Natural science methods

Natural science methods can be divided into the following groups:

General methods relating to any subject, any science. These are various forms of a method that makes it possible to connect together all aspects of the process of cognition, all its stages, for example, the method of ascent from the abstract to the concrete, the unity of the logical and historical. These are, rather, general philosophical methods of cognition.

Special methods concern only one side of the subject being studied or a specific research technique: analysis, synthesis, induction, deduction. Special methods also include observation, measurement, comparison and experiment. In natural science, special methods of science are given extremely important importance, therefore, within the framework of our course, it is necessary to consider their essence in more detail.

Observation is a purposeful, strict process of perceiving objects of reality that should not be changed. Historically, the observation method develops as an integral part of a labor operation, which includes establishing the conformity of the product of labor with its planned model. Observation as a method of understanding reality is used either where experiment is impossible or very difficult (in astronomy, volcanology, hydrology), or where the task is to study the natural functioning or behavior of an object (in ethology, social psychology, etc.). Observation as a method presupposes the existence of a research program formed on the basis of past beliefs, established facts, and accepted concepts. Special cases of the observation method are measurement and comparison.

An experiment is a method of cognition by which phenomena of reality are studied under controlled and controlled conditions. It differs from observation by intervention in the object under study, that is, activity in relation to it. When conducting an experiment, the researcher is not limited to passive observation of phenomena, but consciously intervenes in the natural course of their occurrence by directly influencing the process under study or changing the conditions in which this process takes place. The specificity of the experiment is also that in normal conditions processes in nature are extremely complex and intricate, and cannot be completely controlled and controlled. Therefore, the task arises of organizing a study in which it would be possible to trace the progress of the process in a “pure” form. For these purposes, the experiment separates essential factors from unimportant ones and thereby significantly simplifies the situation. As a result, such simplification contributes to a deeper understanding of phenomena and creates the opportunity to control the few factors and quantities that are essential for a given process. The development of natural science raises the problem of the rigor of observation and experiment. The point is that they need special tools and devices that have recently become so complex that they themselves begin to influence the object of observation and experiment, which, according to the conditions, should not be the case. This primarily applies to research in the field of microworld physics (quantum mechanics, quantum electrodynamics, etc.).

Analogy is a method of cognition in which knowledge obtained during the consideration of any one object is transferred to another, less studied and this moment studied. The analogy method is based on the similarity of objects according to a number of characteristics, which allows one to obtain completely reliable knowledge about the subject being studied. The use of the analogy method in scientific knowledge requires some caution. Here it is extremely important to clearly identify the conditions under which it works most effectively. However, in cases where it is possible to develop a system of clearly formulated rules for transferring knowledge from a model to a prototype, the results and conclusions using the analogy method acquire evidentiary force.

Modeling is a method of scientific knowledge based on the study of any objects through their models. The emergence of this method is caused by the fact that sometimes the object or phenomenon being studied turns out to be inaccessible to the direct intervention of the cognizing subject, or such intervention is inappropriate for a number of reasons. Simulation assumes transfer research activities to another object, acting as a substitute for the object or phenomenon of interest to us. The substitute object is called a model, and the research object is called the original, or prototype. In this case, the model acts as a substitute for the prototype, which allows one to obtain certain knowledge about the latter. Thus, the essence of modeling as a method of cognition is to replace the object of study with a model, and objects of both natural and artificial origin can be used as a model. The ability to model is based on the fact that the model, in a certain respect, reflects some aspect of the prototype. When modeling, it is very important to have an appropriate theory or hypothesis that strictly indicates the limits and boundaries of permissible simplifications.

Modern science knows several types of modeling:

1) subject modeling, in which research is carried out on a model that reproduces certain geometric, physical, dynamic or functional characteristics of the original object;

2) symbolic modeling, in which diagrams, drawings, and formulas act as models. The most important type of such modeling is mathematical modeling, produced by means of mathematics and logic;

3) mental modeling, in which, instead of sign models, mental visual representations of these signs and operations with them are used. Recently, a model experiment using computers, which are both a means and an object of experimental research, replacing the original, has become widespread. In this case, the algorithm (program) for the functioning of the object acts as a model.

Analysis is a method of scientific knowledge, which is based on the procedure of mental or real division of an object into its constituent parts. Dismemberment aims to move from the study of the whole to the study of its parts and is carried out by abstracting from the connection of the parts with each other. Analysis is an organic component of any scientific research, which is usually its first stage, when the researcher moves from an undifferentiated description of the object being studied to identifying its structure, composition, as well as its properties and characteristics.

Synthesis is a method of scientific knowledge, which is based on the procedure of combining various elements of a subject into a single whole, a system, without which truly scientific knowledge of this subject is impossible. Synthesis acts not as a method of constructing the whole, but as a method of representing the whole in the form of a unity of knowledge obtained through analysis. In synthesis, there is not just a unification, but a generalization of the analytically identified and studied features of the object. The provisions obtained as a result of synthesis are included in the theory of the object, which, enriched and refined, determines the path of new scientific research.

Induction is a method of scientific knowledge, which is the formulation of a logical conclusion by summarizing observational and experimental data. The immediate basis of inductive inference is the repeatability of features in a number of objects of a certain class. A conclusion by induction is a conclusion about the general properties of all objects belonging to a given class, based on the observation of a fairly wide variety of individual facts. Typically, inductive generalizations are viewed as empirical truths, or empirical laws. A distinction is made between complete and incomplete induction. Complete induction builds a general conclusion based on the study of all objects or phenomena of a given class. As a result of complete induction, the resulting conclusion has the character of a reliable conclusion. The essence of incomplete induction is that it builds a general conclusion based on the observation of a limited number of facts, if among the latter there are no ones that contradict the inductive conclusion. Therefore, it is natural that the truth obtained in this way is incomplete; here we obtain probabilistic knowledge that requires additional confirmation.

Deduction is a method of scientific knowledge, which consists in the transition from certain general premises to particular results and consequences. The inference by deduction is constructed according to the following scheme; all items of class “A” have property “B”; item “a” belongs to class “A”; This means “a” has property “B”. In general, deduction as a method of cognition is based on already known laws and principles. Therefore, the deduction method does not allow us to obtain meaningful new knowledge. Deduction is only a way of logical development of a system of propositions based on initial knowledge, a way of identifying the specific content of generally accepted premises. The solution to any scientific problem involves putting forward various guesses, assumptions, and most often more or less substantiated hypotheses, with the help of which the researcher tries to explain facts that do not fit into old theories. Hypotheses arise in uncertain situations, the explanation of which becomes relevant for science. In addition, at the level of empirical knowledge (as well as at the level of its explanation), there are often contradictory judgments. To resolve these problems, hypotheses are required. A hypothesis is any assumption, guess or prediction put forward to eliminate a situation of uncertainty in scientific research. Therefore, a hypothesis is not reliable knowledge, but probable knowledge, the truth or falsity of which has not yet been established. Any hypothesis must be justified either by the achieved knowledge of a given science or by new facts (uncertain knowledge is not used to substantiate the hypothesis). It must have the property of explaining all facts that relate to a given field of knowledge, systematizing them, as well as facts outside this field, predicting the emergence of new facts (for example, the quantum hypothesis of M. Planck, put forward at the beginning of the 20th century, led to the creation of a quantum mechanics, quantum electrodynamics and other theories). Moreover, the hypothesis should not contradict existing facts. A hypothesis must either be confirmed or refuted. To do this, it must have the properties of falsifiability and verifiability. Falsification is a procedure that establishes the falsity of a hypothesis as a result of experimental or theoretical testing. The requirement for falsifiability of hypotheses means that the subject of science can only be fundamentally falsifiable knowledge. Irrefutable knowledge (for example, the truths of religion) has nothing to do with science. However, the experimental results themselves cannot refute the hypothesis. This requires an alternative hypothesis or theory that provides further development of knowledge. Otherwise, the first hypothesis is not rejected. Verification is the process of establishing the truth of a hypothesis or theory as a result of their empirical testing. Indirect verifiability is also possible, based on logical conclusions from directly verified facts.

Particular methods are special methods that operate either only within a particular branch of science, or outside the branch where they originated. This is the method of bird ringing used in zoology. And the methods of physics used in other branches of natural science led to the creation of astrophysics, geophysics, crystal physics, etc. A complex of interrelated particular methods is often used to study one subject. For example, molecular biology simultaneously uses the methods of physics, mathematics, chemistry, and cybernetics.

Topic 2. Modern organization scientific work .

An important role in the success of scientific research is played by the correct organization of scientific work, as well as the timely search for sources of funding for research work.

Classification of sciences- a multi-stage, branched division of sciences, using different bases at different stages of division. All sciences are usually divided into three groups: natural sciences, social and human sciences, and formal sciences.

The natural sciences include physics, chemistry, biological sciences, etc. Some natural sciences, such as cosmology, consider the objects they study in development and thus turn out to be close to the humanities, namely the historical sciences . Dr. natural sciences, such as geography or physical anthropology, formulate comparative assessments and gravitate toward social sciences such as sociology and economics. The field of natural sciences is therefore very heterogeneous. The differences between individual natural sciences are so great that it is impossible to single out any one of them as a paradigm of “natural scientific knowledge.” The idea of ​​neopositivism that physics is the model by which all other sciences (excluding formal ones) should be oriented is counterproductive. Physics is not capable of serving as a model even for the natural sciences themselves. Neither cosmology, nor biology, and especially physical anthropology are similar in their essential features to physics. An attempt to extend the methodology of physics, taken to any full extent, to these scientific disciplines cannot lead to success, nevertheless, there is a certain internal unity of the natural sciences: they strive to describe the fragments of reality they study, and not to evaluate them; The descriptions given by these sciences are usually formulated in terms of comparative concepts rather than absolute ones (time series “earlier-later-at the same time”, spatial relations “closer-further”, causal relation, relation “more likely than”, etc.).

Social sciences include economics, sociology, political science, social psychology, etc. It is characteristic of these sciences that they not only describe, but also evaluate, and in an obvious way they gravitate not towards absolute, but towards comparative assessments, as well as towards comparative concepts in general. The humanities include historical sciences, linguistics (individual), psychology, etc. Some of these sciences gravitate towards pure descriptions (for example, history), others combine description with assessment, and prefer absolute assessments (for example, psychology). The humanities, as a rule, use not comparative, but absolute categories (the time series “was-is-will be”, spatial characteristics “here-there”, the concept of predestination or fate, etc.). The field of social sciences and humanities is even more heterogeneous than the field of natural sciences. The idea of ​​finding a scientific discipline that could serve as a model of socio-humanitarian knowledge is unrealistic. A history that tries to avoid judgment and always discusses the past only from a perspective. the present cannot serve as a model for sociology or economics, which involve explicit and implicit comparative assessments and use an earlier-simultaneous-later time series that does not imply a “present”; political sciences are not able to provide any models for psychology or linguistics, etc. The search for a paradigmatic social or humanitarian discipline is even more utopian than the search for a “model” natural science.

Between the social and human sciences proper lie sciences that can be called normative: ethics, aesthetics, art history, etc. These sciences form, like the social sciences, assessments (and their special case - norms), but the assessments they give are, as a rule, not comparative, but absolute. In the use of absolute assessments, normative sciences resemble the humanities themselves, which always reason in the coordinates of absolute categories.

Formal sciences include logic and mathematics. Their approach to the objects under study is so abstract that the results obtained are used in the study of all areas of reality.

The above classification of sciences is based on two oppositions: “evaluation - description” and “absolute concepts - comparative concepts”. All sciences are first divided into natural sciences, which tend to be described in a system of comparative categories, and social and human sciences, which tend to be assessed in a system of absolute categories; then the latter are divided into social, normative and human sciences. This classification is not the only possible one. There are various other bases for the division of sciences.

Master's degree is the second stage of higher professional education, providing a special, individual training program for each student, aimed at preparing for independent research activities. Preparation for a master's degree includes passing candidate and semester tests and exams, performing scientific research on a chosen topic, preparing and defending a master's thesis. A master's diploma issued by a higher education institution to a person who has completed studies at the second stage of higher education and successfully passed the final certification confirms the right to study in graduate school (postgraduate studies) and (or) for employment, taking into account the previously assigned qualifications of a specialist with higher education and master's degree studies.

Postgraduate studies.

According to UNESCO estimates in the 21st century. in highly developed countries the number of scientists should be 2–5% of the population. Thus, the training of scientific personnel has actually turned into an industry and is carried out in the field of postgraduate professional education, which is distributed across all scientific sectors. The main forms of training are postgraduate and doctoral studies.

Postgraduate studies have always been prestigious, since its graduates are considered highly qualified specialists. The word “graduate student” itself comes from the Latin aspirans (aspirantis) - seeking something, striving for something.

The essence of graduate school is to prepare scientists. Postgraduate training is based on conducting independent scientific research. The results of the research are presented in a dissertation, a scientific work, usually in the form of a manuscript and of a qualifying nature. The dissertation must be a scientific qualifying work that contains a solution to a problem that is significant for the relevant field of knowledge, or a presentation of scientifically based technical, economic or technological developments, providing solutions to important applied problems. Thus, the graduate student's research should be aimed at new solutions to the current problem.

A graduate student's research and dissertation work takes up the majority of his or her study time. But, in addition to the finished dissertation manuscript, to obtain an academic degree, the results of passing the minimum candidate exams (candidate exams) are required. These exams act as a “superstructure” over the ongoing research, since the graduate student must first identify a lack of knowledge, which is possible only after the start of the research, and then compensate for it in preparation for the exams, while studying other issues.

In the first stages of training, a graduate student has reason to seriously think about his specialty. This issue must be discussed with your supervisor. After approval of the specialty, you should also ask the supervisor about dissertations for which degrees have already been awarded and, in his opinion, most clearly demonstrate the requirements for this specialty.

The name of the academic degree is supplemented by the name of the branch of science to which the scientist’s specialty belongs. All specialties within which dissertation research is carried out are classified according to the nomenclature of specialties of scientific workers. The classifier is called a specialty code, and it includes: a science branch code (2 characters), codes for a group of specialties and the specialty itself (also two characters each). The cipher is never given in part, only all 6 digits separated by dots.

For example:

The nomenclature of specialties is approved by special regulations, which, as a rule, have three annexes:

· application No. 1 is available for general distribution,

· Appendix No. 2 – for official use (DSP),

· Appendix No. 3 is secret (it is known that academic degrees can also be awarded in the field of military sciences).

The fields are interconnected, so for many specialties it is possible to award a degree in two or more branches of science. For example, a dissertation in the specialty 08.00.13 - “Mathematical and instrumental methods in economics” can be submitted for the degree of candidate of economic or physical and mathematical sciences, which imposes specific restrictions on the research in advance. At the same time, having a specialty in graduate school does not in itself mean the opportunity to defend a dissertation in any of the branches of science related to it. In addition to the specialty, outside the framework of graduate school, there must be a dissertation council that has the right to award academic degrees in a particular branch of science. The dissertation council receives the right to award degrees in the case of the appropriate specialization of the scientists included in its composition.

During the entire period of study, the graduate student has a supervisor. Depending on the circumstances, the supervisor can be a mentor, consultant, mediator, or colleague for the graduate student. It is very important to correctly assess the role of the supervisor. He provides scientific and methodological assistance, monitors the implementation of work, can provide psychological support, and give recommendations regarding the participation of graduate students in the educational process. The experience of a scientific supervisor often turns out to be irreplaceable. The standards determine that the amount of work of a scientific supervisor associated with one graduate student is equal to five academic hours per month.

Communication between a graduate student and a supervisor is the most significant interaction within the framework of graduate school. Since independence is the most important feature of graduate student education, the initiative in communication should always remain with them. Many supervisors, moreover, regard this initiative as an indicator of the potential of graduate students and rarely complain about their excessive energy. The joint activities of the supervisor and the graduate student should be aimed at making joint decisions based on the results of the work performed by the graduate student. Thus, before each meeting with the supervisor, you should be as specific as possible about what exactly is required from him: an opinion on the work plan, recommendations on the use of methods, assistance in editing the article, etc.

Striving towards the goal of his research, a graduate student can become even more competent in his chosen field than his supervisor, so the graduate student must understand in advance that not every question he has will find an answer from his supervisor.

During the training process, a graduate student may feel that the supervisor does not satisfy all of his requirements. This usually happens when a graduate student’s research is at the “junction” of specializations of different departments or areas of knowledge. In this case, the graduate student has the right to request the appointment of a second supervisor who will be able to advise him on issues of the second specialization. The second scientific supervisor (he may be called a scientific consultant) does not necessarily have to be related to the organization in which the graduate student is studying, i.e., he may not be an employee or even a freelance teacher of this university. Despite the fact that the work of a co-supervisor is usually unpaid, many scientists, especially young ones, may be interested in participating in interesting research. In addition, the successful defense of a dissertation by a graduate student is always a serious achievement of his supervisor, even if he was second.

The completed dissertation is submitted to the department for preliminary defense. Pre-defense – discussion at a department meeting of the presented dissertation and making a decision regarding its readiness for defense. As a rule, during the pre-defense, comments are made to the graduate student that require changes to be made to the manuscript. From the moment of pre-defense to defense, at least three months usually pass. At the same time, only one month is allocated to prepare for the defense after graduation. Further, the status of a graduate student is irretrievably lost, and the status of a candidate of sciences appears only within four months after the applicant’s case is received by the Higher Attestation Commission. This may have undesirable consequences 2, so you should plan a pre-defense date 2-3 months before the end of your studies.

Formally, a successful result of a graduate student’s training is the awarding of scientific qualifications – the scientific degree of Candidate of Sciences. The scientific degree of Candidate of Sciences is awarded by the dissertation council based on the results of the public defense of the dissertation, and then approved by the Higher Attestation Commission of the Republic of Belarus, which draws up the candidate of sciences diploma form and sends it to the dissertation council. The academic degree of Doctor of Science is awarded by the Higher Attestation Commission at the request of the dissertation council, therefore all diplomas in the Republic of Belarus confirming the award of an academic degree are state-issued diplomas. Public certification when awarding academic degrees in the Republic of Belarus is not allowed.

Abroad, an academic degree similar in level to a PhD degree is called Ph. D. – Doctor of Philosophy, which means the holder of the degree has knowledge of the methodology of science. It should be noted that from the name of the Ph. degree. D. it is unclear exactly what sciences the scientist has dealt with or is dealing with, since abroad it is not accepted to strictly link the research carried out to specialties.

Scientists and teachers with extensive professional experience are awarded the academic titles: associate professor, senior researcher, professor. The academic title of associate professor and professor is confirmed by state certificates. The academic titles of associate professor and senior researcher are awarded by academic councils of universities; the procedure for awarding the academic title of professor is somewhat more complicated. There are also positions of professors and associate professors in departments, and they are not always occupied by people with the appropriate academic titles, which is quite acceptable. When indicating the status of a supervisor in official documents, graduate students should be more careful and better clarify all the details.

In addition to academic titles, there are also academic titles of corresponding member and academician.

Postgraduate students who successfully defend their dissertations receive the status of young scientists. Such specialists are distinguished by their ability to self-learn, self-discipline, and objectively assess the situation. They are often insightful in their judgments, able to introduce rational ideas, and have the skills to process large amounts of information, professionally analyze, summarize and present it.

No matter how bleak the prospects for today's graduate students may seem, they need to have a general idea of ​​their potential scientific career. Young scientists, by general recognition, are up to 35 years old, and until this age, in most announced scientific competitions they can act as graduate students. Such competitions have different themes and are held by the Academy of Sciences, public organizations, associations, etc. Prizes for the winners can include grants for training and internships, honorary diplomas and medals, and less often, cash payments. Graduate students may also find such competitions useful as an opportunity to meet new people and improve their skills in presenting and formatting scientific papers.

Another alternative for a candidate of sciences is to continue research to complete a dissertation for the degree of doctor of sciences. Applicants for the academic degree of Doctor of Science in any specialty do not necessarily have to be candidates of science in this particular specialty or in this branch of science. Therefore the candidate economic sciences can become a doctor of technical sciences, etc.

A very likely path for young scientists is teaching. It can be combined with other professional activities; this is even preferable. Any university is interested in having lectures given to students by professionals with an academic degree. Such activities always have a decently paid demand.

In addition, candidates of science are given a preferential opportunity to be awarded the academic title of associate professor in the department. The necessary conditions for this:

· have at least three years of teaching experience (possibly part-time, but the period of postgraduate study is not taken into account);

· work as an assistant professor for at least one calendar year (possibly part-time);

University management usually expects postgraduate graduates to occupy administrative and management positions. Of course, there are other forms of partnership between graduate students and the university (graduate students can do internships in graduate companies; over time, graduate students are expected to carry out research work on the basis of business contracts, etc.) The most favorable scenario for a scientific career means for today’s graduate students receiving at the age of 40, the scientific degree of Doctor of Science and the academic title of professor.

Since full-time graduate students are already specialists with higher professional education, personnel relations are established with them, i.e. Postgraduate study is, in essence, a professional activity. As expected, in such conditions, the date of enrollment is recorded in the work book.

Novosibirsk State University

Faculty of Mechanics and Mathematics

Subject: Concepts of Modern Natural Science

On the topic: “Methods of scientific knowledge”

Panov L.V.

Course 3, group 4123

Science is the main reason for the transition to a post-industrial society, the widespread introduction information technologies, the emergence of a “new economy”. Science has a developed system of methods, principles and imperatives of knowledge. It is the correctly chosen method, along with the scientist’s talent, that helps him to understand the deep connection of phenomena, reveal their essence, discover laws and regularities. The number of scientific methods is constantly increasing. After all, there are a large number of sciences in the world and each of them has its own specific methods and subject of research.

The purpose of this work is to consider in detail the methods of scientific experimental and theoretical knowledge. Namely, what is the method, the main features of the method, classification, scope, etc. The criteria of scientific knowledge will also be considered.

Observation.

Knowledge begins with observation. Observation is a sensory reflection of objects and phenomena of the external world. Observation is a purposeful study of objects, based mainly on such human sensory abilities as sensation, perception, and representation. This is the initial method of empirical knowledge, which allows us to obtain some primary information about the objects of the surrounding reality.

Scientific observation is characterized by a number of features. Firstly, by purposefulness, observation should be carried out to solve the stated research problem, and the observer’s attention should be fixed only on phenomena related to this task. Secondly, systematically, since the observation must be carried out strictly according to plan. Thirdly, by activity - the researcher must actively search, highlight the moments he needs in the observed phenomenon, drawing on his knowledge and experience for this.

During observation, there is no activity aimed at transforming or changing the objects of knowledge. This is due to a number of circumstances: the inaccessibility of these objects for practical influence (for example, observation of distant space objects), the undesirability, based on the purposes of the study, of interference in the observed process (phenological, psychological and other observations), the lack of technical, energy, financial and other capabilities setting up experimental studies of objects of knowledge.

Scientific observations are always accompanied by a description of the object of knowledge. With the help of description, sensory information is translated into the language of concepts, signs, diagrams, drawings, graphs and numbers, thereby taking a form convenient for further rational processing. It is important that the concepts used for description always have a clear and unambiguous meaning. With the development of science and changes in its foundations, the means of description are transformed, and a new system of concepts is often created.

According to the method of conducting observations, they can be direct or indirect. During direct observations, certain properties and aspects of an object are reflected and perceived by human senses. It is known that observations of the positions of planets and stars in the sky, carried out for more than twenty years by Tycho Brahe, were the empirical basis for Kepler’s discovery of his famous laws. Most often, scientific observation is indirect, i.e., carried out using certain technical means. If before the beginning of the 17th century. As astronomers observed celestial bodies with the naked eye, Galileo's invention of the optical telescope in 1608 raised astronomical observations to a new, much higher level. And the creation today of X-ray telescopes and their launch into outer space on board an orbital station has made it possible to observe such objects of the Universe as pulsars and quasars.

The development of modern natural science is associated with the increasing role of so-called indirect observations. Thus, objects and phenomena studied by nuclear physics cannot be directly observed either with the help of human senses or with the help of the most advanced instruments. For example, when studying the properties of charged particles using a cloud chamber, these particles are perceived by the researcher indirectly - through visible tracks consisting of many droplets of liquid.

Experiment

Experiment - more complex method empirical knowledge versus observation. It involves the active, purposeful and strictly controlled influence of the researcher on the object being studied in order to identify and study certain aspects, properties, and connections. In this case, the experimenter can transform the object under study, create artificial conditions for its study, and interfere with natural history processes. In the general structure of scientific research, experiment occupies a special place. It is the experiment that is the connecting link between the theoretical and empirical stages and levels of scientific research.

Some scientists argue that a cleverly thought out and skillfully executed experiment is superior to theory, because theory, unlike experience, can be completely refuted.

An experiment includes, on the one hand, observation and measurement, and on the other, it has a number of important features. Firstly, an experiment allows you to study an object in a “purified” form, that is, eliminate all kinds of side factors and layers that complicate the research process. Secondly, during the experiment, the object can be placed in some artificial, in particular extreme conditions, i.e. studied at ultra-low temperatures, at extremely high pressures or, conversely, in a vacuum, at enormous electromagnetic field strengths, etc. Thirdly, by studying any process, an experimenter can interfere with it and actively influence its course. Fourth, an important advantage of many experiments is their reproducibility. This means that the experimental conditions can be repeated as many times as necessary to obtain reliable results.

Preparing and conducting an experiment requires compliance with a number of conditions. Thus, a scientific experiment presupposes the presence of a clearly formulated research goal. The experiment is based on some initial theoretical principles. An experiment requires a certain level of development of technical means of cognition necessary for its implementation. And finally, it must be carried out by people who are sufficiently qualified.

Based on the nature of the problems being solved, experiments are divided into research and testing. Research experiments make it possible to discover new, unknown properties in an object. The result of such an experiment may be conclusions that do not follow from existing knowledge about the object of study. An example is the experiments carried out in the laboratory of E. Rutherford, which led to the discovery of the atomic nucleus. Verification experiments serve to test and confirm certain theoretical constructs. For example, the existence of a number of elementary particles(positron, neutrino, etc.) were first predicted theoretically, and only later were they discovered experimentally. Experiments can be divided into qualitative and quantitative. Qualitative experiments only allow us to identify the effect of certain factors on the phenomenon being studied. Quantitative experiments establish precise quantitative relationships. As is known, the connection between electrical and magnetic phenomena was first discovered by the Danish physicist Oersted as a result of a purely qualitative experiment (by placing a magnetic compass needle next to a conductor through which electricity, he discovered that the arrow was deviating from its original position). This was followed by quantitative experiments by the French scientists Biot and Savart, as well as Ampere's experiments, on the basis of which a mathematical formula was derived. According to the field of scientific knowledge in which the experiment is carried out, natural science, applied and socio-economic experiments are distinguished.

Measurement and comparison.

Scientific experiments and observations usually involve making a variety of measurements. Measurement is a process that involves determining the quantitative values ​​of certain properties, aspects of the object or phenomenon under study using special technical devices.

The measurement operation is based on comparison. To make a comparison, you need to determine the units of measurement. In science, comparison also acts as a comparative or comparative-historical method. Originally arose in philology and literary criticism, it then began to be successfully applied in law, sociology, history, biology, psychology, history of religion, ethnography and other fields of knowledge. Entire branches of knowledge have emerged that use this method: comparative anatomy, comparative physiology, comparative psychology, etc. Thus, in comparative psychology, the study of the psyche is carried out on the basis of comparing the psyche of an adult with the development of the psyche of a child, as well as animals.

An important aspect of the measurement process is the methodology for carrying it out. It is a set of techniques that use certain principles and means of measurement. By measurement principles we mean the phenomena that form the basis of measurements.

Measurements are divided into static and dynamic. Static measurements include the measurement of body sizes, constant pressure, etc. Examples of dynamic measurements are the measurement of vibration, pulsating pressure, etc. Based on the method of obtaining results, direct and indirect measurements are distinguished. In direct measurements, the desired value of the measured quantity is obtained by directly comparing it with a standard or is issued by a measuring device. In indirect measurement, the desired value is determined on the basis of a known mathematical relationship between this value and other values ​​obtained by direct measurements. For example, finding the electrical resistivity of a conductor by its resistance, length and area cross section. Indirect measurements are widely used in cases where the desired quantity is impossible or too difficult to measure directly.

Over time, on the one hand, existing measuring instruments are improved, on the other, new measuring devices are introduced. So development quantum physics significantly increased the ability to measure with a high degree of accuracy. Using the Mössbauer effect makes it possible to create a device with a resolution of about 10 -13 percent of the measured value. Well-developed measuring instrumentation, a variety of methods and high performance measuring instruments contribute to progress in scientific research.

General characteristics of theoretical methods

Theory is a system of concepts of laws and principles that makes it possible to describe and explain a certain group of phenomena and outline a program of action for their transformation. Consequently, theoretical knowledge is carried out with the help of various concepts, laws and principles. Facts and theories do not oppose each other, but form a single whole. The difference between them is that facts express something individual, while theory deals with the general. In facts and theories, three levels can be distinguished: eventual, psychological and linguistic. These levels of unity can be represented as follows:

Linguistic level: theories include universal statements, facts include individual statements.

Psychological level: thoughts (t) and feelings (f).

Event level - total single events (t) and single events (f)

The theory, as a rule, is constructed in such a way that it describes not the surrounding reality, but ideal objects, such as a material point, ideal gas, absolutely black body, etc. This scientific concept is called idealization. Idealization is a mentally constructed concept of objects, processes and phenomena that do not seem to exist, but have images or prototypes. For example, a small body can serve as a prototype of a material point. Ideal objects, unlike real ones, are characterized not by an infinite, but by a well-defined number of properties. For example, the properties of a material point are mass and the ability to be in space and time.

In addition, the theory specifies the relationships between ideal objects, described by laws. Derived objects can also be constructed from primary ideal objects. As a result, a theory that describes the properties of ideal objects, the relationships between them and the properties of structures formed from primary ideal objects is able to describe the entire variety of data that a scientist encounters at the empirical level.

Let us consider the main methods by which theoretical knowledge is realized. These methods are: axiomatic, constructivist, hypothetic-inductive and pragmatic.

When using the axiomatic method, a scientific theory is constructed in the form of a system of axioms (propositions accepted without logical proof) and rules of inference that allow, through logical deduction, to obtain statements of a given theory (theorems). The axioms should not contradict each other; it is also desirable that they should not depend on each other. The axiomatic method will be discussed in more detail below.

The constructivist method, along with the axiomatic one, is used in mathematical sciences and computer science. In this method, the development of a theory begins not with axioms, but with concepts, the legitimacy of the use of which is considered intuitively justified. In addition, rules for constructing new theoretical structures are set. Only those structures that were actually built are considered scientific. This method is considered the best remedy against the appearance of logical contradictions: the concept is constructed, therefore, the very way of its construction is consistent.

In natural science, the hypothetico-deductive method or the method of hypotheses is widely used. The basis of this method is hypotheses of generalizing power, from which all other knowledge is derived. Until a hypothesis is rejected, it acts as a scientific law. Hypotheses, unlike axioms, require experimental confirmation. This method will be described in detail below.

In the technical and human sciences, the pragmatic method is widely used, the essence of which is the logic of the so-called. practical conclusion. For example, subject L wants to carry out A, but he believes that he will not be able to carry out A if he does not carry out c. Therefore, A is taken to have done c. The logical constructions look like this: A-> p-> c. With the constructivist method, the constructions would have the following form: A-> c-> r. Unlike hypothetico-deductive inference, in which information about a fact is brought under the law, when practical conclusion information about the means c must correspond to the stated goal p, which is consistent with some values.

In addition to the methods discussed, there are also so-called. descriptive methods. They are addressed if the methods discussed above are unacceptable. The description of the phenomena being studied can be verbal, graphic, schematic, formal-symbolic. Descriptive methods are often the stage of scientific research that leads to the ideals of more developed scientific methods. Often this method is the most adequate, since modern science often deals with phenomena that do not obey too stringent requirements.

Abstraction.

In the process of abstraction, there is a departure from sensually perceived concrete objects to abstract ideas about them. Abstraction consists of mental abstraction from some less significant properties, aspects, features of the object being studied while simultaneously highlighting and forming one or more essential aspects, properties, features of this object. The result obtained during the abstraction process is called abstraction.

The transition from the sensory-concrete to the abstract is always associated with a certain simplification of reality. At the same time, ascending from the sensory-concrete to the abstract, theoretical, the researcher gets the opportunity to better understand the object being studied and reveal its essence. The process of transition from sensory-empirical, visual ideas about the phenomena being studied to the formation of certain abstract, theoretical structures that reflect the essence of these phenomena lies at the basis of the development of any science.

Since the concrete is a collection of many properties, aspects, internal and external connections and relationships, it is impossible to know it in all its diversity, remaining at the stage of sensory cognition and limiting ourselves to it. Therefore, there is a need for a theoretical understanding of the concrete, which is usually called the ascent from the sensory-concrete to the abstract. However, the formation of scientific abstractions and general theoretical positions is not the ultimate goal of knowledge, but is only a means of deeper, more versatile knowledge of the concrete. Therefore, it is necessary to further move knowledge from the achieved abstract back to the concrete. The logical-concrete obtained at this stage of the study will be qualitatively different in comparison with the sensory-concrete. The logical-concrete is the concrete, theoretically reproduced in the researcher’s thinking, in all the richness of its content. It contains not only something sensually perceived, but also something hidden, inaccessible to sensory perception, something essential, natural, comprehended only with the help of theoretical thinking, with the help of certain abstractions.

The method of ascent from the abstract to the concrete is used when constructing various scientific theories and can be used in both social and natural sciences. For example, in the theory of gases, having identified the basic laws of an ideal gas - Clapeyron's equations, Avogadro's law, etc., the researcher goes to the specific interactions and properties of real gases, characterizing their essential aspects and properties. As we delve deeper into the concrete, new abstractions are introduced, which act as a deeper reflection of the essence of the object. Thus, in the process of developing the theory of gases, it was found that the ideal gas laws characterize the behavior of real gases only at low pressures. Taking these forces into account led to the formulation of Van der Waals' law.

Idealization. Thought experiment.

Idealization is the mental introduction of certain changes to the object being studied in accordance with the goals of the research. As a result of such changes, for example, some properties, aspects, or features of objects may be excluded from consideration. Thus, the widespread idealization in mechanics - a material point implies a body devoid of any dimensions. Such an abstract object, the dimensions of which are neglected, is convenient when describing the movement of a wide variety of material objects from atoms and molecules to the planets of the solar system. When idealized, an object can be endowed with some special properties that are not realizable in reality. An example is the abstraction introduced into physics through idealization, known as the absolutely black body. This body is endowed with the property, which does not exist in nature, of absorbing absolutely all radiant energy falling on it, without reflecting anything and without letting anything pass through it.

Idealization is appropriate when the real objects to be studied are sufficiently complex for the available means of theoretical, in particular mathematical, analysis. It is advisable to use idealization in cases where it is necessary to exclude certain properties of an object that obscure the essence of the processes occurring in it. A complex object is presented in a “purified” form, which makes it easier to study.

As an example, we can point to three different concepts of “ideal gas”, formed under the influence of different theoretical and physical concepts: Maxwell-Boltzmann, Bose-Einstein and Fermi-Dirac. However, all three idealization options obtained in this case turned out to be fruitful in the study of gas states of various natures: the Maxwell-Boltzmann ideal gas became the basis for studies of ordinary rarefied molecular gases located at fairly high temperatures; The Bose-Einstein ideal gas was used to study photonic gas, and the Fermi-Dirac ideal gas helped solve a number of electron gas problems.

A thought experiment involves operating with an idealized object, which consists in the mental selection of certain positions, situations that make it possible to detect some important features the object under study. Any real experiment, before being carried out in practice, is first carried out by the researcher mentally in the process of thinking and planning. In scientific knowledge, there may be cases when, when studying certain phenomena and situations, conducting real experiments turns out to be completely impossible. This gap in knowledge can only be filled by a thought experiment.

The scientific activity of Galileo, Newton, Maxwell, Carnot, Einstein and other scientists who laid the foundations of modern natural science testifies to the significant role of thought experiments in the formation of theoretical ideas. The history of the development of physics is rich in facts about the use of thought experiments. An example is Galileo's thought experiments, which led to the discovery of the law of inertia.

The main advantage of idealization as a method of scientific knowledge is that the theoretical constructions obtained on its basis then make it possible to effectively study real objects and phenomena. Simplifications achieved through idealization facilitate the creation of a theory that reveals the laws of the studied area of ​​​​phenomena of the material world. If the theory as a whole correctly describes real phenomena, then the idealizations underlying it are also legitimate.

Formalization. Axioms.

Formalization is a special approach in scientific knowledge, which consists in the use of special symbols, which allows one to escape from the study of real objects, from the content of the theoretical provisions describing them, and to operate instead with a certain set of symbols (signs).

This method of cognition consists in constructing abstract mathematical models that reveal the essence of the processes of reality being studied. When formalizing, reasoning about objects is transferred to the plane of operating with signs (formulas). Relationships of signs replace statements about the properties and relationships of objects. In this way, a generalized sign model of a certain subject area is created, which makes it possible to detect the structure of various phenomena and processes while abstracting from the qualitative characteristics of the latter. The derivation of some formulas from others according to the strict rules of logic represents a formal study of the main characteristics of the structure of various, sometimes very distant in nature, phenomena.

An example of formalization is the mathematical descriptions of various objects and phenomena widely used in science, based on relevant substantive theories. At the same time, the mathematical symbolism used not only helps to consolidate existing knowledge about the objects and phenomena being studied, but also acts as a kind of tool in the process of further knowledge of them.

From the course of mathematical logic it is known that in order to build a formal system it is necessary to set the alphabet, set the rules for the formation of formulas, set the rules for deriving some formulas from others. An important advantage of a formal system is the possibility of conducting within its framework the study of any object in a purely formal way, using signs. Another advantage of formalization is to ensure that scientific information is recorded concisely and clearly.

It should be noted that formalized artificial languages ​​do not have the flexibility and richness of natural language. But they lack the polysemy of terms characteristic of natural languages. They are characterized by precisely constructed syntax and unambiguous semantics.

Analysis and synthesis. Induction and deduction. Analogy

Empirical analysis is simply the decomposition of a whole into its constituent, simpler elementary parts. . Such parts can be the material elements of an object or its properties, characteristics, relationships.

Synthesis, on the contrary, is the combination of components of a complex phenomenon. Theoretical analysis involves highlighting the basic and essential in an object, imperceptible to empirical vision. The analytical method includes the results of abstraction, simplification, and formalization. Theoretical synthesis is an expanding knowledge that constructs something new that goes beyond the existing framework.

In the process of synthesis, the components (sides, properties, characteristics, etc.) of the object under study, dissected as a result of analysis, are brought together. On this basis, further study of the object takes place, but as a single whole. At the same time, synthesis does not mean a simple mechanical connection of disconnected elements into a single system. Analysis mainly captures what is specific that distinguishes parts from each other. Synthesis reveals that essential commonality that connects the parts into a single whole.

These two interrelated research methods receive their own specification in each branch of science. From a general technique, they can turn into a special method: for example, there are specific methods of mathematical, chemical and social analysis. The analytical method has also been developed in some philosophical schools and directions. The same can be said about synthesis.

Induction can be defined as a method of moving from knowledge of individual facts to knowledge of general facts. Deduction is a method of moving from knowledge of general laws to their particular manifestation.

Induction is widely used in scientific knowledge. By discovering similar signs and properties in many objects of a certain class, the researcher concludes that these signs and properties are inherent in all objects of a given class. The inductive method played an important role in the discovery of some laws of nature - universal gravitation, atmospheric pressure, thermal expansion of bodies.

The induction method can be implemented in the form of the following methods. The method of single similarity, in which in all cases of observation of a phenomenon only one common factor is found, all others are different. This single similar factor is the cause of this phenomenon. The method of single difference, in which the causes of the occurrence of a phenomenon and the circumstances under which it does not occur are similar in almost all respects and differ only in one factor, present only in the first case. It is concluded that this factor is the cause of this phenomenon. The combined similarity and difference method is a combination of the above two methods. The method of accompanying changes, in which if certain changes in one phenomenon each time entail certain changes in another phenomenon, then a conclusion is drawn about the causal relationship of these phenomena. The method of residuals, in which if a complex phenomenon is caused by a multifactorial cause, and some of these factors are known as the cause of some part of this phenomenon, then the conclusion follows: the cause of another part of the phenomenon is the remaining factors included in the general cause of this phenomenon. In fact, the above methods of scientific induction serve mainly to find empirical relationships between the experimentally observed properties of objects and phenomena.

F. Bacon. interpreted induction extremely broadly, considering it the most important method of discovering new truths in science, the main means of scientific knowledge of nature.

Deduction, on the contrary, is the drawing of particular conclusions based on knowledge of some general provisions. In other words, this is the movement of our thinking from the general to the specific. But the especially great cognitive significance of deduction is manifested in the case when the general premise is not just an inductive generalization, but some kind of hypothetical assumption, for example, a new scientific idea. In this case, deduction is the starting point for the emergence of a new theoretical system. The theoretical knowledge created in this way predetermines the further course of empirical research and guides the construction of new inductive generalizations.

Obtaining new knowledge through deduction exists in all natural sciences, but the deductive method is especially important in mathematics. Mathematicians are forced to use deduction most often. And mathematics is, perhaps, the only truly deductive science.

In modern science, the prominent mathematician and philosopher R. Descartes was a promoter of the deductive method of cognition.

Induction and deduction are not used as isolated, separate from each other. Each of these methods is used at the appropriate stage of the cognitive process. Moreover, in the process of using the inductive method, often “in hidden form“There is also deduction.

Analogy is understood as similarity, similarity of some properties, characteristics or relationships of generally different objects. Establishing similarities (or differences) between objects is carried out as a result of their comparison. Thus, comparison is the basis of the analogy method.

Obtaining a correct conclusion by analogy depends on the following factors. Firstly, on the number of common properties of the compared objects. Secondly, from the ease of discovering common properties. Thirdly, on the depth of understanding of the connections between these similar properties. At the same time, it must be borne in mind that if an object in respect of which an inference is made by analogy with another object has some property that is incompatible with the property the existence of which should be concluded, then the general similarity of these objects loses all meaning .

There are different types of inferences by analogy. But what they have in common is that in all cases one object is directly examined, and a conclusion is drawn about another object. Therefore, inference by analogy in the most general sense can be defined as the transfer of information from one object to another. In this case, the first object, which is actually subject to research, is called a model, and the other object, to which the information obtained as a result of studying the first object (model) is transferred, is called the original or prototype. Thus, the model always acts as an analogy, that is, the model and the object (original) displayed with its help are in a certain similarity (similarity).

The analogy method is used in a variety of fields of science: mathematics, physics, chemistry, cybernetics, humanities, etc.

Modeling

The modeling method is based on creating a model that is a substitute for a real object due to a certain similarity with it. The main function of modeling, if we take it in the broadest sense, is to materialize, to objectify the ideal. Building and studying a model is equivalent to researching and constructing a modeled object, with the only difference being that the second is done materially, and the first is done ideally, without affecting the modeled object itself.

The use of modeling is dictated by the need to reveal aspects of objects that either cannot be comprehended through direct study, or are unprofitable to study them in this way for purely economic reasons. A person, for example, cannot directly observe the process of natural formation of diamonds, the origin and development of life on Earth, a number of phenomena of the microworld and macrocosm. Therefore, we have to resort to artificial reproduction of such phenomena in a form convenient for observation and study. In some cases, it is much more profitable and economical to build and study its model instead of directly experimenting with an object.

Depending on the nature of the model, several types of modeling are distinguished. Mental modeling includes various mental representations in the form of certain imaginary models. It should be noted that mental (ideal) models can often be realized materially in the form of sensory-perceptible physical models. Physical modeling is characterized by physical similarity between the model and the original and aims to reproduce in the model the processes inherent in the original. Based on the results of studying certain physical properties of the model, phenomena occurring in real conditions are judged.

Currently, physical modeling is widely used for the development and experimental study of various structures, machines, for a better understanding of some natural phenomena, for studying effective and safe methods of mining, etc.

Symbolic modeling is associated with a conventionally symbolic representation of some properties, relationships of the original object. Symbolic (sign) models include various topological and graph representations of the objects under study or, for example, models presented in the form of chemical symbols and reflecting the state or ratio of elements during chemical reactions. A type of symbolic (sign) modeling is mathematical modeling. The symbolic language of mathematics makes it possible to express the properties, aspects, relationships of objects and phenomena of a very different nature. The relationships between various quantities that describe the functioning of such an object or phenomenon can be represented by the corresponding equations (differential, integral, algebraic) and their systems. Numerical modeling is based on a previously created mathematical model of the object or phenomenon being studied and is used in cases of large volumes of calculations required to study this model.

Numerical modeling is especially important where the physical picture of the phenomenon being studied is not entirely clear and the internal mechanism of interaction is not known. By calculating various options on a computer, facts are accumulated, which makes it possible, ultimately, to select the most realistic and probable situations. The active use of numerical modeling methods can dramatically reduce the time required for scientific and design development.

The modeling method is constantly evolving: some types of models are being replaced by others as science progresses. At the same time, one thing remains unchanged: the importance, relevance, and sometimes irreplaceability of modeling as a method of scientific knowledge.

To determine the criteria of natural scientific knowledge, several principles have been formulated in the methodology of science - the principle of verification and the principle of falsification. Formulation of the verification principle: any concept or judgment has meaning if it is reducible to direct experience or statements about it, i.e. empirically verifiable. If it is not possible to find something empirically fixed for such a judgment, then it either represents a tautology or is meaningless. Since the concepts of a developed theory, as a rule, are not reducible to experimental data, a relaxation has been made for them: indirect verification is also possible. For example, it is impossible to indicate an experimental analogue to the concept of “quark”. But the quark theory predicts a number of phenomena that can already be detected experimentally. And thereby indirectly verify the theory itself.

The principle of verification makes it possible, to a first approximation, to distinguish scientific knowledge from clearly unscientific knowledge. However, it cannot help where the system of ideas is tailored in such a way that it can interpret absolutely all possible empirical facts in its favor - ideology, religion, astrology, etc.

In such cases, it is useful to resort to another principle of differentiation between science and non-science, proposed by the greatest philosopher of the 20th century. K. Popper, - the principle of falsification. It states: the criterion for the scientific status of a theory is its falsifiability or falsifiability. In other words, only that knowledge can claim the title of “scientific” that is, in principle, refutable.

Despite its seemingly paradoxical form, this principle has a simple and deep meaning. K. Popper drew attention to the significant asymmetry in the procedures of confirmation and refutation in cognition. No number of falling apples is sufficient to definitively confirm the truth of the law of universal gravitation. However, just one apple flying away from the Earth is enough for this law to be recognized as false. Therefore, it is precisely attempts to falsify, i.e. to refute a theory should be most effective in terms of confirming its truth and scientific character.

A theory that is irrefutable in principle cannot be scientific. The idea of ​​the divine creation of the world is in principle irrefutable. For any attempt to refute it can be presented as the result of the same divine plan, all the complexity and unpredictability of which is simply too much for us to handle. But since this idea is irrefutable, it means that it is outside of science.

It can, however, be noted that the consistently applied principle of falsification makes any knowledge hypothetical, i.e. deprives it of completeness, absoluteness, immutability. But this is probably not a bad thing: it is the constant threat of falsification that keeps science “on its toes” and prevents it from stagnating and resting on its laurels.

Thus, the main methods of empirical and theoretical level scientific knowledge. Empirical knowledge includes making observations and experiments. Knowledge begins with observation. To confirm a hypothesis or to study the properties of an object, a scientist places it under certain conditions - conducts an experiment. The block of experimental and observation procedures includes description, measurement, and comparison. At the level of theoretical knowledge, abstraction, idealization, and formalization are widely used. Modeling is of great importance, and with the development computer technology– numerical modeling, since the complexity and cost of conducting an experiment are increasing.

The work describes two main criteria of natural scientific knowledge – the principle of verification and falsification.

1. Alekseev P.V., Panin A.V. “Philosophy” M.: Prospekt, 2000

2. Leshkevich T.G. “Philosophy of Science: Traditions and Innovations” M.: PRIOR, 2001

3. Ruzavin G.I. “Methodology of scientific research” M.: UNITY-DANA, 1999.

4. Gorelov A.A. “Concepts of modern natural science” - M.: Center, 2003.

5. http://istina.rin.ru/philosofy/text/3763.html

6. http://vsvcorp.chat.ru/mguie/teor.htm

There are more important things in the world
wonderful discoveries - this is knowledge
the methods by which they were made.
G. V Leibniz

What is a method? What is the difference between analysis and synthesis, induction and deduction?

Lesson-lecture

What is a method. Method in science they call a method of constructing knowledge, a form of practical and theoretical mastery of reality. Francis Bacon compared the method to a lamp illuminating the way for a traveler in the dark: “Even a lame man walking along the road is ahead of him who walks without a road.” The correctly chosen method must be clear, logical, lead to a specific goal, and produce results. The study of a system of methods is called methodology.

Methods of cognition that are used in scientific activity, - This empirical(practical, experimental) - observation, experiment and theoretical(logical, rational) - analysis, synthesis, comparison, classification, systematization, abstraction, generalization, modeling, induction, deduction. In real scientific knowledge, these methods are always used in unity. For example, when developing an experiment, a preliminary theoretical understanding of the problem is required, the formulation of a research hypothesis, and after the experiment, it is necessary to process the results using mathematical methods. Let's look at the features of some theoretical methods knowledge.

For example, all high school students can be divided into subclasses - “girls” and “boys”. You can choose another feature, such as height. In this case, classification can be carried out in different ways: for example, highlighting the height limit of 160 cm and classifying students into subclasses “short” and “tall” or dividing the height scale into segments of 10 cm, then the classification will be more detailed. If we compare the results of such a classification over several years, this will allow us to empirically establish trends in the physical development of students.

CLASSIFICATION AND SYSTEMATIZATION. Classification allows you to organize the material under study, grouping the set (class) of objects under study into subsets (subclasses) in accordance with the selected characteristic.

Classification as a method can be used to obtain new knowledge and even serve as the basis for constructing new scientific theories. In science, they usually use classifications of the same objects according to different criteria depending on their goals. However, the attribute (the basis for classification) is always chosen. For example, chemists divide the class “acids” into subclasses according to the degree of dissociation (strong and weak), and according to the presence of oxygen (oxygen-containing and oxygen-free), and according to physical properties(volatile - non-volatile; soluble - insoluble), and according to other characteristics.

The classification may change as science develops. In the middle of the 20th century. the study of various nuclear reactions led to the discovery of elementary (non-fissile) particles. Initially they began to be classified by mass; This is how leptons (small), mesons (intermediate), baryons (large) and hyperons (superlarge) appeared. Further developments in physics showed that classification by mass had little physical meaning, but the terms were retained, resulting in the appearance of leptons, which were much more massive than baryons.

It is convenient to display the classification in the form of tables or diagrams (graphs). For example, a classification of planets in the Solar System, represented by a graph diagram, may look like this:

Please note that the planet Pluto in this classification represents a separate subclass and does not belong to either the terrestrial planets or the giant planets. This is a dwarf planet. Scientists note that Pluto's properties are similar to an asteroid, of which there may be many on the periphery of the solar system.

When studying complex natural systems, classification actually serves as the first step towards building a natural scientific theory. The next, higher level is systematization (systematization). Systematization is carried out on the basis of classification of a sufficiently large volume of material. At the same time, the most essential features are identified that make it possible to present the accumulated material as a system in which all the various relationships between objects are reflected. It is necessary in cases where there is a variety of objects and the objects themselves are complex systems. The result of systematization of scientific data is taxonomy, or, otherwise, taxonomy. Systematics, as a field of science, developed in such fields of knowledge as biology, geology, linguistics, and ethnography.

The unit of systematics is called a taxon. In biology, taxa are, for example, phylum, class, family, genus, order, etc. They are united into a single system of taxa of various ranks according to a hierarchical principle. Such a system includes a description of all existing and extinct organisms and clarifies the paths of their evolution. If scientists find a new species, they must confirm its place in the overall system. Changes can also be made to the system itself, which remains developing and dynamic. Systematics makes it easy to navigate the diversity of organisms - about 1.5 million species of animals alone are known, and more than 500 thousand species of plants are known, not counting other groups of organisms. Modern biological taxonomy reflects Saint-Hilaire's law: “The diversity of life forms forms a natural taxonomic system consisting of hierarchical groups of taxa of various ranks.”

INDUCTION AND DEDUTION. The path of knowledge, in which, based on the systematization of accumulated information - from the particular to the general - a conclusion is made about an existing pattern, is called by induction. This method as a method of studying nature was developed by the English philosopher Francis Bacon. He wrote: “We must take as many cases as possible - both those where the phenomenon under study is present, and those where it is absent, but where one would expect to find it; then you need to arrange them methodically... and give the most likely explanation; finally, try to verify this explanation by further comparison with the facts.”

Induction is not the only way to obtain scientific knowledge about the world. If experimental physics, chemistry and biology were built as sciences mainly through induction, then theoretical physics and modern mathematics were based on a system of axioms - consistent, speculative, reliable from the point of view of common sense and level historical development science of statements. Then knowledge can be built on these axioms by drawing conclusions from the general to the particular, moving from premises to consequences. This method is called deduction. It was developed by Rene Descartes, a French philosopher and scientist.

A striking example of gaining knowledge about one subject in different ways is the discovery of the laws of motion celestial bodies. I. Kepler based large quantity Observational data on the movement of the planet Mars at the beginning of the 17th century. discovered by induction the empirical laws of planetary motion in the solar system. At the end of the same century, Newton deductively derived generalized laws of motion of celestial bodies based on the law of universal gravitation.

Portraits of F. Bacon and V. Livanov in the image of S. Holmes Why are the portraits of the scientist and the literary hero located next to each other?

In real research activities, scientific research methods are interconnected.

• Using reference literature, find and write down definitions of the following theoretical research methods: analysis, synthesis, comparison, abstraction, generalization.
• Carry out a classification and draw up a diagram of the empirical and theoretical methods of scientific knowledge known to you.
• Do you agree with the point of view of the French writer Vovnart: “Intelligence does not replace knowledge”? Justify your answer.

VERBAL METHODS OF TRAINING.

Verbal methods occupy a leading place in the system of teaching methods. There were periods when they were almost the only way to transfer knowledge. Progressive teachers - Ya.A. Komensky, K.D. Ushinsky and others - opposed the absolutization of their meaning, argued for the need to supplement them with visual and practical methods. Nowadays they are often called obsolete, “inactive”. The evaluation of this group of methods must be approached objectively. Verbal methods make it possible to convey a large amount of information in the shortest possible time, pose problems to students and indicate ways to solve them. With the help of a word, a teacher can evoke in the minds of children bright pictures past, present and future of humanity. The word activates the imagination, memory, and feelings of students.

Verbal methods are divided into the following types: story, explanation, conversation, discussion, lecture, work with a book.

Story is a monologue presentation of educational material used for a consistent, systematized, intelligible and emotional presentation of knowledge. This method is most often used in elementary schools. The teacher turns to the story when children need to be told vivid, new facts, events, or something that children cannot observe directly. The story is a powerful source of influence on the mental activity, imagination, emotions of younger schoolchildren, expanding their horizons. The main means of teaching are: speech, illustrations, methodological and mnemonic techniques, logical techniques of comparison, juxtaposition, summarization.

The main conditions for the success of this method are:

· successful combination of combination with other methods:

· positive emotional perception;

· conditions (time, place);

· not being overloaded with facts;

· teacher's ability to tell.

A number of pedagogical requirements are usually presented to the story, as a method of presenting new knowledge:

The story should provide the ideological and moral orientation of teaching;

Contain only reliable and scientifically verified facts;

Include a sufficient number of vivid and convincing examples and facts that prove the correctness of the proposed provisions;

Have a clear logic of presentation;

Be emotional;

Be presented in simple and accessible language;

Reflect elements of the teacher’s personal assessment and attitude to the facts and events presented.

Conversation - a dialogical teaching method, in which the teacher, by asking a carefully thought-out system of questions, leads students to understand new material or checks their assimilation of what has already been studied. Conversation is one of the oldest methods didactic work. It was masterfully used by Socrates, from whose name the concept of “Socratic conversation” originated. Depending on the specific tasks, the content of the educational material, the level of creative and cognitive activity of students, and the place of conversation in the didactic process, different types of conversations are distinguished. Heuristic conversation (from the word “eureka” - I find, I open) is widespread. During a heuristic conversation, the teacher, relying on the students’ existing knowledge and practical experience, leads them to understand and assimilate new knowledge, formulate rules and conclusions. Informative conversations are used to convey new knowledge. If a conversation precedes the study of new material, it is called introductory or introductory. The purpose of such a conversation is to induce in students a state of readiness to learn new things. Consolidating conversations are used after learning new material.

During the conversation, questions can be addressed to one student (individual conversation) or by students of the whole class (frontal conversation). One type of conversation is an interview. It can be carried out both with the class as a whole and with individual groups of students. It is especially useful to organize an interview in high school, when students show more independence in judgment, can pose problematic questions, and express their opinions on certain topics put up for discussion by the teacher.

The success of conversations largely depends on the correctness of asking questions. Questions are asked by the teacher to the whole class so that all students are prepared to answer. Questions should be short, clear, meaningful, and formulated in such a way as to awaken the student’s thoughts. You should not ask double, suggestive questions or encourage guessing the answer. You should not formulate alternative questions that require clear answers like “yes” or “no”.

In general, the conversation method has the following advantages:

Activates students;

Develops their memory and speech;

Makes students' knowledge open;

Has great educational power;

It is a good diagnostic tool.

Disadvantages of the conversation method:

Requires a lot of time;

Contains an element of risk (a student may give an incorrect answer, which is perceived by other students and recorded in their memory);

A stock of knowledge is required

Explanation – verbal interpretation of objects, phenomena, patterns, connections, most often monologue presentation. An explanation can be either in a “pure” form, that is, the teacher uses only this method, or as part of a conversation, story, or, conversely, the structure of the explanation includes elements of a conversation, story, etc. Using the explanation method requires:

Precise and clear formulation of the task, the essence of the problem, the question;

Consistent disclosure of cause-and-effect relationships, argumentation and evidence;

Use of comparison, juxtaposition, analogy;

Attracting striking examples;

Impeccable logic of presentation.

Explanation as a teaching method is widely used in working with children of different age groups. However, in middle and high school age, due to the complexity of educational material and the increasing intellectual capabilities of students, the use of this method becomes more necessary than when working with younger students. As an independent method, explanation often acts as instruction: how to write a presentation, how to do laboratory work, etc.

Working with a textbook and book- the most important teaching method. In primary school, work with books is carried out mainly in lessons under the guidance of a teacher. In the future, schoolchildren increasingly learn to work with the book independently. There are a number of techniques independent work with printed sources. The main ones:

- Note taking- a summary, a brief record of the content of what was read. Note-taking is done in the first (oneself) or third person. Taking notes in the first person better develops independent thinking.

- Drawing up a text plan . The plan can be simple or complex. To draw up a plan, after reading the text, you need to break it into parts and title each part.

- Testing- a brief summary of the main ideas of what was read.

- Quoting- verbatim excerpt from the text. The output data must be indicated (author, title of the work, place of publication, publisher, year of publication, page).

- Annotation- a brief condensed summary of the content of what was read without losing the essential meaning.

- Review - writing a short review expressing your attitude about what you read.

- Drawing up a certificate - information about something obtained after searching. Certificates can be static, biographical, terminological, geographical, etc.

- Drawing up a formal logical model - verbal-schematic representation of what was read.

- Compilation of a thematic thesaurus - an ordered set of basic concepts by section, topic.

- Drawing up a matrix of ideas - comparative characteristics of homogeneous objects and phenomena in the works of different authors.

PRACTICAL TRAINING METHODS

PRIMARY NATURAL SCIENCE.

Practical teaching methods in natural science are based on the practical activities of students. They contribute to the formation of practical skills. IN primary school in natural science, practical methods include observation, recognition and determination of features, modeling and experiment or experiment. You can also highlight types of practical work, for example with a geographical map. Practical teaching methods cover a very wide range various types students' activities. When using practical methods, the following techniques are used:

· setting the task,

· planning its implementation,

· execution process management,

· operational stimulation, regulation and control,

· analysis of the results of practical work,

· identifying the causes of shortcomings,

· adjusting training to fully achieve the goal.

In the classroom, it is necessary to make the optimal decision when choosing practical teaching methods, just like any other. For example:

· What problems is this method particularly successful in solving? To develop practical skills.

· For what content of educational material is it especially rational to use this method? When the content of the topic includes practical exercises and experiments.

· Under what characteristics of students is it rational to use this method? When students are ready to complete practical tasks.

· What capabilities should a teacher have to use? this method? When the teacher has the necessary material to conduct experiments and exercises.

Observation.

Observation, as a teaching method, is an active form of sensory cognition. More often this method is used when studying natural science subjects. Observations can be carried out either under the guidance of a teacher or independently by students on the instructions of the teacher.When using this method, careful preparation is required: it is necessary to warn students about side effects, teach them to record and process observational data, etc. This method promotes the development of independent work skills and has great cognitive and educational significance.

Types of observations:

· in the classroom or outdoors.

· behind objects of inanimate nature;

· behind the phenomena of inanimate nature;

· for objects of wildlife;

· frontal, group or individual.

Children observe independently or under the direct supervision of the teacher. Requirements: 1) Specificity 2) Systematicity Observation is an important source of knowledge about the world around us. They provide the basis on which mental operations are subsequently built. Observation is a means of developing thinking. Any observations begin with setting a goal, defining an object. An important condition for observation is the reasonable selection of objects. Observation stages: 1) Consideration of the object as a whole (to form a holistic view of the object). 2) Work on examining parts of the object. 3) Generalization of what was seen. Techniques for consolidating observation: 1) Look at the object, then close your eyes and mentally imagine it. 2) Imitation. 3) Comparison. 4) Working with illustrations. 5) Independent observation.

Method of recognition and determination of features.

The basis of the method is the analysis of external, morphological and partially anatomical features of objects. It is used when working with handouts, when there is a need to create a description of objects, phenomena, highlight their characteristics, and determine the location of a given object or phenomenon. When using the method, instruction is required. For example: studying the characteristics of plants, studying a thermometer. Modeling method. Kinds: · material (globe) · ideal (speculative, mentally constructed) · figurative (built from · sensory visual elements) · symbolic (symbols) That is, the child himself makes a model based on the created image.

Educational (didactic) games.

This is specially madeThese situations simulate reality, from which students are asked to find a way out. The main purpose of this method isstimulate the cognitive process. Modern didactic games in primary school are preproperty games according to the rules .

Games have many functions: they activate cognitive skillscesses; cultivate children's interest and attentiveness; develop special educationproperties; introduce children into life situations; teach them to act according to the rules; develop curiosity and attentiveness; consolidate knowledge and skills.A properly constructed game enriches the gamethe process of thinking with individual feelings, develops self-regulation lation, strengthens the child’s will.The most common are role-playing games, exercise gamesnia, dramatization games, construction games. In the educational processonly elements can be used didactic game - gamedifferent situation, technique, exercise.Basic requirements that teachers must observe when planning and conducting didactic games: the game must orglogically follow from the logic of the educational process, and not be artificially tied to it;must have an interestingattractive name; contain truly game elements; have mandatory rules that must not be violated; contain counting rhymes, poems.

Method Experiment or experiments.

When using certain methods and techniques of activation, it is always necessary to take into account the existing level of development of students’ cognitive abilities. Complex cognitive tasks can only be presented to students with a high level of cognitive development. Tasks that are not correlated with the level of development of the student’s cognitive powers, that exceed the student’s capabilities, that place demands on him, that are significantly ahead of his level of development, cannot play a positive role in learning. They undermine students' confidence in their strengths and abilities.

One of the most important practical teaching methods is experimentation. It plays a special role in learning.

So what is an experiment?

Word " experiment" comes from a Greek word and is translated as “test, experience.”

"Modern Dictionary of Foreign Words" (1994) contains the following definition: experiment - this is “1. a scientifically conducted experiment, observation of the phenomenon being studied under scientifically taken into account conditions, allowing one to monitor the progress of the phenomenon and reproduce it many times when these conditions are repeated; 2. in general, experience, an attempt to accomplish something.”

The Great Soviet Encyclopedia adds: “Different from observation by actively operating the object under study, an experiment is carried out on the basis of theory, determines the formulation of problems and the interpretation of its results.”

“An experiment... is a systematic observation. Thus, a person creates the possibility of observations, on the basis of which his knowledge about the patterns in the observed phenomenon is formed” (“Brief Philosophical Encyclopedia”, 1994).

"An experiment... is a sensory - objective activity in science; in a narrower sense of the word - experience, reproduction of the object of knowledge, testing of hypotheses, etc." "Soviet Encyclopedic Dictionary" (1997);

From the above definitions it is clear that in the narrow sense of the word the terms “experience” and “experiment” are synonymous: “The concept of experience essentially coincides with the category of practice, in particular, experiment, observation” (TSB, 1974). However, in a broad sense, “experience also acts as a process of human influence on external world, and as a result of this influence in the form of knowledge and skills" ("Soviet Encyclopedic Dictionary"). In science, experiment is used to obtain knowledge unknown to humanity as a whole. In the learning process, it is used to obtain knowledge unknown to this particular person.The experiment introduces students to the phenomena themselves. It helps to arouse interest in the subject, teach students to observe processes, master work techniques, and develop practical skills and abilities.

The experiment can be divided into two types: demonstration and student. A demonstration is an experiment that is conducted in a classroom by a teacher, a laboratory assistant, or sometimes one of the students. A demonstration experiment allows the teacher to create interest in the subject among schoolchildren and teach them to perform certain operations; laboratory techniques. Requirements:

- Visibility

- Simplicity

- Experiment safety

- Reliability

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It should be remembered that an experiment is a research method, so it is better to conduct a smaller number of them, but each experiment must be explained. Experiment, as a teaching method, has great educational opportunities in the development of cognitive activity of schoolchildren. Each student must understand why he is doing the experiment and how to solve the problem assigned to him. He studies substances organoleptically or with the help of instruments and indicators, examines the parts of the device or the entire device. By performing the experiment, the student masters techniques and manipulations, observes and notices the features of the process, and distinguishes important changes. After completing the experiment, he must write a report.

Reliance on a specific image, its formation - visibility function.

Incentive function is due to the possibility of the experiment to enhance the cognitive activity of students and, on this basis, to form a sustainable interest in the subject.

Worldview function difficult to overestimate. A scientific vision of the world cannot be formed without observations of the phenomena that surround us, without experiments with them.

Methodological function is that it allows you to clearly identify the stages of cognition. Here, experiment in the vast majority of cases is a source of contradictions, is responsible for identifying a group of initial facts, studying the behavior of a material model when identifying a hypothesis, and finally, only an experiment can give a conclusion about the reliability of the logical consequences of the hypothesis. Secondly, the structure, means and methods of a scientific experiment are clearly reflected.

Teaching - controlling function due to the fact that experiment has become the leading visual and practical method of teaching. A teacher can study the depth of understanding of a subject by schoolchildren objectively if, as one of the tasks, he offers to conduct a short-term experiment and explain the results obtained.

Moral - labor function involves the formation in students of a positive attitude towards work, the cultivation of such moral qualities as perseverance, responsibility, dedication, accuracy, frugality, initiative, etc.

Rational - personal function is aimed at developing students’ thinking and associated individual qualities such as creativity and independence.

The main advantage of using the experimental method is that in its process:

Children get real ideas about the various aspects of the object being studied, about its relationships with other objects and with the environment.

The child’s memory is enriched, his thought processes are activated, as the need constantly arises to perform operations of analysis and synthesis, comparison and classification, and generalization.

The child’s speech develops, as he needs to give an account of what he saw, formulate discovered patterns and conclusions.

There is an accumulation of a fund of mental techniques and operations that are considered as mental skills.

It is also important for the formation of independence, goal setting, and the ability to transform any objects and phenomena to achieve a certain result.

In progress experimental activities The child’s emotional sphere and creative abilities develop, work skills are formed, and health is improved by increasing the overall level of physical activity.

Classification of experiments.

Experiments are classified according to different principles.

According to the nature of the objects used in the experiment: experiments: with plants; with animals; with objects of inanimate nature; the object of which is a person.

At the location of the experiments: in a group room; on the site; in the forest, in the field, etc.

By number of children: individual; group; collective.

Due to their implementation: random; planned; posed in response to a child’s question.

By the nature of inclusion in the pedagogical process: episodic (carried out from time to time); systematic.

By duration: short-term (5 - 15 min.); long (over 15 minutes).

By the number of observations of the same object: one-time; multiple, or cyclic.

By place in the loop: primary; repeated; final and final.

By the nature of mental operations: ascertaining (allowing one to see one state of an object or one phenomenon without connection with other objects and phenomena); comparative (allowing you to see the dynamics of a process or note changes in the state of an object); generalizing (experiments in which the general patterns of a process previously studied at individual stages are traced).

According to the nature of children’s cognitive activity: illustrative (children know everything, and the experiment only confirms familiar facts); search (children do not know in advance what the result will be); solving experimental problems.

By method of use in the classroom: demonstration; frontal.

Each type of experimentation has its own methodology, its pros and cons.

The experiment can also be divided into two types: demonstration and student. Demonstration is called an experiment conducted in a classroom by a teacher, a laboratory assistant, or sometimes one of the students. A demonstration experiment allows the teacher to create interest in the subject among schoolchildren and teach them to perform certain operations; laboratory techniques. Requirements:

- Visibility. The experiment should be carried out so that the phenomenon can be observed from anywhere in the classroom. The teacher's desk should not be cluttered with unnecessary objects so that the teacher's hands are visible. You can use a lifting table or an overhead projector.

- Simplicity. The device in which the experiment is demonstrated should not contain unnecessary details or clutter, so that the students’ attention is not distracted from the process. You should not get carried away with spectacular experiments, since less spectacular experiments will not attract attention.

- Experiment safety . The teacher is responsible for the safety of students, therefore the classroom must have fire safety equipment, a fume hood for working with harmful and odorous substances, and first aid equipment. When conducting dangerous experiments, a protective shield should be used.

- Reliability. The experiment must always be successful, and for this purpose, the experimental technique must be carefully worked out before conducting it, all operations must be clear and confident; Sloppiness in the design of the experience is unacceptable. The teacher must monitor his appearance and behavior. In case of failure, it is necessary to find out its cause and repeat the experiment in the next lesson.

- The need to explain the experiment . Any experience must be accompanied by the word of a teacher. The pauses that occur can be used to organize a dialogue with schoolchildren and clarify the conditions for conducting the experiment.

It should be remembered that an experiment is a research method, so it is better to conduct a smaller number of them, but each experiment must be explained.

Student experiment- This is a type of independent work. It not only enriches students with new knowledge, concepts, teachings, but also proves the truth of the knowledge they have acquired, which ensures a deeper understanding and assimilation of the material. It allows you to more fully implement the principle of connection between theory and practice. Student experiment is divided into laboratory experiments and practical exercises.

The final stage of the experiment is summing up the results and drawing conclusions. When formulating conclusions, it is necessary to stimulate the development of children's speech by asking questions that are non-repetitive in content and require a detailed answer from children. When analyzing and recording the results obtained, it is necessary to remember that an unintended result is not incorrect.

Exercises.

Exercises are understood as repeated (multiple) performance of a mental or practical action in order to master it or improve its quality. Exercises are used in the study of all subjects and at various stages of the educational process. The nature and method of exercise depends on the characteristics academic subject, specific material, the issue being studied and the age of the students. Exercises by their nature are divided into oral, written, graphic and educational. When performing each of them, students perform mental and practical work. According to the degree of independence of students when performing exercises, they are distinguished: · exercises to reproduce the known for the purpose of consolidation - reproducing exercises; · exercises to apply knowledge in new conditions - training exercises; If, while performing actions, a student speaks to himself or out loud and comments on upcoming operations, such exercises are called commented exercises. Commenting on actions helps the teacher detect common mistakes and make adjustments to students’ actions. Let's consider the features of using exercises. Oral exercises contribute to the development of logical thinking, memory, speech and attention of students. They are dynamic and do not require time-consuming record keeping. Written exercises are used to consolidate knowledge and develop skills in its application. Their use contributes to the development of logical thinking, written language culture, and independence in work. Written exercises can be combined with oral and graphic exercises. Graphic exercises include: · students’ work on drawing up diagrams, drawings, graphs, technological maps, · making albums, posters, stands, making sketches during · laboratory and practical work, excursions, etc. Graphic exercises are usually performed simultaneously with written ones and solve common educational problems. Their use helps students better perceive, comprehend and remember educational material, and contributes to the development of spatial imagination. Graphic work, depending on the degree of independence of students in their implementation, can be of a reproductive, training or creative nature. Training and labor exercises include · practical work of students with a production and labor orientation. The purpose of these exercises is to apply students' theoretical knowledge in their work activities. Such exercises help labor education students. Exercises are effective only if a number of requirements are met: · students’ conscious approach to their implementation; · compliance with the didactic sequence in performing exercises - first, exercises on memorizing and memorizing educational material, then - on reproduction - application of previously learned - on · independent transfer of what has been learned to non-standard situations - to creative · application, which ensures the inclusion of new material in the system of already acquired knowledge, skills and abilities. Problem-search exercises that develop students’ ability to guess and intuition are also extremely necessary. Practical work is carried out after studying large sections, and the topics are general in nature. They can be carried out not only in the classroom, but also outside the school (measurements on the ground, work on the school site). Laboratory works. Laboratory work is the conduct by students, on the instructions of the teacher, of experiments using instruments, using tools and other technical devices, i.e. This is the study by students of any phenomena with the help of special equipment. Laboratory work is carried out in an illustrative or research manner. A type of research laboratory work can be long-term observations of students on individual phenomena, such as plant growth and the development of animals, over the weather, wind, clouds, the behavior of rivers and lakes depending on the weather, etc. In some schools, as part of laboratory work, it is practiced to instruct schoolchildren to collect and replenish exhibits from local history museums or school museums, study the folklore of their region, etc. In any case, the teacher draws up instructions, and students record the results of the work in the form of reports, numerical indicators, graphs, diagrams , tables. Laboratory work can be part of a lesson, occupy a lesson or more.

VISUAL METHODS OF TRAINING.

Visual methods include demonstration of natural objects, demonstration of experiments, demonstration of images or objects or phenomena. Visual methods are used at all stages of the pedagogical process. Their role is to provide comprehensive imaginative perception and provide support for thinking. Demonstration- this is a set of actions of the teacher, which consists of showing students the objects themselves, their models or images, or an appropriate explanation of their characteristics.

The main means of demonstration are: objects under study (in their natural form), artificial substitutes for natural objects.

The success of this method is:

· active student participation;

· correct choice of objects;

· the teacher’s ability to direct students’ attention to the essential aspects of phenomena;

· combination with other methods.

When using visual teaching methods, a number of conditions must be met:

a) the visualization used must be appropriate for the age of the students;

b) visualization should be used in moderation and should be shown gradually and only at the appropriate moment in the lesson;

c) observation should be organized in such a way that all students can clearly see the object being demonstrated;

d) it is necessary to clearly highlight the main, essential things when showing illustrations;

e) think through in detail the explanations given during the demonstration of phenomena;

f) the clarity demonstrated must be precisely consistent with the content of the material;

g) involve the students themselves in finding the desired information in a visual aid or demonstration device.

Visual teaching methods can be divided into two large groups:

· illustration methods;

· demonstration method.

Illustration method involves showing students illustrative aids: posters, maps, sketches on the board, paintings, portraits of scientists, etc.
Demonstration method usually associated with demonstration of instruments, experiments, technical installations, various kinds of drugs. Demonstration methods also include showing films and filmstrips. This division of visual aids into illustrative and demonstrative has historically developed in teaching practice. It does not exclude the possibility of classifying certain visual aids as both illustrative and demonstration methods. This applies, for example, to displaying illustrations through an epidiascope or overhead projector.
When using visual methods, the following techniques are used: showing, providing better visibility (screen, tinting, lighting, lifting devices, etc.), discussing the results of observations, demonstrations, etc.
Conditions for the effective use of visualization.
There are several methodological conditions, the fulfillment of which ensures the successful use of visual teaching aids:

1) good visibility, which is achieved by using appropriate paints in the manufacture of lifting tables, backlight screens, raters, signs, etc.;

2) clearly highlighting the main thing when showing illustrations, since they sometimes contain distracting moments;

3) detailed thinking through the explanations (introductory, during the demonstration and final) necessary to clarify the essence of the demonstration phenomena, as well as to summarize the learned educational information;

4) involving the students themselves in finding the desired information in a visual aid or demonstration device, setting them problematic tasks of a visual nature.
In conditions of demonstration of chemical, physical and other technical installations, it is necessary to strictly adhere to safety rules, which are clearly defined by the relevant instructional documents.