August 11, the monarchy was virtually abolished in France.

The third stage of the revolution: August 11, 1792 - May 1793.

The Commune replaces the word "lord" with "citizen". All men over 21 years of age who are not in service and have lived in one place for at least a year have the right to vote. The Commune of Paris is a body of the Parisian city government.

French troops won their first victory at the Battle of Valmy. On the same day, a new revolutionary meeting, the Convention, met in Paris. On September 21, a Republic was proclaimed in France.

First Republic (1792-1804)

In the spring, France's military fortunes changed again, as England, the Netherlands and Spain joined her opponents. In this new crisis, the Jacobins, led by Robespierre and Danton, seized power. They established the Committee of Public Safety and the Committee of Public Safety and with their help proclaimed the beginning of the revolutionary terror, the first act of which was the conviction and execution of 31 Girondins.

Period 1793-1794 called the era of terror. In October 1793, Queen Marie Antoinette was executed. The guillotine was used more and more frequently in France. This is an execution weapon invented by the revolution. The doctor suggested the guillotine Guillotin, who believed that a heavy knife, falling from a height, decapitates completely painlessly.

Military failures during this period were supplemented by the threat of inflation.

Most French people greeted the Jacobin dictatorship with hostility. In a number of large cities in the country, uprisings against the government broke out already in the early autumn of 1793.

In the midst of the crisis, a new faith emerged - the religion of Reason, the cult of the Supreme Being, complemented by ceremonies of public works, a new calendar and Puritan morality. The prophet of the “new faith” was Robespierre. As a result of the conspiracy, he was removed from power on July 27, 1794 and executed the next day. On this day, an entire era ended.

The fourth stage of the revolution: July 28, 1794 - November 9, 1799.

Free trade was restored.

They adopted the Constitution of the third year of the republic in 1795, which almost repeated the constitution of 1791. Legislative power was given Council 500 And Council of Elders, and the executive - Directories of 5 people.

Although the Directory itself became a byword for inefficiency and corruption, it ruled France for four years and fought two great wars. These are Bonaparte's campaign in Italy, which ended with the conclusion of the Treaty of Campoformia in 1797, and the campaign directed against the Second Coalition (Russia, Great Britain, Austria, the Ottoman Empire, Portugal and Naples).

Constant political crises ended with a coup on November 9, 1799. The directory ceased to exist. 3 consuls received executive power, and this was the beginning dictatorship of Napoleon Bonaparte.

History of France XIX century.

Consulate (1799-1804)

Consuls- or, more precisely, Consul Bonaparte, since the other two were nothing more than his tools - acted decisively. All power was in the hands of Bonaparte. He formed a ministry that included Talleyrand as Minister of Foreign Affairs, Lucien Bonaparte as Minister of the Interior, and Fouché as Minister of Police.

Later, Napoleon passed a decree through the Senate on the lifetime of his powers (1802), and then proclaimed himself Emperor of the French (1804).

First Empire (1804-1814)

The period of Napoleon's reign was a period of wars, at first extremely happy for France, although with some unfavorable episodes (the Battle of Trafalgar); France extended its power and influence to almost all of Europe. Beginning with failures in Spain and continuing with the war with Russia in 1812, fortune changed the empire.

After the entry of the allied armies into Paris on March 31, 1814, the Senate appointed by Napoleon on April 3, 1814 proclaimed his dethronement.

Napoleon remained the national hero of France. In 1840 his ashes were buried in Les Invalides in Paris.

Restoration (1814-1830)

On April 6, 1814, the Senate proclaimed the restoration of the monarchy Bourbons. Was returned to the throne Louis XVIII. Thousands of emigrant nobles who returned with the Bourbons demanded reprisals against political figures from the times of the revolution and the Napoleonic regime, and the restoration of their feudal rights and privileges. But it was no longer possible to completely return to the old way. Louis XVIII tried in his domestic policy to reach a compromise between the interests of the big bourgeoisie and the landowning nobles.

In 1824, after the death of Louis XVIII, he assumed the throne under the name Charles X his brother, Count d'Artois. He was called the king of emigrants. Charles X began to pursue an openly pro-noble policy and thereby completely upset the balance that had developed in the first years of the Restoration. In 1830, Charles X decided on a coup d'etat. He signed ordinances (decrees) that practically canceled all the achievements of the revolution and led to the restoration of the absolutist system in the country. Under these conditions, the big bourgeoisie had to decide to fight.

July bourgeois revolution of 1830

On July 25, the ordinances were published in newspapers. Paris responded to them with an uprising. On July 29, the royal Tuileries Palace was taken in battle. The only way for Charles X to retain power was to recognize the constitution and swear allegiance to it; but he chose to abdicate and demanded the abdication of his eldest son, the Duke of Angoulême, who for 20 minutes was technically king Louis XIX. Charles X fled to England. The big bourgeoisie, which formed the Provisional Government, did not want and feared a republic. A representative of the Orleans dynasty, traditionally close to bourgeois circles, was invited to the throne. August 7, 1830 Louis Philippe of Olean was declared king of France.

The long-standing struggle for political dominance between the nobility and the big bourgeoisie was decided in favor of the latter. It was no coincidence that the new king Louis Philippe, the largest forest owner and financier, was called the “bourgeois king.”

July Monarchy (1830-1848)

The adopted new constitution " Charter 1830“proclaimed that the king rules the country not by divine right, but at the invitation of the French people; henceforth he could not repeal or suspend laws. He lost the right of legislative initiative, being the head of the executive branch.

The July Monarchy in France was also called " kingdom of bankers" This period in the history of France was marked by the heyday of the stock exchange and stock speculation, the growth of banking capital, which did not seek to finance national production. The dominance of the financial aristocracy hampered the industrial-capitalist development of the country.

This led to the creation of a revolutionary situation, which was resolved by the revolution of 1848.

Revolution of 1848, Second Republic (1848-1852)

In February 1848 year, all of Paris was covered with barricades.

On February 24, Louis Philippe abdicated the throne and fled to England. The Tuileries Palace was captured by the rebel people, the royal throne was dragged to the Place de la Bastille and burned. A Provisional Government was formed, which proclaimed France a republic. On April 23, elections were held for the Constituent Assembly, which opened on May 4. And on November 4, 1848, the constitution of the Second Republic was adopted. Legislative power is in the hands of a unicameral Legislative Assembly, elected for 3 years. Executive power is in the hands of the president, who is elected by popular vote for a 4-year term. On December 10, presidential elections were held. The nephew of Napoleon I will win - Louis Napoleon Bonaparte.

Second Empire (1852-1870)

On December 2, 1851, Louis Napoleon carried out a coup d'etat. A Bonapartist dictatorship was established in France. A year after the usurpation of power, on December 2, 1852, Louis Napoleon was proclaimed emperor under the name Napoleon III. All democratic institutions were destroyed, freedom of speech, press, and assembly were eliminated.

The problems raised by the development of the country at the time of the revolution of 1848 were not resolved. But the policy of the new government was different. It was a policy of maneuvering between different social groups and classes. The policies of Napoleon III contributed to the enrichment of the entire bourgeoisie as a whole.

The ruling court circles of Napoleon III decided to raise the prestige of the dynasty through a victorious war with Prussia. Under the auspices of Prussia, the unification of the German states successfully took place. A powerful state grew up on the eastern borders of France - the North German Union, which openly sought to capture the rich and strategically important regions of France - Alsace and Lorraine.

On July 19, 1870, France declared war on Prussia. From the very first days of the war, Prussia's overwhelming superiority was revealed. The Prussians had an almost double numerical superiority. The Prussians immediately managed to cut the French army into two parts: one part, under the command of Marshal Bazaine, was thrown back to the fortress of Metz and besieged there, the other, under the command of Marshal MacMahon and the emperor himself, under the pressure of a large Prussian army, retreated to Sedan, not far from the Belgian border, where the battle that decided the outcome of the war took place on September 2, 1870. The Prussian army defeated the French. Three thousand French fell in the battle of Sedan. McMahon's 80,000-strong army and Napoleon III himself were captured. Prussia celebrated victory.

The Sedan disaster was the final blow to the empire of Nepoleon III, which was already on the brink of destruction. The second empire collapsed like a house of cards.

Revolution of September 4, 1870

The news of the defeat at Sedan and the capture of the emperor sparked an uprising in Paris. Thousands of people gathered in the square near the Paris City Hall. France was proclaimed a republic. The Prussians moved to Paris, which was hastily preparing for a siege. Leon Gambetta flew out of the besieged city in a hot air balloon and within a month organized a new army, which was called the Loire. The Loire army began to operate successfully. A patriotic upsurge gripped the entire French people. A powerful partisan movement developed. Under these conditions, on January 28, 1871, the government of General Trochu signed an armistice with the Prussians on the terms of the surrender of Paris, although the military material resources France was still allowed to continue the fight. Elections were held to the National Assembly, which at the first meeting refused to recognize France as a republic. Thiers was elected head of the new government. On February 28, a preliminary peace was signed, according to which Alsace and Lorraine were torn away from France; in a short time, the country must pay an indemnity of 5 billion francs. German troops were given the right to occupy Paris.

Paris Commune

The government's actions provoked an armed uprising on March 18, 1874 in Paris, which no one thought about and which no one prepared. The government left the capitals. Elections took place in Paris Paris Commune- this is traditionally the name of the city government body of the French capital. The Commune declared its intention to carry out profound reforms for which more than one generation of French democrats had fought. The scale of the Commune's plans, sometimes utopian, far exceeded the modest capabilities of the Parisian reformers. In their implementation they have not advanced beyond the first modest steps. The main concern of the Commune was war. At the beginning of April, clashes began between the federates, as the fighters of the armed groups of the Commune were called, and the troops of the former government, which settled in Versailles. The opponents seemed to be trying to outdo each other in cruelty and outrages. The streets of Paris were filled with blood. The unprecedented vandalism shown by the Communards during street battles is also unjustifiable. They deliberately set fire to a number of buildings in the center of Paris, including the city hall, the Palace of Justice, the Tuileries Palace, the Ministry of Finance, and the Thiers house. Countless cultural and artistic treasures were destroyed in the fire. The Versailles people did not lag behind the Communards in cruelty.

The “Bloody Week” of May 21-28, 1871 not only ended the short history of the Paris Commune, but also summed it up. The stubbornness of politicians who did not want to compromise, and the conceit of the people's leaders who believed in their historical mission cost France too dearly.

After the defeat of the Paris Commune, the question of defining the political system of France was not resolved for a long time. It was only in 1875 that the National Assembly, by a majority of one vote, adopted an addition to the basic law recognizing France as a republic.

Third Republic (1870-1940)

From 1873 to 1879 The President of France was a monarchist McMahon. In 1875, the constitution of the Third Republic was adopted. The first parliamentary elections held on the basis of the new constitution brought victory to the Republicans. In 1879, McMahon was forced to resign. The new president was elected Jules Grevy.

In the 1870s, life in France was determined by the consequences of its recent defeat in the war, including the payment of huge indemnities.

The corruption reigning in France increasingly undermined the authority of the government. Outrage reached its peak when it became known that the son-in-law of President Jules Grévy was trading in the highest state award - the Order of the Legion of Honor. In 1887, Grevy was forced to resign. Became president Sadi Carnot. His grandfather was one of the major figures in the 18th century revolution, and therefore many believed that Carnot could strengthen the republic. He remained as president until 1894.

General Boulanger. Boulangism

In the turbulent situation of the 80s of the 19th century, he launched his activities General Boulanger, who served as Minister of War. He managed to secure his popularity among both republicans and monarchists. Boulanger became the idol of many French people. Many hoped that Boulanger would raise France's prestige on the world stage and bring economic prosperity within the country. Boulanger began to call for a revision of the constitution and a coup d'etat. At the same time, he became increasingly closer to the monarchists. Having launched an attack on the parliamentary republic, Boulanger stood as a candidate in several electoral districts and won everywhere. In January 1887, he won a victory in Paris itself - the Boulangist movement reached its greatest rise. They expected him to carry out a coup d'etat, but he did not dare to do so. A rumor about Boulanger's possible arrest by the authorities forced him to flee France. Soon he shot himself. The Boulangist movement collapsed, which was facilitated by the industrial boom that began in 1889, which somewhat weakened the dissatisfaction of the French with the policies of the moderate Republicans in power.

Panama scam

In the 1980s, France was rocked by a scandal related to Panama scam. In the early 80s. at the suggestion of the French engineer who built the Suez Canal Ferdinand Lesseps A society was created to dig the Panama Canal. The company placed shares among a large number of French people. However, construction of the canal was delayed, and in 1888 the company declared bankruptcy. Numerous shareholders lost their modest savings. Then it turned out that only half of the funds raised were spent on the construction of the canal. And the rest were wasted by the company's leaders or were bribed. Parliamentary permission to issue shares was obtained as a result of bribery of a number of French political figures. 150 members of parliament received bribes. The editors of a number of newspapers were bribed. France was simply stunned.

It was assumed that this story would seriously weaken the Republican regime, but in the elections of 1893 the Republicans again received a majority of votes.

Dreyfus affair

The last decade of the 19th century in French history was overshadowed by a court case over an officer being falsely accused of espionage. Alfred Dreyfus.

During the investigation, facts of information leakage to the German military attaché and the involvement of a number of General Staff officers in the crime were revealed. Alfred Dreyfus was tried, found guilty and sentenced to life in prison. Later, doubts arose about the fairness of the verdict, and a campaign began for its review. The conviction of a French army captain became a political issue. They started talking about her in the government and the Chamber of Deputies. It was on everyone's lips. The country was divided into two camps: the Dreyfusards - supporters of the acquittal of Dreyfus - and the anti-Dreyfusards - supporters of his condemnation. The smell of civil war was in the air.

In 1899, an attempt was made to re-examine the Dreyfus Affair. But many influential circles could not allow Dreyfus to be declared innocent, and the military court did not dare to contradict them. Dreyfus was again found guilty.

The newly elected French President intervened in the matter Emil Lub e, who pardoned Dreyfus on the pretext of ill health. He was completely rehabilitated only in 1906. Alfred Dreyfus died in 1935.

France at the beginning of the 20th century

Combe's radical government launched an attack on the Catholic Church. In 1905, the cabinet of the right-wing radical Rouvier passed a law on the separation of church and state.

In 1904, the Anglo-French alliance was created. In 1907, an agreement was concluded with Russia. This is how it arose Entente (Concord)- a coalition of Great Britain, France and Russia. In 1913 he was elected President of France Raymond Poincaré. Preparing for war became the main task of the new president.

France in World War I

The First World War began on July 28, 1914, when Austria-Hungary declared war on Serbia. On August 3, Germany declared war on France. Having invaded France, German troops began to march on Paris, trying to cover the left flank of the French army. But here they met stubborn resistance from the French. Bloody battles ensued on the banks of the Marne River. Six Anglo-French armies and five German armies, totaling about 2 million soldiers, took part in these battles. Losses in the battles on the Marne for a short period from September 3 to 10 were colossal - both sides lost about 600 thousand people killed and wounded. German troops were forced to retreat to the Ain River and switch to trench warfare, burying themselves in trenches on fronts from Switzerland to the English Channel. The positional battles that lasted throughout 1915 only prolonged the war. February 21, 1916 German command The attack on Verdun began. In the event of a breakthrough at Verdun, Germany would have a direct route to Paris. The battles near Verdun continued for almost 10 months, until December 18, but did not produce significant results. The Verdun operation turned into a “meat grinder”; both sides suffered colossal losses. In total, about a million people died in the battles of Verdun.

On July 1, 1916, the Entente launched an offensive on the Somme River. The Somme battles intensified every day. In September, British tanks appeared on the battlefield. They brought local success to the Anglo-French troops. But still technically imperfect and used in small numbers, they could not provide a general breakthrough of the front. By the end of September 1916, the Somme fighting began to subside. In the battles on the Somme, both sides lost over 1 million 300 thousand killed, wounded and prisoners.

On April 16, 1917, Entente troops launched an offensive on the Western Front along the line Arras - Noyon - Soissons - Reims. This offensive, ineptly organized by the commander-in-chief of the French army, General Nivelle, turned into a senseless bloodbath. During these battles, almost all 132 British tanks participating in the battle were shot down or destroyed. On April 6, 1917, the United States entered the war on the side of the Entente. From that time on, American soldiers, military equipment and ammunition began to flow to the Western Front in a continuous stream.

In 1918, after signing Treaty of Brest-Litovsk Eastern front was liquidated. In the spring of 1918, Germany threw all its forces into the Western Front. The Germans advanced relatively far towards Paris. The capital of France was only 70 km from the front and was fired upon by German long-range guns. At the cost of huge losses, the Allies managed to hold back the advance of the Germans, who again penetrated the Marne region, where they were in September 1914. But the German army did not have enough for more - resources ran out. The Entente troops had a numerical superiority and enormous material and technical superiority, united under the overall command of the French Marshal Foch and from the end of July 1918 went on the offensive along the entire front. The Germans suffered huge losses and were driven back across the Marne River. Germany's defeat became obvious.

On November 11, 1918, an armistice was signed at Retonde station in the Forest of Compiègne, ending the First World War. The territory of France was cleared of invaders.

Interwar period (1918–1939)

The country was led Raymond Poincaré and Aristide Briand. High military expenses were covered by France through loans, which inevitably led to inflation. Raymond Poincaré sought to keep the franc at least 1/10 of its pre-war value. It was necessary to cover the costs of restoring the destroyed areas and pay interest on loans to Great Britain and the United States. In solving this problem, Poincare counted on German reparations, but the Germans did not want to fulfill their obligations. Poincaré sent troops into the Ruhr region in 1922. The Germans resisted and capitulated only after emergency measures were introduced. British and American experts suggested Dawes plan to finance reparation payments, mainly through American loans to Germany.

In the first half of the 1920s, Poincaré enjoyed the support of parliament. But in the next elections in 1924, the coalition of radical socialists and socialists (alliance of the left) was able to win a majority of seats. The new chamber rejected Poincaré's line, along with his firm monetary policy in France, and, in order to improve relations with Germany, brought to power first Edouard Herriot and then Aristide Briand. Briand's plans to ensure peace in Europe led to the conclusion of a guarantee pact with Germany on the inviolability of state borders in the Rhine region and on maintaining the demilitarization of the Rhineland, which was reflected in the Locarno Treaties of 1925.

From the mid-1920s until 1932, Briand led French foreign policy. He made constant attempts to improve relations with Germany, confident that France would never be able to confront Germany on its own without the support of its former allies or the League of Nations.

In the early 1930s, France was gripped by a deep economic crisis.

The Popular Front won the elections of 1936. Socialist leader Leon Bloom formed a new government.

Hitler's rise to power initially did not cause much concern to the French. But his call for rearmament in 1935 and the seizure of the Rhineland in 1936 posed a direct military threat. The French attitude towards foreign policy has changed.

Both morally and militarily, France was completely unprepared to repel the German attack in May 1940. Within six fateful weeks, the Netherlands, Belgium and France were defeated. The defeat of France was so sudden and complete that it defied any rational explanation.

France in World War II

At the same time, the French general Charles de Gaulle spoke on the radio from London and called on all French people to unite to fight the invaders. In France, the National Assembly in the resort town of Vichy transferred power to Marshal Philippe Pétain. The Vichy government maintained control over 2/5 of the country (central and southern regions), while German troops occupied the entire north and Atlantic coast. The Vichy government lasted until the invasion of North Africa by Anglo-American troops in November 1942. After this, the Germans completely occupied France.

The Germans pursued a brutal policy in the occupied territory of France. Resistance movement significantly intensified after the Germans began to export the French to forced labor in Germany. The resistance contributed to the liberation of France, although Allied fighting played a major role.

After liberation from the Nazis, the restoration of the country began, under the leadership of General de Gaulle and the leaders of the Resistance.

Fourth Republic (1946-1958).

In 1946, the Constituent Assembly adopted a draft of a new constitution that eliminated a number of shortcomings of the Third Republic. General de Gaulle spoke out for the establishment of an authoritarian presidential regime. But a compromise constitution was adopted, according to which a weak president and an advisory advisory body upper house supplemented by an influential National Assembly, which exercised control over the activities of the government. The similarities between the Fourth and Third Republics were obvious.

In the mid-1950s, unrest began in Algeria, a colony of France, and a war of independence broke out. The French government was unable to suppress it, which caused an explosion of discontent among the French. The violent rallies and demonstrations that unfolded in Algeria spread to Corsica, and the metropolis was under the threat of civil war or a military coup. The Fourth Republic, torn apart by contradictions, transferred emergency powers on June 2, 1958 Charles de Gaulle- the only person who could save France.

Fifth Republic (since 1958).

De Gaulle headed the government and was given emergency powers. He intended to change the constitution, and put forward to the National Assembly the principles on which, in his opinion, the new constitution should be based. A referendum in September 1958 approved the draft constitution. This constitution significantly expanded the powers of the president and, accordingly, limited the power of parliament. In December 1958, de Gaulle was elected President of the Republic for a seven-year term.

Algeria gained independence. De Gaulle is pursuing a course for French independence in matters of European and world politics. This contributed to increasing the country's authority in the international arena. France withdrew French troops from NATO and demanded the withdrawal of NATO headquarters from France. On April 28, 1969, de Gaulle resigned after his proposals for constitutional reform were rejected.

In the presidential elections held in June 1969, he won

Gaullist candidate Georges Pompidou.

Having become president, Pompidou maintained de Gaulle's independent foreign policy, but did not always follow the principles of his predecessor's domestic policy. In August 1969, he devalued the franc (which de Gaulle had once resisted) and thereby reduced the purchasing power of the population. Galloping inflation led to a strengthening of the political position of the left.

In April 1974, Georges Pompidou died suddenly. The Minister of Finance became the winner in the presidential elections Valéry Giscard d'Estaing, candidate of the conservative Independent Republican Party.

Giscard d'Estaing carried out several reforms, including lowering the voting requirement to 18 years of age and liberalizing laws on education, divorce and abortion.

Giscard d'Estaing tried to stimulate economic growth by reducing the role of the state. Price controls on many goods were eliminated, and the number of government employees was reduced.

In May 1981 he became president Francois Mitterrand. He was the first socialist president of the Fifth Republic. In June, early parliamentary elections were held, in which the Socialist Party won the majority of seats. The new government had its own reform program. It included the nationalization of several large banks and corporations, the liquidation of prefectures for development purposes local government and the abolition of the death penalty.

The Socialists raised the minimum wage, extended workers' paid leave from four weeks to five, and increased welfare spending. These measures contributed to the economic recovery despite the global recession in 1981–1982.

In the parliamentary elections of 1986, right-wing forces won. New Prime Minister, Gaullist leader Jacques Chirac, put up for sale the most profitable of the recently nationalized industrial companies and banks.

Mitterrand pursued a reserved policy towards the right-wing government, avoiding open confrontation. This position increased François Mitterrand's rating as a politician. In May 1988 he was re-elected to the presidency. In the parliamentary elections in June 1988, the Socialists won the majority of seats.

In 1995, the President of France became Jacques Chirac.

Resumption of nuclear testing in the southern part Pacific Ocean, undertaken on the initiative of Chirac, caused a sharp protest from the world community. For France to join the EU, demands were put forward to limit pensions and social benefits. However, the government's proposals caused mass strikes and demonstrations. As a result, these proposals remained unimplemented.

Anticipating the need to further introduce unpopular measures, Chirac called early parliamentary elections for May-June 1997 in the hope of retaining his majority in parliament for another five years. However, his coalition was defeated.

This defeat and subsequent failures in municipal and regional elections led to a crisis on the right.

France at the turn of the century. Modern times.

The Jospin government, which came to power in 1997, relied on a broad coalition of left-wing parties - socialists, communists, radical socialists, greens and the Citizens' Movement. The immigration law was heatedly discussed in France and was adopted in December 1997. Until April 1998, parliament approved new rules for the entry and stay of foreigners in the country: they lifted a number of restrictions in this area, but maintained the practice of expelling illegal immigrants.

In the area of ​​civil liberties, measures were taken to ensure legal equality for non-marital and homosexual couples, although the proposals met with fierce resistance from conservative circles, including a 100,000-strong protest in Paris in February 1999. In October 1999, the National Assembly approved the Civil Solidarity Pact, which provided for couples of any gender have equal rights with families in the field of taxation, inheritance, social, pension and health insurance.

In May 2000, the National Assembly adopted a law on equal rights for women in politics. He obliged political parties nominate an equal number of candidates – men and women; Among the 6 candidates occupying the top places on the lists, 3 had to be women. In June of the same year, parliament voted to reduce the term of office of the French president from 7 to 5 years.

The French government actively advocated deepening European integration, but this line was far from unanimously accepted in French society.

During the 2002 presidential elections, Jacques Chirac won a landslide victory (82.2% of the vote) and was re-elected to the presidency.

France's foreign policy at the beginning of the 21st century has generally remained unchanged. The emphasis continued to be on protecting French interests in those areas of the planet where the country enjoyed traditional influence, especially in Africa and the Middle East.

In 2007 he was elected president Nicolas Sarkozy.

The ancestors of the modern French who settled the territory of France were the Germanic tribes of the Franks, who at that time lived on the banks of the Rhine in the 3rd century. However, the history of the territory occupied by the current French arose much earlier during the prehistoric period. Numerous studies by scientists have shown that Pithecanthropus lived on the lands of Gaul about 1 million years ago. Subsequently, they were replaced by homo sapiens - the progenitors of “modern man”. There is almost no precise knowledge about this period of time - only isolated guesses based on some archaeological finds and records of ancient scientists.

In the 10th century BC. On the territory of France, the Celtic era began, which lasted for several centuries. In the 2nd century BC. The era of Rome began. Since the Romans called the Celts Gauls, the state received the name Gaul. Gaul was located over fairly vast territories stretching from the Atlantic Ocean to the Mediterranean Sea. With the arrival of the Romans in the country, the Gauls came into use Latin language and the Roman way of life, but despite this, Celtic culture and art were preserved almost completely.

In the middle of the 5th century, after the weakening of Roman power, the Early Middle Ages began. During this time period, France fell apart into many small kingdoms. The Burgundians ruled in the Rhine region, the Franks ruled in the north, and Rome still ruled in the east. The integrity of the country was achieved only under Charles I. This ruler was called the Great during his lifetime. In 800 he became Emperor of the Roman Empire. After the death of Charlemagne, his descendants unleashed a fierce struggle for inheritance, thereby greatly weakening Western Europe.

Starting from the 12th century, the Late Middle Ages emerged in France, which was a controversial era for the French people. On the one hand, it was marked by a rapid flowering of art, poetry, and architecture, and on the other, serious political, social and religious crises were noted.

Thus, in the 14th century, outbreaks of the plague occurred throughout France, and the Hundred Years' War with England broke out. However, even after the end of this war, the strife in the country did not end. During the reign of the Valois dynasty, clashes arose between Catholics and Huguenots, which ended with the terrible Night of St. Bartholomew on August 24, 1572. About 30 thousand people died in the massacre of St. Bartholomew's Night.

After Valois, power in the country was seized by the Bourbons. The first king of the Bourbon dynasty was Henry IV (1589-1610). During his reign, a law on religious tolerance was adopted. Cardinal Richelieu, who had actual power during the time of King Louis XIII, also did a lot for the good of his country. He was able to raise the prestige of France in Europe to a higher level.

All subsequent French rulers only noticeably weakened the country's economy, starting wars and wallowing in amusements. As a result of such thoughtless “rule,” a revolution began in France, which resulted in the coup of 1799. This period of time was marked by the harsh rule of Napoleon. But after several successful and then failed military operations, he was also overthrown.

In 1814, the period of revival of the monarchy began. First, Louis XVIII came to power, then Charles X, and after him Louis Philippe d'Orléans.

In the middle of the 19th century, another revolution occurred, as a result of which power was transferred to the Provisional Government. A similar change of rulers took place until France acquired the status of a republic for the fifth time and installed General de Gaulle as president (1959-1969). It was he who was involved in ridding the country of the German occupiers and reviving the state’s economy.

Sealine - tours to France

History of France (key dates)

1st century BC – III century AD
Active Romanization of southern Gaul - cities are being built (many public buildings: baths, theaters, temples), aqueducts. Remains of Roman buildings still remain.

IV century
The city of Burdigala (modern Bordeaux) is famous for its higher education (the study of Greek and Latin literature, rhetoric)

5th century
There were more than 100 cities in Gaul. Under pressure from the German tribes of the Suevi, Burgundians and Franks, Roman troops retreated from the border along the Rhine, leaving part of Gaul to the Germans. The Visigoths occupied Aquitaine from the Loire to the Garonne and founded the Kingdom of Toulouse.

Around 450
Under the pressure of the Anglo-Saxons, part of the Briton tribes moved from the British Isles to the Armorica Peninsula (modern Brittany), the ethnic identity of this province is still preserved.

451
Invasion of the Huns. Roman troops and Frankish squads defeated Attila's Huns in the battle on the Catalaunian fields, near Troyes.

5th century, last quarter
The Visigoths captured Gascony, Provence and almost all of Spain, as well as the central regions (modern Bury, Limousin and Auvergne). In the valleys of the Saone and Rhone, the Burgundians founded the kingdom of Burgundy.

482
The northern regions from the Loire to the Somme and the Meuse were subjugated by the Frankish tribal union. The Frankish ruler Holdwig founded the Frankish Merovingian state. The Franks retained Roman cities and government systems.

496
The Franks adopted Christianity according to the Roman rite, which provided them with the support of the Pope against the rest of the Germanic tribes who professed Arianism.

6th century, beginning
The first edition of the Salic Truth was created - a set of laws, which included the norms of unwritten (customary) law and the norms of early feudal law. For the Gallo-Roman population, the norms of Roman law were preserved.

511
Holdvig died. The Frankish state crumbled into the inheritance of his sons.

6th century, middle
The Franks established their dominance by subjugating the Visigoths and Burgundians. The Frankish state of the Merovingians emerged. Under the influence of the Germans, feudal land ownership began to take shape in Gaul.

6th century, end – 7th century, beginning
During the internecine wars, four parts of the Frankish state took shape: Neustria (in the north-west, with a center in Paris and a predominantly Halo-Roman population, Burgundy (in the east), Aquitaine (in the south-west) and Austrasia (north-eastern part of Gaul, inhabited by the eastern Franks later became part of Germany).

687
Mayor Pepin II (the manager of the royal domain, appointed by the king) concentrated real power in the Frankish state in his hands.

732
Battle of Poitiers. The Frankish majordomo Charles Martell (nickname means “hammer”) defeated the Arabs, stopping their advance into the interior of the country.

737
Charles Martel seized power in the Frankish state.

751
Pepin III the Short exiled the last Merovingian king to a monastery and founded a new Carolingian dynasty.

768-789
Charlemagne (742-814) became King of France. Under him, global transformations were carried out within the state, for example, administrative reform: a court, a palace court, and an office were created to manage the empire. An active foreign policy was pursued (the creation of border stamps, for example, Spanish, Breion). Charles became famous as a patron of the arts. The flourishing of culture under him was called the Carolingian Renaissance. Schools were opened at all monasteries of the Frankish state.

800
The Frankish state turned into a huge “Holy Roman Empire”, covering the western part of Germany, all of France and the northern part of Italy, led by Emperor Charlemagne. Under the influence of a higher Gallo-Roman culture, the Franks assimilated, lost their language, adopted Gallo-Roman speech and enriched it with Germanic words. The official language of the Frankish state is Romance.

842
Exchange of "Vows" (the first document on French) between kings Charles the Bald and Louis the German.

843
The Treaty of Verdun was a division of the Frankish Empire, the separation of the West Frankish state, which became known as France.

9th century, mid
Norman raids on France. Not only coastal cities were devastated, but also settlements inland, including Paris. The Normans captured part of France at the mouth of the Seine and founded the Duchy of Normandy (911).

10th century
France was divided into counties and duchies.

X-XII centuries
Romanesque style in architecture.

910
Cluny Abbey founded.

987
End of the Carolingian dynasty. Count of Paris Hugo Capet is elected king of France. The beginning of the reign of the Capetian dynasty (ruled until 1328). The royal domain included lands along the Seine and Loire with Paris and Orleans.

1060-1108
Philip I. The struggle of the cities of communes with the lords became a means of strengthening Royal power. As they were annexed to the royal domain, duchies and counties became provinces.

1095
Pope Urban II called at the Council of Clermont to “release the Holy Sepulchre”

1096-1099
I Crusade. It consisted of two parts - a campaign of the poor (from central and northern France and western Germany) under the leadership of Pierre of Amiens (the Hermit) along the route of pilgrims - along the Rhine and Danube to Constantinople. At the same time, the first in history occurred medieval Europe Jewish pogroms. At the end of 1096, detachments of feudal lords moved from Lorraine, Normandy, the south of France and Italy. In the east, the crusaders created a number of states: the State of Jerusalem and its vassal counties - Tripoli and Edessa, the Principality of Antioch.

Around 1143
In the south of France, between Toulouse and Albi, the heresy of the Cathars (from the Greek “pure”) spread. The Cathars rejected all Catholic dogmas, subordination to the state, and demanded the confiscation of church lands, which attracted the nobility to them. They created their own church organization.

1147
The Muslims conquered Edessa, which became the reason for the Second Crusade led by Louis VII and the German Emperor Conrad III (ended in vain). Louis VII divorced Aleanor of Aquiet, and Henry II Plantagenet, Count of Anjou, married her.

1154
Henry II Plantagenet became king of England and almost 2/3 of France. Normandy, Aquitaine, Anjou, Maine, Poitou came under his rule and cut off access to the sea for the royal domain. An instant conflict arose between England and France.

1209-1228
The kings and knights of Northern France, taking advantage of the spread of the Albigensian (Cathari and Waldensian) heresy in the south, subjected the southern regions with a higher economic and cultural standard of living to terrible defeat and annexed the County of Toulouse (Languedoc) to the royal domain.

Around 1226
The Inquisition was organized in Toulouse.

1226-1270
Louis IX Saint.

1248-1254 years
Louis IX the Saint led the VII Crusade to Egypt, where he was captured and ransomed for a huge sum.

1270
Louis IX gathered the VIII Crusade, but when he reached Tunisia, he died of the plague, like most of the knights.

1285 – 1314
Philip IV the Handsome.

1302
"Bruges Matins". In the city of Bruges, the French garrison was slaughtered, stationed here during the struggle for the County of Flanders. In response, Philip IV the Fair led his knights to Flanders. The “Battle of the Spurs” took place, during which the Flanders weavers killed the knights, took off their golden spurs (the distinction of knighthood and hung them in the church. The Estates General was convened - an estate assembly to vote taxes. The first estate was the clergy, the second was the nobility, the third was the bourgeois (citizens, tax-paying class).

1306
Philip IV the Fair confiscated the property of the Jews (mostly moneylenders) and expelled them from France, but then allowed them to return (this happened more than once during his reign).

1307
The Order of the Templars, to whom the king owed huge sums, was defeated. Many members of the order were executed, some were expelled, and the colossal property of the order was confiscated. The master of the order, Jacques de Molay, cursed the king and his offspring at the stake. In 1312, the Pope dissolved the order.

1328-1350
Philip VI begins the reign of the Valois dynasty, a side branch of the Capetians (until 1589).

1337-1453
Hundred Years' War with England.

1380-1422
Large feudal lords ruled on behalf of Charles VI, who suffered from bouts of madness.

1413
Confrontation under King Charles VI of two parties - the Armagnacs and the Burgundians. Uprisings in Paris, convening of the Estates General, resumption of the Hundred Years' War.

1420
The Duke of Burgundy went over to the side of the English king. Occupation of Paris.

1422-1461
Reign of Charles VII.

1429
Joan of Arc persuaded the indecisive and weak Charles VII to entrust her with an army to lift the siege of Orleans, and when she succeeded, she went with Charles VII to Reims for his coronation in Reims Cathedral, the traditional place of coronation of French kings.

1430
In the battle with the British at Compiegne, Jeanne and her detachment had to retreat to the city gates, but they remained locked. The Burgundians captured her and sold her to the British. The court sentenced Jeanne to death, and in 1431 she was burned at the stake in Rouen. In 1456, all charges against Jeanne were dropped, and she became a national heroine. In the twentieth century, the Catholic Church canonized her.

1439
Charles VII declared the independence of the French Church from the Pope.

1453
Charles VII conquered Bordeaux, ending the Hundred Years' War. The British lost all continental possessions except the city of Calais.

1461-1483
Louis XI. A skilled diplomat, he did not like war and bequeathed to his son to remember: “He who does not know how to pretend does not know how to govern.” Crafts and trade revived. The beginnings of an economic policy of mercantilism arose, which was based on a positive trade balance. Louis XI encouraged the development of industry (in particular, he forced Lyon to produce silk fabrics and organize fairs, which quickly eclipsed those in Geneva).

1477
The annexation of Burgundy to the royal domain after the death of Charles the Bold, the last Duke of Burgundy.

1483-1498
Reign of Charles VIII.

1515-1547
Reign of Francis I

1534
The Jesuit order "Society of Jesus" was founded to fight the Reformation.

1559
King Henry II died during the tournament. His wife Catherine de' Medici became regent under the infant Francis II, then under Charles IX.

1562-1592
Religious wars. A war began (1562) between Catholics and Huguenots (Protestants, followers of Calvin. Most often they were townspeople and nobles of the south of France). Internal migration has led to the erasure of regional differences.

1589
A Dominican friar killed Henry III, the last king of the Valois dynasty.

1589-1610
Henry IV of Bourbon. The beginning of the reign of the Bourbon dynasty (before 1792 and in 1814-1830). The integrity of the country was restored according to the principle of uniting “all lands where French is spoken.”

1598
Edict of Nantes. The Catholic religion is recognized as dominant in France. Freedom of Protestant worship was established. Catholics and Protestants have equal rights.

1610
The Catholic fanatic Ravaillac killed Henry IV, under whom religious peace was established and the state of finances and governance of the country improved. Louis XIII (1601-1643), son of Henry IV and Marie de Medici, ascended the throne. During the regency of M. Medici, the country was actually ruled by her favorite, the Italian adventurer Concino Concini (involved in the murder of the king), whom she made Marquis d'Anchor and Marshal of France.

1617
The favorite of Louis XIII, the Duke of Luynes, persuaded the king to remove Concini. Concini was killed, and his wife was accused of witchcraft and burned at the stake, Luynes appropriated their enormous fortune and achieved the expulsion of Marie de Medici.

1618-1648
Thirty Years' War. France helped German Protestants in the fight against the Habsburgs.

1624-1642
Richelieu's reign under Louis XIII. Richelieu contributed to the strengthening of the absolute monarchy and actually created the centralized state of France.

1631
The first French newspaper "GAZETTE DE FRANCE" was founded.

1635
Richelieu founded the French Academy.

1648
As a result of the Thirty Years' War, France took a dominant position in central Europe.

1659
The marriage of the future Louis XIV to the Spanish Infanta Maria Theresa put an end to the long feud between the two royal houses.

1664
Colbert founded the West India and New East India campaigns.

1665
Jean-Baptiste Colbert has been appointed Comptroller General of Finance of France. Pursuing a policy of mercantilism, he stabilized the financial system and ensured economic growth.

1669
Construction of the Palace of Versailles has begun.

1685
The revocation of the Edict of Nantes on freedom of Protestant worship, the flight of the Huguenots.

1701-1714
War of the Spanish Succession: Austria, Holland, Habsburg Empire against France and Bavaria. Philip V (grandson of Louis XIV) became king of Spain. France lost part of its American possessions.

18th Century of Enlightenment

1715
After the death of Louis XIV, his great-grandson Louis XV became king (until 1774). The country is severely ruined: “1/10 of the inhabitants are begging, and 1/2 do not have the opportunity to give alms.”

1733
War with Austria and Russia for the Polish inheritance.

1774-1793
Reign of Louis XVI.

1781
Report from the Minister of Finance on the appalling state of the country's budget.

1788
The Treasury declared bankruptcy.

1789-1794
The French Revolution.

1789
After a 175-year interval, the Estates General was convened. A month and a half later, the third estate proclaimed itself the National Assembly - this became the prologue to the Great French Revolution. The bourgeoisie demanded equality before the law and the abolition of tax privileges.

1789
Summer. Peasant revolts, abolition of feudal duties. Political clubs arose in Paris, from which political parties were formed. Nationalization of church property to reduce the budget deficit. On August 26, the Declaration of Human and Civil Rights was adopted.

1790
Church reform, abolition of hereditary nobility, adoption of the first constitution.

1791
The failed flight of Louis XVI and Marie Antoinette from Paris. Aggravation of relations between radical and moderate deputies of the National Assembly. The Jacobins, led by Robespierre, demanded that the king be punished and a republic proclaimed.

1791, end
In Europe, interventions were being prepared against revolutionary France.

1792, August 10
Storming the royal Tuileries Palace, overthrowing the monarchy (the king and his family were imprisoned).

1793, April 6-June 2
1793, April 6-June 2, the Committee of Public Safety came to power. The main government body of the Jacobins led by Danton.

1794
The Jacobin bloc split into right and left: Dantonists (Danton) and Héberists (Héber).

1794, Mara
The Héberists opposed the government and were executed (Hébert and Chaumet).

1794, April
Danton, Desmoulins and other Dantonists (supporters of radical measures who opposed terror) were executed.

1794, July 26
Thermidorian coup. The Jacobin club was closed, Robespierre and Saint-Just were arrested and executed without trial. New constitution.

1794, October
Ecole Normale was established, an educational institution for teacher training.

1795
The Institute of France, the country's highest scientific center, was created.

1796
Napoleon's campaign in Italy, the defeat of the Austrian Troops.

1798
Napoleon's Egyptian campaign, the capture of Malta, Admiral Nelson's victory at Abicourt. Napoleon returned to France.

1799
Napoleon carried out a military coup. According to the new constitution, power passes to three consuls. Napoleon is the first consul.

1802
Napoleon was appointed consul for life. Amnesty for emigrants, economic reforms began.

1804
Napoleon was proclaimed emperor, the nobility was restored, state power was strengthened, and the Civil Code (Napoleonic Code) was introduced.

1805
The defeat of the Austro-Russian troops at Austerlitz ended the war with the third anti-French coalition.

1807
The Tilsit Peace – Russian-French rapprochement. French hegemony in Europe. Napoleon's first meeting with Alexander I.

1812 Napoleon's campaign in Russia, the capture of Moscow, the death of the French army in Russia.

1813
French troops are expelled from Spain. The anti-French coalition strengthened. The Battle of Leipzig - “Battle of the Nations”, the defeat of Napoleon.

1814, April
Allied forces (England, Austria, Prussia and Russia) occupied Paris. The provisional government announced the deposition of Napoleon, he was given the title of emperor and exiled to the island of Elba in the Mediterranean Sea. After Napoleon's abdication, Louis XVIII (brother of the executed king) gained power. The country maintained civil liberties and the Napoleonic Code. The Treaty of Paris is relatively soft conditions for France, which lost the war.

1815
“One Hundred Days of Napoleon”: Napoleon’s landing on the southern coast of France, the march on Paris. Louis XVIII fled. The empire has been restored. The Battle of Waterloo ended in the defeat of Napoleon, exile to St. Helena. Restoration of the monarchy. The second Treaty of Paris is more stringent than the first (1814).

1821
Death of Napoleon.

1824
Under the Constitutional Charter granted by the King, France became a constitutional monarchy. The national flag is the white banner of the Bourbons.

1830 July - August
July Revolution, abdication of Charles X of Bourbon. The Chamber of Deputies and the Chamber of Pens elected the Duke of Orleans, Louis-Philippe, as king. The French flag became tricolor. The revolution was not as bloody as the Great Revolution, but it affected Belgium, Poland, Germany, Italy, and Switzerland.

1840
Napoleon's ashes were transported to Paris.

1848, February
A new revolution has begun. Fighting in Paris, the Tuileries Palace was captured, Prime Minister Guizot resigned, Louis Philippe abdicated the throne. A republic is proclaimed. Decree on the right to work, Decree on the organization of national workshops.

1848
Republican victory in the elections to the National (Constituent) Assembly.

1848, February 10
The constitution of the second republic was adopted. Louis Napoleon (nephew of Napoleon I) became the President of France.

1849
Elections to the Legislative Assembly. Victory of the monarchists over the republicans.

1850
Law on the transfer of public education to the clergy.

1851
The National Assembly was dissolved. Louis-Napoloen was endowed with dictatorial powers and a censorship was introduced.

1852
Louis Napoleon declared himself Emperor Napoleon III. Second Empire (until 1870).

1870
France declared war on Prussia. The Battle of Sedan, Napoleon III surrendered and abdicated the throne. Paris is surrounded by Prussian troops.

1871
The capitulation of Paris, the signing of peace on very unfavorable terms for France.

1871, March 18-May 16
Paris Commune. Power passed to the Central Committee of the National Guard. The cabinet and army fled to Versailles.

1871
The commune was crushed by German and French troops. 25 thousand people died.

1871, August
The National Assembly elected Thiers President of the French Republic.

1875
Constitution of the Third Republic.

1894
The president was assassinated (since 1887). The rise of revolutionary anarchism.

1895
The Lumière brothers invented the cinematograph