JOHN III (Johan, Johan; Swedish. Johan; Finnish. Juhani) - King of Sweden in 1568/1569-1592, from 1577 or 1581 Grand Duke of Finland, church reformer.
John was the son of King Gustav I Vasa (1523-1560) from his 2nd marriage (to Margareta Leijonhuvud). Since 1556, John became Duke of Finland and controlled his domains almost independently. On October 4, 1562, in Vilna he married Catherine Jagiellonka, daughter of the Polish king Sigismund I the Old (1506-1548), which became one of the reasons for John’s subsequent policy of rapprochement with Poland. John did not receive permission to marry from his half-brother Eric XIV, who by that time had become the king of Sweden (1560-1568). John's attempts to pursue an independent policy, in particular to establish himself in Livonia, displeased Eric, whose troops besieged John's residence, Abo Castle (Turku), in 1563. On August 12, the besieged capitulated. John and his wife were captured and imprisoned at Gripsholm Castle in Sweden. They remained there until 1568; During this time, Catherine gave birth to 3 children to John, including the future Swedish and Polish king Sigismund III (1566).
Eric XIV suffered from progressive mental illness and because of this could not pursue a consistent policy; in addition, he became close to the Russian Tsar John IV Vasilyevich, which caused discontent in Sweden. Once free, John united the opposition around himself, relying on the support of his uncle maternal line Wall of Leijonhuvud. In 1568, John overthrew Eric and declared himself king. Eric spent the rest of his life in prison and died in 1577 at Erbühus Castle (probably poisoned). In January 1569, John was recognized as king (by the same Riksdag that deposed Eric XIV). To do this, John had to confirm and expand the rights and privileges of the nobility; in particular, he confirmed the hereditary rights to the duchy of his brother Charles.
John sought to complete the so-called Northern Seven Years' War (or Scandinavian Seven Years' War; 1563-1570) against the coalition of Denmark, Poland and Lübeck, which began during the reign of Eric. The war for Sweden, which dominated at sea, proceeded with varying degrees of success, but its protracted nature exhausted the warring parties. On December 13, 1570, the Peace of Stettin was concluded, according to which John renounced claims to the Danish provinces of Skåne, Halland, Blekinge and the island of Gotland, separated from the Linköping diocese. Denmark received a ransom for the Swedish fortress of Elvsborg (150 thousand riksdaler). Sweden, in exchange for compensation, transferred its possessions in Livonia to the Holy Roman Emperor Maximilian II. Lübeck also received 75 thousand riksdalers from Sweden. The Kalmar Union was abolished because the Danish king promised to no longer lay claim to the Swedish crown.
The payment of the ransom for Elvsborg became a heavy burden for the population of Sweden. During the Livonian War (1558-1583), initially successful for the Moscow state, but ending in heavy defeat, Sweden conquered a number of territories. After the conclusion of the Truce of Plus in 1583, extended in 1585, Sweden de facto retained the previously captured Yam, Koporye, Ivangorod, Korelu (Kexholm), etc.; territorial disputes were not legally resolved. In 1593, during the Russian-Swedish war (1590-1595), a truce was concluded, and on May 18, 1595, according to the Tyavzin Peace Treaty, the Moscow state recognized the rights of the Kingdom of Sweden to the Principality of Estonia. Sweden returned the Korela fortress and district to the king and recognized Ivangorod, Yam, Koporye, Oreshek and Ladoga as belonging to the Moscow state.
John's reign saw the so-called liturgical battle (liturgiska striden), a 20-year dispute (1574-1593) about the fate of the Swedish Church, caused by John's attempt to create a new church order that would combine the features of Catholicism and Protestantism. John's father Gustav Vasa, soon after coming to power in 1523, turned to Pope Clement VII with a request to confirm John Magnus (1488-1544) as Archbishop of Uppsala and Primate of Sweden instead of Gustav Trolle (1488-1535), who was deposed and sent by the Riksdag to exile. However, the pope refused to recognize the royal protege, demanding that Gustav Trolle be reinstated to his see. As a sign of the break with Rome, Gustav Vasa brought the Swedish Lutherans Laurentius Andreae (Lars Andersson) and the brothers Olaus Petri (Olav Persson) and Laurentius Petri Nericius (Lars Persson) closer to him, and contributed to the development of Protestant printing. In 1526, in Swedish. language has been translated New Testament(a complete translation of the Bible appeared in 1541). In 1527, at the Riksdag in Västerås, Laurentius Andreae proclaimed the king head of the Swedish Church. Despite the fact that Sweden officially became a Protestant power, the reformation changes at that time were not as deep and comprehensive as in the German Lutheran principalities: Catholic relics were preserved in churches, and part of the population celebrated the days of remembrance of Catholic saints. Eric XIV, who succeeded Gustav Vase, continued his father’s religious policy, preserving all Catholic customs that did not contradict the Holy Scriptures.
After the Council of Trent (1545), the ideas of religious compromise became widespread in Europe - the possibility of the existence of a variant of the church structure that would reconcile supporters of the Reformation with the Roman Church. While imprisoned at Gripsholm Castle, John became acquainted with the works of the Dutch Catholic theologian G. Cassander (1512-1566), who considered it possible to reunite the Catholic and Protestant Churches, provided that the Catholic Church, while maintaining its hierarchy, renounces abuses. With the support of the theologian Peter Fecht, who was educated in Wittenberg, and the 2nd Lutheran Archbishop of Uppsala, Lawrence Peter Gothus (1575-1579), John forced the clergy to accept a number of pro-Catholic innovations at the 2 Councils of 1574-1575. John's first wife, Catherine Jagiellonka, surrounded herself with Catholic monks, which caused outrage among supporters of the Reformation. In 1572, she discussed with Cardinal Stanislaus Gozius (1561-1579) the possibility of returning Sweden to the fold. Catholic Church. In 1573, the son of the deposed king Eric XIV was sent to Poland to the Jesuits. In 1575, John lifted the ban on accepting new novices for the remaining Catholic monasteries in Sweden. John and Catherine patronized the Vadstena Brigitte convent, which was reformed in 1580 by the papal legate Antonio Possevino. Abbess Katharina Bengtsdotter (died 1593) enjoyed the favor of the royal couple; in 1580 there were 20 sisters in the abbey.
In 1576, a new liturgical collection, “The Red Book” (Röda boken), was published, modeled on the Roman Missal, but containing the text of the liturgy in both Latin and Swedish. In the same year, Peter Fecht, sent by John to Rome to negotiate with the pope, died in a shipwreck off the island of Bornholm. The innovations were adopted at the Riksdag of 1577, despite opposition from Duke Charles, John's brother, and supporters of extreme Protestantism; The Riksdag of 1582 approved the use of the new liturgy in all areas of the kingdom. However, complete reunification with Rome never happened, since John did not intend to return full power over the church to the pope. For this reason, the result of Possevino's mission to Sweden was only to increase the indignation of Protestants. Under the patronage of Catherine the Jagiellonian, the Norwegian Jesuit Laurentius Nicolai in 1583 created a Catholic school in the former Franciscan monastery, which was subsequently closed and destroyed by Protestants.
At the end of his life, even Archbishop Lawrence Gotus, loyal to John, spoke out against the appearance of the Jesuits in the kingdom. Catherine Jagiellonka died in 1583; John's second wife, Gunilla Bjelke, was a Protestant, she had the same influence on the king as her predecessor. In 1590, at her request, John released several oppositionists from prison. After the death of John, the Council of Uppsala, convened by Duke Charles on May 5, 1593, abolished the new liturgy and adopted the Augsburg Confession. In 1594, the Vadstena Monastery was destroyed by Duke Charles; the abbess and most of the nuns were forced into next year leave Sweden and go to Gdansk.
The fragile balance of power in religious politics was finally upset under John's successors. John's son Sigismund, also the ruler of the Catholic Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, was a staunch Catholic. He was overthrown by his uncle Karl, Hertz. Södermanlandsky, who, adhering to Calvinist views, enjoyed the support of the Lutheran Church in the dynastic struggle with the heir of John. As a result, in 1595, the Riksdag in Söderköping elected Duke Charles as regent of Sweden in the absence of Sigismund, who was in Poland. In 1599, after Sigismund's unsuccessful attempt to restore power over Sweden, he was deposed, and in 1600 his uncle was proclaimed King Charles IX, which marked the complete victory of the Protestant party.
Illustrations:
John III, Cor. Sweden. Portrait. Artist I. B. van Uter. 1582 ( National Museum in Stockholm, Sweden);
Tomb of John III, cor. Sweden in the Cathedral of St. Erica in Uppsala, Sweden. Con. XVI - beginning XVII century
Johan was the second son of Gustav I Vasa, and the heir to the throne was the eldest son of the Swedish king from a previous marriage - Eric. When Johan became an adult, his father gave him the title of Duke of Finland. It was not just an honorary title. Johan actually received Finland under his control, royal taxes on its territory were collected in favor of the duke, he commanded the troops in Finland. The Duchy of Finland was to be inherited by his descendants.
Having taken matters of managing the duchy into his own hands, Johan showed interest in foreign policy activities. Against the will of his father, he tried to seize the north of Estonia with the port of Revel and the Moonsud Islands - the former possessions of the disintegrated Livonian Order. These actions could provoke a conflict between Sweden and Russia and the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, which the cautious Gustav I Vasa sought to avoid. Due to contradictions with his father, Johan became close to his older brother Eric, and went to England to negotiate the possibility of Eric marrying an English princess. Elizabeth Tudor. But when Eric XIV Vasa became king of Sweden in 1560, relations between the brothers became complicated. The new king was against strengthening and expanding the Duchy of Finland. In the Arbug Articles of 1561, the privileges of the hereditary dukes, which essentially threatened the integrity of the Kingdom of Sweden, were severely limited.
Johan was sensitive to the restriction of his rights. In an attempt to strengthen his political position, he came into contact with Sigismund Augustus, king of the hostile Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. The development of relations between the Finnish Duke and the Polish King led to the marriage of Johan and Katharina Jagiellonka, the sister of the Polish King. Johan loaned Sigismund Augustus to him a large sum money, as collateral for which he received seven castles in Livonia. For these actions, Johan was accused of treason and Riksdag 1563 sentenced to death. Eric managed to arrest the Duke of Finland and imprisoned him in Gripsholm Castle. The conditions of imprisonment were quite mild and he was voluntarily separated from her husband by Katarina Jagiellonka. Johan devoted a significant part of his leisure time to theological studies.
In 1567, Eric's mental illness worsened. Royal power weakened and Johan was released. A year later, Eric recovered from his illness and began to regain full royal power. However, a powerful opposition formed against him, led by Johan and his younger brother Karl. As a result of the uprising, Eric was deposed, and Johan was proclaimed king in 1569.
At the time of his accession to the throne, Sweden was at war with Denmark, Poland and Lübeck ( Northern Seven Years' War). The war was not going well for Sweden and Johan III made efforts to end it. It was possible to make peace with the Polish king Sigismund Augustus without any problems. In 1570, through the mediation of the Holy Roman Emperor and France, the final peace was signed in Stettin: the privileges of Lübeck were confirmed, with some exceptions; Sweden was obliged to pay 150 thousand thalers to Denmark; the issue of the three crowns in the Swedish coat of arms was referred to arbitration. Relations with Denmark remained tense in the future, but war was avoided until the end of Johan's reign.
Having ensured peace on the western borders, Yukhan was able to return to his previous plans to capture the southern and east coast Gulf of Finland. Here Sweden's main rival was Russia, which sought to reach the shores of the Baltic. The contradictions were intensified by the personal enmity between Johan and Ivan the Terrible. In 1572, Russian troops began successful military operations against the Swedes, and by 1575 only Revel remained in the hands of Johan. However, in 1579 the new king of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth Stefan Batory achieved significant success against Russia. Most of the Russian troops opposed Batory's army and were unable to repel the onslaught of Swedish troops, which in the early 1580s, under the command of Pontus de la Gardie, captured Northern Estonia and part of Ingria (Izhora). Therefore, at the next stage of hostilities, in the 1590s, the Swedes sought to take possession of the White Sea coast. This, however, could not be achieved and in 1595 a Tyavzinsky world. Under the terms of peace, Sweden returned Izhora to Russia, but Russian merchants were obliged to trade with the West only through the Swedish Vyborg and Revel.
Great hopes were associated with Johan's accession to the throne, but achieving stability in internal affairs failed. His younger brother Charles became virtually an independent ruler in his duchy, which provoked discontent of the new king and enmity between the brothers. The displeasure of the people was caused by the hardships of the wars, the unsuccessful monetary policy, and the large expenses of Johan for the maintenance of the court and construction; In order to replenish the budget, the king infringed on the privileges of the nobility. In 1574, the conspiracy of Charles de Mornay was discovered. For safety reasons, Johan insisted that Erik be sentenced to death at the Herredag of 1575. The state government system that developed under Gustav I Vasa required the king to make personal, everyday decisions about many small and major issues. Johan, unlike Eric XIV and Duke Charles, did not like to keep all the threads of control in his own hands and relied heavily on the secretaries of the chancellery, whose selection was often unsuccessful.
Yuhan was characterized by character traits common to Vaz - morbid suspicion, distrust, and inconsistency. The king showed interest in architecture, invited Italian, French, and Dutch masters, who rebuilt some castles and the Vadstena monastery in accordance with Renaissance aesthetics; the Church of St. Jacob was erected in Stockholm (1588-1593).
Johan received a thorough theological education, had a penchant for mysticism, and was more interested in religious issues than in the affairs of the state. He felt nostalgia for the unity of Western Christendom that existed before Reformation. He was outraged by the theological disputes of the Protestants, the lack of depth in the teachings of Luther in comparison with the ancient church tradition, which, as he believed, was preserved in the Roman Catholic Church. To improve the educational level of priests, Johan established a higher religious school under the leadership of the Jesuits.
At the church council of 1572, a new structure of the Swedish church was adopted, developed by the Archbishop of Uppsala, the humanist Lawrence Petri. By the will of the king in Sweden Protestant Church Catholic influence increased. In 1575, new regulations were adopted in the Catholic spirit. New liturgy, introduced in 1577, was based on the Catholic, excluding several details that clearly contradict Lutheranism. Johan was supported by the humanistic and theological circles of the Swedish Church. Even then, educated theologians were not alien to the ideas of bringing churches closer together. The lower clergy perceived these changes negatively.
Johan began negotiations with the papal throne about the unification of churches, which also meant political goals- gain Spanish support against Denmark, promote Catarina's claims to Naples - an inheritance after the death of her mother Bona Sforza. The efforts did not bring results, since the Roman throne was not going to compromise on liturgical issues (service in Swedish, the right of parishioners to receive communion with wine), which deeply hurt and disappointed Johan. Negotiations with Spain led nowhere; with the death of Catarina in 1583, direct contact with the Catholic world ceased. From his marriage to Katharina, Johan had children Sigismund (future king Sigismund III Vase), Isabella (1564-1566) and Anna (1568-1625). In 1585 the king married Gunilla Bjelka, with whom he had a son, Johan (1584-1618).
Johan did not abolish the liturgy, but by the end of his reign it became clear that it would not be possible to preserve it, since the parish priests did not adhere to it at all. The religious opposition was supported by Duke Charles, in whose possessions everything remained as before; disgraced hierarchs and priests found refuge with him. Tensions between the brothers came to a head in the mid-1580s, but open conflict was avoided. Relations between the brothers were settled by the Vadstena Constitutions of 1587, with Johan obtaining concessions from Charles.
Throughout his reign, Johan sought to consolidate the alliance between Poland and Sweden. In 1573 and 1574 he himself laid claim to the Polish throne, but was unsuccessful. The son of Johan and Katharina Jagiellonka - Sigismund was raised in Catholic faith and in 1587 he was elected King of Poland ( Sigismund III Vase). Riksrod developed the Kalmar Resolutions, which were supposed to guarantee the independence of Sweden in the proposed union with the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth.
The opposition of the Swedish aristocracy pushed Johan into an alliance with Charles, who was freed from the Vadstena constitutions. To strengthen the monarchy, new inheritance rules were adopted at the Riksdag in 1590, according to which the crown could also be passed on through the female line, and in the event of the minority of the heir, the “closest relative,” that is, Charles, should become regent. Until Johan's death, the alliance between him and Karl remained.