in the past one of the large Adyghe tribes, now - ethnographic. group Adyghe people. They live in the village of Shovgenovsky, Shovgenovsky district, Adygea Autonomous Okrug. They speak the Abadzekh dialect Adyghe language, which is gradually being replaced by lit. Adyghe language. A.'s believers are Sunni Muslims. The main occupations are agriculture, animal husbandry, and gardening.
Abaza(otherwise the Abaza hordes) - in sources of the 16th-18th centuries. collective name of the peoples inhabiting the Black Sea coast of the North. Caucasus (Abkhazians, Sadzes, Ubykhs, Black Sea Adygs, etc.). However, most often this name meant the North Caucasus. Abazins. According to A. Genko, all the Abaz-speaking tribes constituted a fairly unified collective linguistically, “mutual understanding within which in the past was much more achievable than at the present time” (Slavic Encyclopedia). See also Abaza
Zikhi - (Zigi), ancient tribes in the north-west of the Caucasus (1st century BC - 15th century).
Iberians - the ancient population of the territory of modern Eastern Georgian; lived in the territory of Iberia (Iberia).
Kasogi- the name of the Circassians in Russian chronicles. Kasogi - Russian name of the Middle Ages. Circassians who lived in the Kuban region. First mentioned. Byzantine by authors at the turn of the 8th - 9th centuries. The Arabs called the Kasogs “keshaks” (Masudi - 10th century) and considered them a powerful “well-organized” tribe. In the 10th century Kasogs were part of Khazaria. In 1022 Tmutarakan. book Mstislav Vladimirovich Brave defeated Kasozhsk. book Rededyu. In 1024, the Kasogs took part in the fight between Mstislav and his brother, Vel. book Kyiv. Yaroslav Vladimirovich the Wise, for supremacy in Rus'. In 1223, the Kasogs were conquered by the Tatar-Mongols during the latter’s campaign to the North. Caucasus and Black Sea steppes. Later the Kasogs apparently advanced into the center. Northern areas Caucasus.
Caspian Sea- ancient Caucasian tribes of nomadic pastoralists in the East. Azerbaijan (1st millennium BC)
Kerkety - ancient tribe northwestern Caucasus, ancestors of the Circassians.
Kolhi - common name ancient agricultural tribes in the southwest of Transcaucasia in the 1st millennium BC. e.
Corax- the ancient Greek name of one of the West Georgian tribes on the territory of modern Abkhazia (5th century BC - 2nd century AD)
The Caucasus is the southern border of Europe and Asia; more than 30 nationalities live here. The Greater Caucasus Range divides the region in half: its northern slopes (North Caucasus) are almost entirely part of Russia, while its southern slopes are shared by Georgia, Azerbaijan and Armenia. For centuries, the Caucasus remained an arena of rivalry between world powers: Byzantium, Persia, and the Ottoman Empire. At the end of the XVIII - early XIX century, the Caucasus almost entirely became part of the Russian Empire. At the end of the twentieth century, with the collapse of the USSR, the Transcaucasian republics gained independence, and the North Caucasian peoples remained part of Russia.
From the Taman Peninsula along coastline The western part of the Caucasus Range stretches to the Black Sea to Sochi - this is the historical homeland of the Circassians (another name is the Adyghe), a group of related peoples who speak the Adyghe language. After Crimean War 1853-1856, in which the Circassian Circassians supported the Turks, most of them fled to the territory of the Ottoman Empire, the Russians occupied the coast. The Western Circassians, who remained in the mountains and accepted Russian citizenship, began to be called Circassians. Today they live on the territory of Adygea, the westernmost North Caucasian republic, surrounded on all sides like an island Krasnodar region. To the east of Adygea - on the territory of the Karachay-Cherkess Republic live the Circassians, the eastern part of the Adyghe ethnic group, and even further - the Kabardians, also a people related to the Adygs. Adyghe, Kabardians and Circassians speak languages belonging to the same language family: Abkhaz-Adyghe. Like many North Caucasian peoples, the Circassians, originally pagans, adopted Christianity around the 6th century (almost four centuries before Rus'); there even existed their own episcopal sees, however, with the fall of Byzantium, under the influence of Persian and later Ottoman influence, most of the Circassians converted to Islam by the 15th century, so now the Circassians, Adygeans and Kabardians are Muslims.
To the south of the Circassians and Kabardians live two close Turkic-speaking peoples: the Karachais and the Balkars. Ethnically, the Karachais form a single people with the Balkars, divided purely administratively: the former, together with the ethnically dissimilar Circassians, form Karachay-Cherkessia, the latter, with the Kabardians, form the Kabardino-Balkarian Republic. The reasons for this bizarre administrative division are unclear. Like the Circassians, these peoples once professed Christianity, but, having fallen out of the circle of Byzantine influence, they converted to Islam.
Ossetia is located east of Kabardino-Balkaria. The ancient Christian kingdom of Ossetians (a people of Iranian origin) - Alania - was one of the largest Christian states in the Caucasus. Ossetians still remain the only North Caucasian people who have retained the Orthodox religion. By the time of general Islamization, the Ossetians had managed to become sufficiently strong in their faith to withstand external onslaught and conjuncture, while other peoples, having not completely eliminated pagan beliefs, in fact, never fully becoming Christians, converted to Islam. At one time, the ancient Alanian kingdom included the lands of the Karachais, Circassians, Balkars and Kabardins. There are still surviving communities of Mozdok Kabardians who have retained their Orthodox self-identification. Before late XIX centuries, Muslim Balkars, who settled many Alanian lands after the fall of medieval Alania, preserved “remnants” of Christianity in the form of veneration of churches and the sign of the cross.
Even further east live two related peoples: the Ingush and the Chechens. Only in the early 90s of the twentieth century did these two peoples form two separate republics on the site of the once united Chechen-Ingush Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic. The overwhelming majority of Ingush and Chechens are Muslims; Christianity is professed only by Chechens living in the Pankisi Gorge in Georgia.
From the eastern border of modern Chechnya to the Caspian Sea is Dagestan, on whose territory more than ten nationalities live, of which the people closest to the Chechens are those belonging to the so-called Nakh-Dagestan language family: Avars, Lezgins, Laks, Dargins, Tabasarans and Aguls. All these peoples live in mountainous areas. On the Caspian coast of Dagestan there are Turkic-speaking Kumyks, and in the northeast there are also Turkic-speaking Nogais. All these peoples profess Islam.
According to historians, philologists and archaeologists, on the territory of the modern Caucasus this moment descendants live about 60 different language groups, And more than 30 nationalities. Over the centuries-long period of formation of nationalities in a territory bordering on constant wars and devastation, the ethnic group was able to carry its culture and customs through the centuries. Getting acquainted with each of them is backbreaking work, but learning about most of them will be at least interesting.
Conducting our excursion about the peoples of the Caucasus, I would like to determine the path along which we will go through getting acquainted with the general facts characteristic of a particular ethnic group. Let's start with the Western Caucasus, and the most western nationality - the Abkhazians. Let's finish our acquaintance in the east, together with the Lezgins. But let's not forget about the nomadic tribes.
Let's start with them in order to get acquainted with the geographical features of the Caucasus in order to understand the specifics of life of all other nationalities. The fact is that the North Caucasus predisposes people to farming. Therefore, many nomadic tribes settled down and began to build their own culture locally. Starting from Abkhazians and ending with residents Alanya.
Southern part of the Caucasus
But as for the southern part of the Caucasus, the soil in these places is barren. The water that comes from the mountains reaches the plain in a stagnant form, because the irrigation systems are far from perfect. Therefore, as soon as summer comes, nomadic tribes go higher and higher into the mountains. It all depends on the conditions for the livestock. If there is enough food, the height remains unchanged.
With the onset of cold weather, nomads descend from the mountains. Tatars, Nogais and Trukhmens live according to the principle of trampled grass: as soon as the grass underfoot is trampled, it’s time to move. And depending on the time of year, they decide whether to go up the mountains or go down.
Map of the settlement of nationalities:
Now let’s return to the tribes that settled in ancient times and chose agriculture as the basis of their livelihoods.
The most numerous peoples of the North Caucasus
Abkhazians
- the westernmost people of the Caucasus. The majority are Christians, but since the 15th century, due to the expansion of the territory, Sunni Muslims were added.
The total number of Abkhazians around the world is about 200 thousand people in 52 countries.
The cultural component of the Christian people is traditional to the area. They have long been engaged in and famous for carpet weaving, embroidery, and carving.
The next people heading east. The northern slopes of the Caucasus, as well as the plains near the Terek and Sunzha, are their habitat. The current territory of Karachay-Cherkessia, however, has nothing in common with the Karachais except territory. At the same time, there is a relationship with the Kabardians, but they, due to the administrative-territorial division, also share territory with the distantly related Balkars.
All of them belong to the Circassians. The cultural heritage of which has made a huge contribution to the world heritage of blacksmithing and jewelry.
Svans
- the northern branch of the Georgians, which has preserved its own language and cultural heritage. The territory of residence is the most mountainous part of Georgia, from 1000 to 2500 meters above sea level.
A characteristic feature of the cultural life of the Svans is the absence of serfdom and the conditional principle of nobility. There were no wars of conquest. In total there are about 30,000 Svans around the world.
Ossetians
- An ancient people of Iranian origin. The Ossetian kingdom of Alania is one of the most ancient and has carried Christianity in its original form through the centuries. Many republics, due to unsettled Christianity, converted to Islam, but Alania is the largest territory in the northern Caucasus that inherited Christianity. The moment of Islamization has passed.
and Chechens
- related peoples. The majority profess Islam, with the exception of those living in Georgia. The total number of peoples is about 2 million people.
Lezgins
The easternmost region is represented by the peoples of present-day Dagestan. And the most common not only in Dagestan, but also in Azerbaijan - they are distinguished by a rich cultural heritage.
Geographical location played a decisive role in the formation of the Caucasian peoples. Situated on the borders of the Ottoman Empire, Byzantium, Russian Empire- they were predetermined by a military past, the features of which were reflected in the character and specificity of the peoples of the Caucasus. However, it is worth noting that the cultural heritage was preserved despite the oppression of neighboring empires.
The Caucasus is a historical, ethno-graphic region, very complex in its ethnic composition. The unique geographical position of the Caucasus as a link between Europe and Asia, its proximity to the ancient civilizations of Western Asia played a significant role in the development of culture and in the formation of some of the peoples inhabiting it.
General information. In the relatively small space of the Caucasus there are many peoples settled, different in number and speaking different languages. different languages. There are few areas on the globe with such a diverse population. Along with large nations numbering millions of people, such as Azerbaijanis, Georgians and Armenians, in the Caucasus, especially in Dagestan, there live peoples whose number does not exceed several thousand.
According to anthropological data, the entire population of the Caucasus, with the exception of the Nogais, who have Mongoloid features, belongs to the large Caucasian race. Most residents of the Caucasus are darkly pigmented. Light coloring of hair and eyes is found among some population groups of Western Georgia, in the Greater Caucasus Mountains, and also partially among the Abkhaz and Adyghe peoples.
The modern anthropological composition of the population of the Caucasus developed in distant times - from the end of the Bronze and beginning of the Iron Ages - and testifies to the ancient connections of the Caucasus both with the regions of Western Asia and with the southern regions of Eastern Europe and the Balkan Peninsula.
The most common languages in the Caucasus are the Caucasian or Ibero-Caucasian languages. These languages were formed in ancient times and were more widespread in the past. Science has still not yet resolved the question of whether the Caucasian languages represent a single family of languages or whether they are not related by a common origin. Caucasian languages are divided into three groups: southern, or Kartvelian, northwestern, or Abkhaz-Adyghe, and northeastern, or Nakh-Dagestan.
Kartvelian languages are spoken by Georgians, both eastern and western. Georgians (3,571 thousand) live in the Georgian SSR. Separate groups of them are settled in Azerbaijan, as well as abroad - in Turkey and Iran.
Abkhaz-Adyghe languages are spoken by Abkhazians, Abazins, Adygeis, Circassians and Kabardians. Abkhazians (91 thousand) live in a compact mass in the Abkhaz Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic; Abazins (29 thousand) - in the Karachay-Cherkess Autonomous Region; Adygeis (109 thousand) inhabit the Adygei Autonomous Region and some areas of the Krasnodar Territory, in particular Tuapse and Lazarevsky, Circassians (46 thousand) live in the Karachay-Cherkess Autonomous Region of the Stavropol Territory and other places in the North Caucasus. Kabardians, Circassians and Adyghe speak the same language - Adyghe.
The Nakh languages include the languages of the Chechens (756 thousand) and Ingush (186 thousand) - the main population of the Chechen-Ingush Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic, as well as the Kists and Tsova-Tushins or Batsbis - a small people living in the mountains in northern Georgia on the border with the Chechen-Ingush Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic. Ingush Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic.
Dagestan languages are spoken by numerous peoples of Dagestan inhabiting its mountainous regions. The largest of them are the Avars (483 thousand), living in the western part of Dagestan; Dargins (287 thousand), inhabiting its central part; next to the Dargins live the Laks, or Lakis (100 thousand); the southern regions are occupied by Lezgins (383 thousand), to the east of which live the Taba-Sarans (75 thousand). Adjacent to the Avars in terms of language and geography are the so-called Ando-Dido or Ando-Tsez peoples: Andians, Botlikhs, Didois, Khvarshins, etc.; to the Dargins - Kubachi and Kaytaki, to the Lezgins - Aguls, Rutuls, Tsakhurs, some of whom live in the regions of Azerbaijan bordering Dagestan.
A significant percentage of the population of the Caucasus consists of peoples who speak Turkic languages of the Altai language family. The most numerous of them are the Azerbaijanis (5,477 thousand), living in the Azerbaijan SSR, the Nakhichevan Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic, as well as in Georgia and Dagestan. Outside the USSR, Azerbaijanis inhabit Iranian Azerbaijan. The Azerbaijani language belongs to the Oghuz branch of the Turkic languages and shows the greatest similarity with Turkmen.
To the north of the Azerbaijanis, on the flat part of Dagestan, live the Kumyks (228 thousand), speaking the Turkic language of the Kipchak group. The same group of Turkic languages includes the language of two small, closely related peoples of the North Caucasus - the Balkars (66 thousand) inhabiting the Kabardino-Balkarian Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic, and the Karachais (131 thousand) living within the Karachay-Cherkess Autonomous Region. The Nogais (60 thousand) are also Turkic-speaking, settling in the steppes of Northern Dagestan, in the Stavropol Territory and other places in the North Caucasus. In the North Caucasus there lives a small group of Trukhmen, or Turkmens, immigrants from Central Asia.
The Caucasus also includes peoples who speak Iranian languages of the Indo-European language family. The largest of them are the Ossetians (542 thousand), inhabiting the North Ossetian Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic and the South Ossetian Autonomous Region of the Georgian SSR. In Azerbaijan, Iranian languages are spoken by the Taly-shi in the southern regions of the republic and the Tats, settled mainly on the Absheron Peninsula and other places in Northern Azerbaijan. Some of the Tats who profess Judaism are sometimes called Mountain Jews. They live in Dagestan, as well as in the cities of Azerbaijan and the North Caucasus. The language of the Kurds (116 thousand), living in small groups in different regions of Transcaucasia, also belongs to Iranian.
The language of the Armenians stands apart in the Indo-European family (4151 thousand). More than half of the Armenians of the USSR live in the Armenian SSR. The rest of them live in Georgia, Azerbaijan and other regions of the country. More than a million Armenians are scattered throughout different countries Asia (mainly Western Asia), Africa and Europe.
In addition to the above-mentioned peoples, the Caucasus is inhabited by Greeks who speak Modern Greek and partly Turkish (Uru-we), Aisors, whose language belongs to the Semitic-Hamitic language family, Gypsies who use one of the Indian languages, Jews of Georgia who speak Georgian, and etc.
After the annexation of the Caucasus to Russia, Russians and other peoples from European Russia began to settle there. Currently, the Caucasus has a significant percentage of Russian and Ukrainian populations.
Before October revolution Most languages of the Caucasus were unwritten. Only Armenians and Georgians had their own ancient writing. In the 4th century. n. e. Armenian enlightener Mesrop Mashtots created the Armenian alphabet. Writing was created in the ancient Armenian language (Grabar). Grabar existed as a literary language until the beginning of the 19th century. A rich scientific, artistic and other literature has been created in this language. Currently literary language is the modern Armenian language (Ashkha-rabar). At the beginning of the century e. Writing in the Georgian language also arose. It was based on the Aramaic script. On the territory of Azerbaijan, during the period of Caucasian Albania, writing existed in one of the local languages. From the 7th century Arabic writing began to spread. At Soviet power writing in the Azerbaijani language was translated into Latin and then into Russian graphics.
After the October Revolution, many unwritten languages of the peoples of the Caucasus received writing based on Russian graphics. Some small peoples who did not have their own written language, such as, for example, the Aguls, Rutuls, Tsakhurs (in Dagestan) and others, use the Russian literary language.
Ethnogenesis and ethnic history. The Caucasus has been developed by man since ancient times. Remains of Early Paleolithic stone tools - Chelles, Achelles and Mousterian - were discovered there. For the Late Paleolithic, Neolithic and Chalcolithic eras in the Caucasus, one can trace a significant proximity of archaeological cultures, which makes it possible to talk about the historical kinship of the tribes that inhabited it. During the Bronze Age, there were separate cultural centers both in Transcaucasia and in the North Caucasus. But despite the uniqueness of each culture, they still have common features.
Since the 2nd millennium BC. e. The peoples of the Caucasus are mentioned on the pages of written sources - in Assyrian, Urartian, ancient Greek and other written monuments.
The largest Caucasian-speaking people - the Georgians (Kartvelians) - were formed on the territory they currently occupy from ancient local tribes. They also included part of the Chaldians (Urartians). The Kartvels were divided into Western and Eastern. The Kartvelian peoples include the Svans, Mingrelians and Laz, or Chans. The majority of the latter live outside of Georgia, in Turkey. In the past, Western Georgians were more numerous and inhabited almost all of Western Georgia.
Georgians began to develop statehood early. At the end of the 2nd millennium BC. e. In the southwestern areas of settlement of Georgian tribes, tribal unions of Diaokhi and Kolkha were formed. In the first half of the 1st millennium BC. e. known association of Georgian tribes under the name Saspers, which covered large territory from Colchis to Media. The Saspers played a significant role in the defeat of the Urartian kingdom. During this period, part of the ancient Khalds was assimilated by Georgian tribes.
In the 6th century. BC e. The Colchis kingdom arose in Western Georgia, in which agriculture, crafts, and trade were highly developed. Simultaneously with the Colchis kingdom, the Iberian (Kartli) state existed in Eastern Georgia.
Throughout the Middle Ages, due to feudal fragmentation, the Kartvelian people did not represent a monolithic ethnic mass. It retained separate extraterritorial groups for a long time. Particularly prominent were the Georgian mountaineers living in the north of Georgia in the spurs of the Main Caucasus Range; Svans, Khevsurs, Pshavas, Tushins; The Adjarians, who had been part of Turkey for a long time, became isolated, converted to Islam and were somewhat different in culture from other Georgians.
In the process of development of capitalism in Georgia, the Georgian nation emerged. Under Soviet rule, when Georgians received their statehood and all the conditions for economic, social and national development, the Georgian socialist nation was formed.
The ethnogenesis of the Abkhazians took place from ancient times on the territory of modern Abkhazia and adjacent areas. At the end of the 1st millennium BC. e. Two tribal unions formed here: the Abazgs and the Apsils. On behalf of the latter comes the self-name of the Abkhazians - ap-sua. In the 1st millennium BC. e. the ancestors of the Abkhazians experienced the cultural influence of the Hellenic world through the Greek colonies that arose on the Black Sea coast.
IN feudal period The Abkhazian people were formed. After the October Revolution, the Abkhazians received their statehood and the process of forming the Abkhazian socialist nation began.
The Adyghe peoples (the self-name of all three peoples is Adyghe) in the past lived in a compact mass in the area of the lower reaches of the river. Kuban, its tributaries Belaya and Laba, on the Taman Peninsula and along the Black Sea coast. Archaeological research carried out in this area shows that the ancestors of the Adyghe peoples inhabited this area from ancient times. Adyghe tribes, starting from the 1st millennium BC. e. perceived the cultural influence of the ancient world through the Bosporan kingdom. In the 13th - 14th centuries. part of the Circassians, whose cattle breeding, especially horse breeding, had developed significantly, moved east, to the Terek, in search of free pastures, and later began to be called Kabardians. These lands were previously occupied by the Alans, who were partly exterminated during the Mongol-Tatar invasion, partly pushed south into the mountains. Some groups of Alans were assimilated by the Kabardians. Kabardians who moved at the beginning of the 19th century. in the upper reaches of the Kuban, they were called Circassians. The Adyghe tribes that remained in the old places made up the Adyghe people.
The ethnic history of the Adyghe peoples, like other highlanders of the North Caucasus and Dagestan, had its own characteristics. Feudal relations in the North Caucasus developed at a slower pace than in Transcaucasia, and were intertwined with patriarchal-communal relations. By the time of the annexation of the North Caucasus to Russia (mid-19th century), the mountain peoples stood at different levels of feudal development. The Kabardians advanced further than others along the path of developing feudal relations, who had a great influence on social development other highlanders of the North Caucasus.
The unevenness of socio-economic development was also reflected in the level of ethnic consolidation of these peoples. Most of them retained traces of tribal division, on the basis of which ethno-territorial communities were formed, developing along the line of integration into the nationality. The Kabardians completed this process earlier than others.
Chechens (Nakhcho) and Ingush (Galga) are closely related peoples, formed from tribes related by origin, language and culture, who represented the ancient population of the northeastern spurs of the Main Caucasus Range.
The peoples of Dagestan are also descendants of the ancient Caucasian-speaking population of this region. Dagestan is the most ethnically diverse region of the Caucasus, in which until the recent past there were about thirty small nations. The main reason for such a diversity of peoples and languages in a relatively small area was geographical isolation: difficult mountain ranges contributed to the isolation of individual ethnic groups and the preservation of distinctive features in their language and culture.
During the Middle Ages, a number of the largest peoples of Dagestan had early feudal state entities, but they did not lead to the consolidation of extraterritorial groups into a single nation. For example, one of the largest peoples of Dagestan - the Avars - arose the Avar Khanate with its center in the village of Khunzakh. At the same time, there were so-called “free”, but dependent on the khan, Avar societies that occupied separate gorges in the mountains, in ethnically representing isolated groups - “community communities”. The Avars did not have a single ethnic identity, but their fellow countrymen were clearly evident.
With the penetration of capitalist relations into Dagestan and the growth of otkhodnichestvo, the former isolation of individual peoples and their groups began to disappear. Under Soviet rule, ethnic processes in Dagestan took a completely different direction. Here there is a consolidation of larger peoples into the nationality with the simultaneous consolidation of small related ethnic groups within them - for example, Ando-Dido peoples related to them in origin and language are united into the Avar nationality along with the Avars.
Turkic-speaking Kumyks (Kumuk) live on the flat part of Dagestan. Both local Caucasian-speaking components and alien Turks participated in their ethnogenesis: Bulgars, Khazars and especially Kipchaks.
Balkars (Taulu) and Karachais (Karachayls) speak the same language, but are separated geographically - Balkars live in the Terek basin, and Karachais live in the Kuban basin, and between them is the Elbrus mountain system, which is difficult to access. Both of these peoples were formed from a mixture of the local Caucasian-speaking population, Iranian-speaking Alans and nomadic Turkic tribes, mainly Bulgars and Kipchaks. The language of the Balkars and Karachais belongs to the Kipchak branch of the Turkic languages.
The Turkic-speaking Nogais (no-gai) living in the far north of Dagestan and beyond are descendants of the population of the Golden Horde ulus, headed at the end of the 13th century. temnik Nogai, from whose name their name comes. Ethnically, it was a mixed population that included Mongols and various groups of Turks, especially the Kipchaks, who passed on their language to the Nogais. After the collapse of the Golden Horde, part of the Nogais, who made up the large Nogai horde, in the mid-16th century. accepted Russian citizenship. Later, other Nogais, who roamed the steppes between the Caspian and Black Seas, also became part of Russia.
The ethnogenesis of the Ossetians took place in the mountainous regions of the North Caucasus. Their language belongs to the Iranian languages, but it occupies a special place among them, revealing a close connection with the Caucasian languages both in vocabulary and phonetics. In anthropological and cultural terms, Ossetians form a single whole with the peoples of the Caucasus. According to most researchers, the basis of the Ossetian people were the aboriginal Caucasian tribes, who mixed with the Iranian-speaking Alans who were pushed into the mountains.
The further ethnic history of the Ossetians has many similarities with other peoples of the North Caucasus. Existed among the Ossetians until the mid-19th century. socio-economic relations with elements of feudalism did not lead to the formation of the Ossetian people. The isolated groups of Ossetians were separate community associations, named after the gorges they occupied in the Main Caucasus Range. In the pre-revolutionary period, part of the Ossetians descended to the plane in the Mozdok area, forming a group of Mozdok Ossetians.
After the October Revolution, Ossetians received national autonomy. On the territory of settlement of the North Caucasian Ossetians, the North Ossetian Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic was formed. A relatively small group of Transcaucasian Ossetians received regional autonomy within the Georgian SSR.
Under Soviet power, the majority of North Ossetians were resettled from the inconvenient mountain gorges to the plain, which violated the compatriotic isolation and led to the mixing of individual groups, which, in the conditions of socialist development of the economy, social relations and culture, put the Ossetians on the path to forming a socialist nation.
The process of ethnogenesis of Azerbaijanis took place in difficult historical conditions. On the territory of Azerbaijan, as in other regions of Transcaucasia, various tribal associations and state entities began to emerge early. In the 6th century. BC e. the southern regions of Azerbaijan were part of the powerful Median state. In the 4th century. BC e. in Southern Azerbaijan, the independent state of Lesser Media or Atropatene rose (the word “Azerbaijan” itself comes from “Atropatene” distorted by the Arabs). In this state there was a process of rapprochement between various peoples (Mannaeans, Cadusians, Caspians, part of the Medes, etc.), who spoke mainly Iranian languages. The most common language among them was a language close to Talysh.
During this period (4th century BC), an Albanian tribal union arose in the north of Azerbaijan, and then at the beginning of the century. e. The state of Albania was created, the borders of which in the south reached the river. Araks, in the north it included Southern Dagestan. In this state there were more than twenty peoples who spoke Caucasian languages, the main role among which belonged to the language of the Uti or Udin.
In the 3rd -4th centuries. Atropatene and Albania were included in Sasanian Iran. The Sassanids, in order to strengthen their dominance in the conquered territory, resettled the population there from Iran, in particular the Tats, who settled in the northern regions of Azerbaijan.
By 4th - 5th centuries. refers to the beginning of penetration various groups Turks to Azerbaijan (Huns, Bulgarians, Khazars, etc.).
In the 11th century Azerbaijan was invaded by the Seljuk Turks. Subsequently, the influx of the Turkic population into Azerbaijan continued, especially during the period of the Mongol-Tatar conquest. In Azerbaijan it became more and more widespread Turkic language, which became dominant by the 15th century. Since that time, the modern Azerbaijani language, belonging to the Oghuz branch of the Turkic languages, began to form.
The Azerbaijani nation began to take shape in feudal Azerbaijan. As capitalist relations developed, it took the path of becoming a bourgeois nation.
IN Soviet period in Azerbaijan, along with the consolidation of the Azerbaijani socialist nation, there is a gradual merger with the Azerbaijanis of small ethnic groups speaking both Iranian and Caucasian languages.
One of the largest peoples of the Caucasus is the Armenians. They have an ancient culture and eventful history. The self-name of Armenians is hai. The area where the process of formation of the Armenian people took place lies outside of Soviet Armenia. There are two main stages in the ethnogenesis of Armenians. The beginning of the first stage dates back to the 2nd millennium BC. e. The main role at this stage was played by the Hayev and Armin tribes. The Hayi, who probably spoke languages close to the Caucasian ones, in the 2nd millennium BC. e. created a tribal union in the east of Asia Minor. During this period, the Indo-Europeans, the Armins, who penetrated here from the Balkan Peninsula, mixed with the Hays. The second stage of the ethnogenesis of the Armenians took place on the territory of the state of Urartu in the 1st millennium BC. e., when the Chalds, or Urartians, took part in the formation of the Armenians. During this period, the political association of the ancestors of the Armenians Arme-Shupriya arose. After the defeat of the Urartian state in the 4th century. BC e. Armenians entered the historical arena. It is believed that the Armenians also included Iranian-speaking Cimmerians and Scythians, who penetrated during the 1st millennium BC. e. from the steppes of the North Caucasus to Transcaucasia and Western Asia.
Due to the prevailing historical situation, due to the conquests of the Arabs, Seljuks, then the Mongols, Iran, and Turkey, many Armenians left their homeland and moved to other countries. Before the First World War, a significant part of Armenians lived in Turkey (more than 2 million). After the Armenian massacre of 1915, inspired by the Turkish government, when many Armenians were killed, the survivors moved to Russia, the countries of Western Asia, Western Europe and to America. Now in Turkey the percentage of the rural Armenian population is insignificant.
The formation of Soviet Armenia was a great event in the life of the long-suffering Armenian people. It became the true free homeland of the Armenians.
Farming. The Caucasus, as a special historical and ethnographic region, is distinguished by great originality in the occupations, life, material and spiritual culture of the peoples inhabiting it.
In the Caucasus, agriculture and cattle breeding have developed since ancient times. The beginning of agriculture in the Caucasus dates back to the 3rd millennium BC. e. Previously, it spread to Transcaucasia, and then to the North Caucasus. The oldest grain crops were millet, wheat, barley, gomi, rye, rice, from the 18th century. began to grow corn. Different cultures predominated in different areas. For example, the Abkhaz-Adyghe peoples preferred millet; thick millet porridge with spicy gravy was their favorite dish. Wheat was sown in many areas of the Caucasus, but especially in the Northern Caucasus and Eastern Georgia. In Western Georgia, corn predominated. Rice was grown in the humid regions of Southern Azerbaijan.
Viticulture has been known in Transcaucasia since the 2nd millennium BC. e. The peoples of the Caucasus have bred many different varieties grapes Along with viticulture, gardening also developed early, especially in Transcaucasia.
Since ancient times, the land has been cultivated with a variety of wooden arable tools with iron tips. They were light and heavy. Light ones were used for shallow plowing, on soft soils, mainly in the mountains, where the fields were small. Sometimes the mountaineers created artificial arable land: they brought earth in baskets to terraces along the mountain slopes. Heavy plows, harnessed to several pairs of oxen, were used for deep plowing, mainly in flat areas.
Crops were harvested everywhere with sickles. The grain was threshed using threshing boards with stone liners on the underside. This method of threshing dates back to the Bronze Age.
Cattle breeding appeared in the Caucasus in the 3rd millennium BC. e. In the 2nd millennium BC. e. it became widespread in connection with the development of mountain pastures. During this period, a unique type of transhumance cattle breeding developed in the Caucasus, which exists to this day. In summer, cattle were grazed in the mountains, and in winter they were driven to the plains. Transhumance cattle breeding developed into nomadic breeding only in some areas of Eastern Transcaucasia. There, cattle were kept to graze all year round, driven from place to place along certain routes.
Ancient history In the Caucasus they also have beekeeping and sericulture.
Caucasian handicraft production and trade developed early. Some crafts date back hundreds of years. The most widespread were carpet weaving, jewelry making, weapon making, production of pottery and metal utensils, buroks, weaving, embroidery, etc. The products of Caucasian craftsmen were known far beyond the borders of the Caucasus.
After joining Russia, the Caucasus was included in the all-Russian market, which made significant changes in the development of its economy. In the post-reform period, agriculture and cattle breeding began to develop along the capitalist path. The expansion of trade caused the decline of handicraft production, as handicraft products could not withstand the competition of cheaper factory goods.
After the establishment of Soviet power in the Caucasus, its economy began to rapidly grow. The oil, oil refining, mining, machine-building industries began to develop, building materials, machine tool industry, chemical industry, various branches of light industry, etc., power plants, roads, etc. were built.
The creation of collective farms made it possible to significantly change the nature and direction of Agriculture. The favorable natural conditions of the Caucasus make it possible to grow heat-loving crops that do not grow elsewhere in the USSR. In subtropical areas, the focus is on tea and citrus crops. The area under vineyards is growing and orchards. Farming is carried out using the latest technology. Much attention is paid to irrigation of dry lands.
Cattle breeding has also stepped forward. Collective farms are assigned permanent winter and summer pastures. Much work is being done to improve livestock breeds.
Material culture. When characterizing the culture of the peoples of the Caucasus, one should distinguish between the Northern Caucasus, including Dagestan and Transcaucasia. Within these large areas, there are also cultural features of large nations or groups of small nations. In the North Caucasus, great cultural unity can be traced between all the Adyghe peoples, Ossetians, Balkars and Karachais. The population of Dagestan is connected with them, but still the Dagestanis have a lot of original culture, which makes it possible to distinguish Dagestan into a special region, to which Chechnya and Ingushetia adjoin. In Transcaucasia, special regions are Azerbaijan, Armenia, Eastern and Western Georgia.
In the pre-revolutionary period, the bulk of the population of the Caucasus were rural residents. There were few large cities in the Caucasus, of which highest value had Tbilisi (Tiflis) and Baku.
The types of settlements and dwellings that existed in the Caucasus were closely related to natural conditions. This dependence can be traced to some extent even today.
Most villages in mountainous areas were characterized by significant crowded buildings: buildings were closely adjacent to one another. On the plane, villages were located more freely; each house had a courtyard, and often small area land
All peoples of the Caucasus for a long time the custom was preserved according to which relatives settled together, forming a separate quarter. With the weakening of kinship ties, the local unity of kinship groups began to disappear.
In the mountainous regions of the North Caucasus, Dagestan and Northern Georgia, a typical dwelling was a quadrangular stone building, one- or two-story with a flat roof.
The houses of the inhabitants of the flat regions of the North Caucasus and Dagestan were significantly different from the mountain dwellings. The walls of the buildings were erected from adobe or wattle. Turluchnye (wattle) structures with a gable or hipped roof were typical for the Adyghe peoples and for the inhabitants of some regions of lowland Dagestan.
The dwellings of the peoples of Transcaucasia had their own characteristics. In some regions of Armenia, South-Eastern Georgia and Western Azerbaijan, there were unique buildings that were structures made of stone, sometimes somewhat recessed into the ground; the roof was a wooden stepped ceiling, which was covered with earth from the outside. This type of dwelling is one of the oldest in Transcaucasia and in its origin is closely related to the underground dwelling of the ancient settled population of Western Asia.
In other places in Eastern Georgia, the dwelling was built of stone with a flat or gable roof, one or two stories. In the humid subtropical places of Western Georgia and Abkhazia, houses were built of wood, on pillars, with gables or hipped roofs. The floor of such a house was raised high above the ground to protect the home from dampness.
In East Azerbaijan, adobe, clay-coated, one-story dwellings with flat roof, facing the street with blank walls.
During the years of Soviet power, the housing of the peoples of the Caucasus underwent significant changes and repeatedly took on new forms until the types that are widely used today were developed. Now there is no such variety of housing as existed before the revolution. In all mountainous regions of the Caucasus, stone remains the main building material. These places are dominated by two-story houses with flat, gable or hipped roofs. In the plains, adobe brick is used as a building material. What is common in the development of housing among all the peoples of the Caucasus is the tendency to increase its size and more careful decoration.
The appearance of collective farm villages has changed compared to the past. In the mountains, many villages have been moved from inconvenient places to more convenient ones. Azerbaijanis and other peoples began to build houses with windows facing the street, and the high, blank fences separating the courtyard from the street are disappearing. The amenities of the villages and water supply have improved. Many villages have water pipes, plantings of fruit and ornamental plants. Most large settlements do not differ in their amenities from urban settlements.
There was great diversity in the clothing of the peoples of the Caucasus in the pre-revolutionary period. It reflected ethnic characteristics, economic and cultural ties between peoples.
All Adyghe peoples, Ossetians, Karachais, Balkars and Abkhazians had a lot in common in clothing. The men's costume of these peoples became widespread throughout the Caucasus. The main elements of this costume: a beshmet (kaftan), narrow trousers tucked into soft boots, a papakha and a burka, as well as a narrow belt with silver decorations, on which a saber, a dagger, and a cross were worn. The upper classes wore a circassian coat (outer, swinging, fitted clothing) with gazyrs for storing cartridges.
Women's clothing consisted of a shirt, long pants, a swinging dress at the waist, high headdresses and bedspreads. The dress was tightly tied at the waist with a belt. Among the Adyghe peoples and Abkhazians, a thin waist and flat chest were considered a sign of a girl’s beauty, so before marriage girls wore hard, tight corsets that tightened their waist and chest. The suit clearly showed the social status of its owner. The costumes of the feudal nobility, especially women's, were rich and luxurious.
The men's costume of the peoples of Dagestan was in many ways reminiscent of the clothing of the Circassians. Women's attire varied slightly among the different peoples of Dagestan, but in its main features it was the same. It was a wide tunic-like shirt, belted with a belt, long trousers that were visible from under the shirt, and a bag-like headdress in which the hair was hidden. Dagestani women wore a variety of heavy silver jewelry(waist, chest, temple) mainly made in Kubachi.
Shoes for both men and women were thick woolen socks and footwear, made from a whole piece of leather that covered the foot. Soft boots for men were festive. Such shoes were typical for the population of all mountainous regions of the Caucasus.
The clothing of the peoples of Transcaucasia was significantly different from the clothing of the inhabitants of the North Caucasus and Dagestan. There were many parallels with the clothing of the peoples of Western Asia, especially the clothing of Armenians and Azerbaijanis.
The men's costume of the entire Transcaucasus was generally characterized by shirts, wide or narrow trousers tucked into boots or socks, and short, swinging outerwear, belted with a belt. Before the revolution, the Adyghe men's costume, especially the Circassian costume, was widespread among Georgians and Azerbaijanis. The clothing of Georgian women was similar in type to the clothing of women of the North Caucasus. It was a long shirt, over which was worn a long, swinging, fitted dress, tied with a belt. On their heads, women wore a cloth-covered hoop, to which a thin long blanket, called lechak, was attached.
Armenian women dressed in bright shirts (yellow in western Armenia, red in eastern Armenia) and equally bright pants. The shirt was worn with a lined garment at the waist, with sleeves shorter than those of the shirt. Armenian women wore small hard caps on their heads, which were tied with several scarves. It was customary to cover with a scarf bottom part faces.
In addition to shirts and pants, Azerbaijani women also wore short sweaters and wide skirts. Under the influence of the Muslim religion, Azerbaijani women, especially in cities, covered their faces with veils when they went out into the street.
It was typical for women of all peoples of the Caucasus to wear a variety of jewelry, made primarily from silver by local craftsmen. Belts were especially richly decorated.
After the revolution, the traditional clothing of the peoples of the Caucasus, both men's and women's, began to quickly disappear. Currently, the male Adyghe costume is preserved as clothing for members of artistic ensembles, which has become widespread throughout almost the entire Caucasus. Traditional elements of women's clothing can still be seen on older women in many regions of the Caucasus.
Social and family life. All the peoples of the Caucasus, especially the North Caucasian highlanders and Dagestanis, more or less preserved traces of the patriarchal way of life in their social life and everyday life; family ties were strictly maintained, especially clearly manifested in patronymic relations. Throughout the Caucasus there were neighboring communities, which were especially strong among the Western Circassians, Ossetians, as well as in Dagestan and Georgia.
In many regions of the Caucasus in the 19th century. Large patriarchal families continued to exist. The main type of family during this period were small families, the way of which was distinguished by the same patriarchy. The dominant form of marriage was monogamy. Polygyny was rare, mainly among the privileged sections of the Muslim population, especially in Azerbaijan. Among many peoples of the Caucasus, bride price was common. The patriarchal nature of family life had a hard impact on the position of women, especially among Muslims.
Under Soviet power, family life and the position of women among the peoples of the Caucasus radically changed. Soviet laws equalized women's rights with men. She got the opportunity to actively participate in labor activity, in social and cultural life.
Religious Beliefs. According to religion, the entire population of the Caucasus was divided into two groups: Christians and Muslims. Christianity began to penetrate the Caucasus in the first centuries of the new era. Initially, it established itself among the Armenians, who in 301 had their own church, called “Armenian-Gregorian” after its founder, Archbishop Gregory the Illuminator. At first, the Armenian Church adhered to the Eastern Orthodox Byzantine orientation, but from the beginning of the 6th century. became independent, joining the Monophysite teaching, which recognized only one “divine nature” of Christ. From Armenia, Christianity began to penetrate into Southern Dagestan, Northern Azerbaijan and Albania (6th century). Zoroastrianism was widespread in South Azerbaijan during this period, in which great place occupied by fire-worshipping cults.
In Georgia, Christianity became the dominant religion by the 4th century. (337). From Georgia and Byzantium, Christianity came to the Abkhazians and Adyghe tribes (6th - 7th centuries), to the Chechens (8th century), Ingush, Ossetians and other peoples.
The emergence of Islam in the Caucasus is associated with the conquests of the Arabs (7th - 8th centuries). But Islam did not take deep roots under the Arabs. It began to truly establish itself only after the Mongol-Tatar invasion. This primarily applies to the peoples of Azerbaijan and Dagestan. Islam began to spread in Abkhazia from the 15th century. after the Turkish conquest.
Among the peoples of the North Caucasus (Adygs, Circassians, Kabardins, Karachais and Balkars), Islam was implanted by the Turkish sultans and Crimean khans in the 15th - 17th centuries.
It reached the Ossetians in the 17th - 18th centuries. from Kabarda and was accepted mainly only by the upper classes. In the 16th century Islam began to spread from Dagestan to Chechnya. The Ingush adopted this faith from the Chechens in the 19th century. The influence of Islam especially strengthened in Dagestan and Checheno-Ingushetia during the movement of the mountaineers under the leadership of Shamil.
However, neither Christianity nor Islam replaced the ancient local beliefs. Many of them became part of Christian and Muslim rituals.
During the years of Soviet power, a lot of anti-religious propaganda and mass work was carried out among the peoples of the Caucasus. The majority of the population has abandoned religion, and only a few, mainly older people, remain believers.
Folklore. The oral poetry of the peoples of the Caucasus is rich and varied. It has centuries-old traditions and reflects the complex historical destinies of the peoples of the Caucasus, their struggle for independence, the class struggle of the masses against the oppressors, and many aspects of national life. The oral creativity of the Caucasian peoples is characterized by a variety of subjects and genres. Many famous poets and writers, both local (Nizami Gandzhevi, Muhammad Fuzuli, etc.) and Russian (Pushkin, Lermontov, Leo Tolstoy, etc.), borrowed stories from Caucasian life and folklore for their works.
Epic tales occupy a significant place in the poetic creativity of the peoples of the Caucasus. Georgians know the epic about the hero Amirani, who fought with the ancient gods and was chained to a rock for this, the romantic epic “Esteriani”, which tells about the tragic love of Prince Abesalom and the shepherdess Eteri. The medieval epic “The Heroes of Sasun”, or “David of Sasun”, which reflects the heroic struggle of the Armenian people against their enslavers, is widespread among Armenians.
In the North Caucasus, among the Ossetians, Kabardians, Circassians, Adygeis, Karachais, Balkars, and also Abkhazians, there is the Nart epic, tales of the Nart heroic heroes.
The peoples of the Caucasus have a variety of fairy tales, fables, legends, proverbs, sayings, riddles, which reflect all aspects of folk life. Musical folklore is especially rich in the Caucasus. The song creativity of the Georgians has reached great perfection; Polyphony is common among them.
Traveling folk singers - gusans (among Armenians), mestvires (among Georgians), ashugs (among Azerbaijanis, Dagestanis) - were the representatives of the people's aspirations, guardians of the rich treasury of musical art and performers of folk songs. Their repertoire was very diverse. They sang their songs to the accompaniment of musical instruments. Particularly popular was the folk singer Sayang-Nova (18th century), who sang in Armenian, Georgian and Azerbaijani.
Oral poetic and musical folk art continues to develop today. It has been enriched with new content. Life is widely reflected in songs, fairy tales and other types of folk art. Soviet country. Many songs are dedicated to the heroic work of Soviet people, friendship of peoples, and exploits in the Great Patriotic War. Amateur artistic ensembles are widely popular among all the peoples of the Caucasus.
Many cities of the Caucasus, especially Baku, Yerevan, Tbilisi, Makhachkala, have now turned into large cultural centers, where a variety of scientific work is carried out not only of all-Union, but often of global importance.
1. Features of ethnic history.
2. Economy and material culture.
3. Features of spiritual culture.
1. The Caucasus is a unique historical and ethnographic region characterized by a complex ethnic composition of the population. Along with large nations numbering millions of people, such as Azerbaijanis, Georgians and Armenians, in the Caucasus, especially in Dagestan, there live peoples whose number does not exceed several thousand.
According to anthropological data, the indigenous population of the Caucasus belongs to the large Caucasian race, to its southern Mediterranean branch. In the Caucasus there are three small Caucasian races: Caucasian-Balkan, Western Asian and Indo-Pamir. The Caucasian-Balkan race includes the Caucasian anthropological type, which is common among the population of the central foothills of the Main Caucasian Range (Eastern Kabardins and Circassians, Mountain Georgians, Balkars, Karachais, Ingush, Chechens, Ossetians), as well as Western and Central Dagestan. This anthropological type developed as a result of the conservation of the anthropological characteristics of the ancient local Caucasian population.
The Caucasian-Balkan race also includes the Pontic type, the carriers of which are the Abkhaz-Adyghe peoples and Western Georgians. This type was also formed in ancient times in the process of gracilization of the massive protomorphic Caucasian type in conditions of high mountain isolation.
The Central Asian race is represented by the Armenoid type, the origin of which is associated with the territory of Turkey and Iran and neighboring regions of Armenia. Armenians and eastern Georgians belong to this type. The Indo-Pamir race includes the Caspian anthropological type, which arose within Afghanistan and Northern India. The Azerbaijanis belong to the Caspian type, and as an admixture to the Caucasian type, this type can be traced among the Kumyks and the peoples of Southern Dagestan (Lezgins and Dargins-Kaitags). Of all the peoples of the Caucasus, only the Nogais, along with Caucasoid ones, also have Mongoloid characteristics.
A significant part of the indigenous population of the Caucasus speaks the languages of the Caucasian language family, which numbers about 40 languages, divided into three groups: Abkhaz-Adyghe, Kartvelian and Nakh-Dagestan.
The languages of the Abkhaz-Adyghe group include Abkhazian, Abaza, Adyghe, Kabardino-Circassian and Ubykh. Abkhazians (Apsua) live in Abkhazia, partly in Adjara, as well as in Turkey and Syria. Close to the Abkhazians in language and origin are the Abazins (Abaza), who live in Karachay-Cherkessia and other regions of the Stavropol Territory. Some of them live in Turkey. Adygeis, Kabardians and Circassians call themselves Adyghe. Adygeans inhabit Adygea and other regions of the Krasnodar Territory. In addition, they live in Turkey, Syria, Jordan and other countries in the Middle East and Balkans. Kabardians and Circassians live in Kabardino-Balkaria and Karachay-Cherkessia. They are found in the countries of the Middle East. In the past, the Ubykhs lived along the Black Sea coast, north of Khosta. Currently, a small number of them live in Syria and Turkey.
The Kartvelian languages include the Georgian language and three languages of Western Georgians - Mingrelian, Laz (or Chan) and Svan. The Nakh-Dagestan group of languages includes Nakh and Dagestan. The closely related Chechen and Ingush languages belong to the Nakh languages. Chechens (Nakhcho) live in Chechnya, Ingush (Galga) in Ingushetia, some Chechens also live in Georgia (Kists) and Dagestan (Akkins).
The Dagestan group consists of: a) Avar-Andocese languages; b) Lak-Dargin languages; c) Lezgin languages. Of all the listed languages, only Georgian had its own ancient writing, based on the Aramaic script. The peoples of the Caucasus also speak languages of the Indo-European, Altaic and Afroasiatic language families. The Indo-European family is represented by the Iranian group, as well as the Armenian and Greek languages. Iranian-speaking people are Ossetians, Tats, Talysh and Kurds. The Armenian language stands apart in the Indo-European family. Some Caucasian Greeks (Romans) speak Modern Greek.
After the annexation of the Caucasus to Russia, Russians and other peoples from European Russia began to settle there. The Altai family of languages in the Caucasus is represented by its Turkic group. The Turkic-speaking people are Azerbaijanis, Turkmen (Trukmen), Kumyks, Nogais, Karachais, Balkars and Urum Greeks.
Assyrians speak a language of the Semitic group of the Afroasiatic language family. They live mainly in Armenia and other places in Transcaucasia.
The Caucasus has been developed by man since ancient times. Archaeological cultures of the Lower and Middle Paleolithic were discovered there. Based on materials from linguistics and anthropology, we can conclude that the descendants of the ancient “autochthonous” population of the Caucasus are peoples who speak languages of the Caucasian language family. In the course of their further ethnic development, they entered into ethnocultural contacts with other ethnic groups and, depending on specific historical conditions, mixed with them, incorporating them into their ethnic environment, or were themselves subjected to assimilation.
In the 1st millennium BC. and in the first centuries AD. The steppe spaces north of the Caucasus ridge were occupied by successive Iranian-speaking nomadic tribes: Cimmerians, Scythians, Sarmatians and Alans. In the middle of the 4th century. Turkic-speaking nomads - the Huns - invaded the North Caucasus. At the end of the 4th century. here a large confederation of Turkic tribes was formed at the head.
In the VI-VII centuries. Some of the nomads switched to semi-settled life and sedentary life in the plains and foothills, engaging in agriculture and pastoralism. During this period, processes of ethnopolitical consolidation took place among the Caucasian-speaking population: among the eastern and western Circassians.
In the middle of the 6th century. Avars migrated to the Cis-Caucasian steppes from across the Volga. At the beginning of the 7th century. in Western Ciscaucasia a new confederation of Turkic tribes arose, known as “Great Bulgaria”, or“Onoguria”, which united under its rule all the nomads of the North Caucasian steppe. In the middle of the 7th century. this confederation was defeated by the Khazars. The Khazar Khaganate dominated the population of the North Caucasus steppe. During this period, nomads began settling on the land not only in the foothills, but also in the steppe regions.
From the middle of the X to the beginning of the XIII century. in the foothills and mountainous regions of the North Caucasus there was a rise in productive forces, primitive communal relations continued to collapse, and the process of class formation took place within the framework of stable political associations that took the path of feudalization. During this period, the Alanian kingdom especially stood out. In 1238-1239. Alania was subjected to the Mongol-Tatar invasion and was included in the Golden Horde.
The Adyghe peoples in the past lived in a compact mass in the area of the lower reaches of the river. Kuban, its tributaries Belaya and Laba, as well as on the Taman Peninsula and along the Black Sea coast.. Kabardians who moved at the beginning of the 19th century. in the upper reaches of the Kuban, they were called Circassians. The Adyghe tribes that remained in the old places made up the Adyghe people. The Chechens and Ingush were formed from tribes related in origin, language and culture, representing the ancient population of the northeastern spurs of the Main Caucasus Range.
The Caucasian-speaking peoples of Dagestan are also descendants of the ancient population of this region.
The formation of the peoples of Transcaucasia took place under different historical conditions. Georgians are descendants of the oldest autochthonous population. The ethnogenetic processes that took place in ancient times on the territory of Georgia led to the formation of East Georgian and West Georgian ethnolinguistic communities. Western Georgians (Svans, Mingrelians, Laz, or Chans) occupied larger areas in the past.
With the development of capitalism, the consolidation of Georgians into a nation took place. After the October Revolution, in the process of further development of the Georgian nation, local ethnographic features gradually weakened.
The ethnogenesis of the Abkhazians took place from ancient times on the territory of modern Abkhazia and adjacent areas. At the end of the 1st millennium BC. Two tribal unions formed here: the Abazgs and the Apsils. From the name of the latter comes the self-name of the Abkhazians - Apsua.
In the 1st millennium BC, within the Urartian state, the process of formation of the ancient Armenian ethnos took place. The Armenians also included Hurrians, Chalds, Cimmerians, Scythians and other ethical components. After the fall of Urartu, the Armenians entered the historical arena.
Due to the prevailing historical situation, due to the conquests of the Arabs. Seljuks, then Mongols, Iran, Turkey, many Armenians left their homeland and moved to other countries. Before the First World War, a significant part of Armenians lived in Ottoman Turkey (more than 2 million). After acts of genocide inspired by the Ottoman government in 1915-1916. Armenians, including those expelled, began to move to the countries of Western Europe and America.
The ethnogenesis of the Azerbaijani people is closely connected with the ethnic processes that took place in Eastern Transcaucasia during the Middle Ages.
In the 4th century. BC. An Albanian union of tribes arose in the north of Azerbaijan, and then at the beginning of our era the state of Albania was created, the borders of which in the south reached the river. Araks, in the north it included Southern Dagestan.
By the IV-V centuries. refers to the beginning of the penetration of various groups of Turks into Azerbaijan (Huns, Bulgarians, etc.).
During the feudal era, the Azerbaijani nation took shape. IN Soviet time Along with the consolidation of the Azerbaijani nation, there was a partial merger with the Azerbaijanis of ethnic groups speaking both Iranian and Caucasian languages.
2. Since ancient times, the main occupations of the peoples of the Caucasus have been agriculture and cattle breeding. Development of these sectors of the economy, especially agriculture. was directly dependent on the level of location of natural zones G ory region. The lower zone was occupied by arable land, which rose to one and a half thousand meters above sea level. Above them were hayfields and spring pastures, and even higher were mountain pastures.
The beginning of agriculture in the Caucasus dates back to the 3rd millennium BC. Previously, it spread to Transcaucasia, and then to the North Caucasus. Farming in the highlands was especially labor-intensive. The lack of arable land led to the creation of artificial terraces descending in steps along the mountain slopes. On some terraces, soil had to be brought in baskets from the valleys. Terrace farming is characterized by a high level of artificial irrigation.
Centuries of experience in farming made it possible to derive for each natural area special varieties of cereals - wheat, rye, barley, oats, frost-resistant in mountainous areas and drought-resistant in the plains. An ancient local crop is millet. Since the 18th century Corn began to spread in the Caucasus.
Crops were harvested everywhere with sickles. The grain was threshed using threshing discs with stone liners on the underside. This method of threshing dates back to the Bronze Age. Viticulture, which has been known since the millennium BC, has deep roots in the Caucasus. Many different grape varieties are bred here. Along with viticulture, gardening also developed early.
Cattle breeding appeared in the Caucasus along with agriculture. In the 2nd millennium it became widespread in connection with the development of mountain pastures. During this period, a unique type of transhumance cattle breeding developed in the Caucasus, which exists to this day. In summer, cattle were grazed in the mountains, in winter they were herded to the plains. They raised large and small livestock, especially sheep. On the plains, cattle were kept in stalls in winter. Sheep were always kept on winter pastures. As a rule, peasants did not breed horses; the horse was used for riding. Oxen served as draft power.
Crafts developed in the Caucasus. Carpet weaving, jewelry making, and the manufacture of weapons, pottery and metal utensils, and cloaks were especially widespread.
When characterizing the culture of the peoples of the Caucasus, one should distinguish between the North Caucasus, including Dagestan, and Transcaucasia. Within these large regions, peculiarities in the culture of large nations or entire groups of small ethnic groups are observed. In the pre-revolutionary period, the bulk of the population of the Caucasus were rural residents.
The types of settlements and dwellings that existed in the Caucasus were closely connected with natural conditions, with the vertical zoning characteristic of the Caucasus. This dependence can be traced to some extent even today. Most of the villages in the mountains were distinguished by significant crowded buildings: the buildings were closely adjacent to each other. For example, in many mountain villages of Dagestan, the roof of the underlying house served as a yard for the one above it. On On the plain, villages were located more freely.
For a long time, all the peoples of the Caucasus maintained a custom according to which relatives settled together, forming a separate quarter.
The dwellings of the peoples of the Caucasus were characterized by great diversity. In the mountainous regions of the North Caucasus, Dagestan and Northern Georgia, the typical dwelling was a one- or two-story stone building with a flat roof. IN these battle towers were built in areas. In some places there were fortified houses. The houses of the inhabitants of the lowland regions of the North Caucasus and Dagestan were significantly different from the mountain dwellings. The walls of the buildings were erected from adobe or wattle. Turluchnye (wattle) structures with a gable or hipped roof were typical for the Adyghe peoples and Abkhazians, as well as for the inhabitants of some regions of lowland Dagestan.
The dwellings of the peoples of Transcaucasia had their own characteristics. In some regions of Armenia, South-Eastern Georgia and Western Azerbaijan, there were peculiar buildings made of stone, sometimes somewhat recessed into the ground. The roof was a wooden stepped ceiling, which was covered with earth from the outside. This type of dwelling (darbazi - among Georgians, karadam - among Azerbaijanis, galatun - among Armenians) is one of the oldest in Transcaucasia and in its origin is associated with the underground dwelling of the ancient settled population of Western Asia. In other places in Eastern Georgia, dwellings were built of stone with a flat or gable roof, single- or two-story. In the humid subtropical regions of Western Georgia and Abkhazia, houses were built of wood, on pillars, with gable or hipped roofs. The floor of such a house was raised high above the ground, which protected the home from dampness.
Currently in the Caucasus urban population prevails over rural. Small villages disappeared and large, well-appointed villages arose. rural settlements in several hundred yards. The layout of villages has changed. On the plain, instead of crowded ones, villages with a street layout appeared, with personal plots near houses. Many high-mountain villages have descended lower, closer to the road or river.
The home has undergone major changes. In most regions of the Caucasus, two-story houses with large windows, galleries, wooden floors and ceilings. In addition to traditional building materials (local stone, wood, adobe brick, tiles), new ones are used.
There was great diversity in the clothing of the peoples of the Caucasus in the pre-revolutionary period. It reflected ethnic characteristics, class affiliation and cultural ties between peoples. All Adyghe peoples, Ossetians, Karachais, Balkars and Abkhazians had a lot in common in the costume. Everyday clothing for men included a beshmet, trousers, rawhide boots with leggings, a sheepskin hat, and a felt hat in summer. A mandatory accessory of a man's costume was a narrow leather belt with silver or cohesive decorations, on which a weapon (dagger) was worn. In damp weather, they wore a bashlyk and a burka. In winter they wore a sheepskin coat. Shepherds used to wear a coat made of felt with a hood.
Women's clothing consisted of a tunic-like shirt, long pants, a swinging dress at the waist with an open chest, hats and bedspreads. The dress was tightly belted with a belt. The men's costume of the peoples of Dagestan was in many ways reminiscent of the clothing of the Circassians
The traditional clothing of the peoples of Transcaucasia was significantly different from the clothing of the inhabitants of the North Caucasus and Dagestan. There were many parallels with the clothing of the peoples of Western Asia. The men's costume of the entire Transcaucasus was generally characterized by shirts, wide or narrow trousers, boots, and a short swing shirt. outerwear. Women's clothing among different peoples of Transcaucasia had its own figurative features. The Georgian women's costume resembled the clothing of women of the North Caucasus.
Armenian women dressed in bright shirts (yellow in Western Armenia, red in Eastern Armenia) and equally bright pants. Over the shirt they put on an open-lined garment with shorter sleeves than the shirt. They wore small hard caps on their heads, which were tied with several scarves. It was customary to cover the lower part of the face with a scarf.
Azerbaijani women, in addition to shirts and pants, also wore short sweaters and wide skirts. Under the influence of Islam, they, especially in cities, covered their faces with veils. It was typical for women of all peoples of the Caucasus to wear a variety of jewelry, produced by local craftsmen mainly - silver. The festive attire of Dagestani women was especially distinguished by the abundance of decorations.
After the revolution, traditional clothing, both men's and women's, began to be replaced by urban costume; this process was especially intense in the post-war years.
Currently, the male Adyghe costume is preserved as clothing for participants in artistic ensembles. Traditional elements of clothing can be seen on older women in many areas of the Caucasus.
The traditional food of the peoples of the Caucasus is very diverse in composition and taste. In the past, these peoples observed moderation and unpretentiousness in food. The basis of everyday food was bread (made from wheat, barley, oatmeal, rye flour), both unleavened dough and sour dough (lavash).
Significant differences were observed in the diet of residents of mountainous and lowland areas. In the mountains, where cattle breeding was significantly developed, in addition to bread, dairy products, especially sheep's milk cheese, were a big part of the diet. We didn't eat meat often. The lack of vegetables and fruits was compensated wild herbs and forest fruits. On the plain, flour dishes, cheese, vegetables, fruits, wild herbs predominated, and meat was eaten occasionally. For example, among the Abkhazians and Circassians, thick millet porridge (paste) replaced bread. Among the Georgians, there was a widespread dish made from beans; among the Dagestanis, pieces of dough in the form of dumplings were cooked in broth with garlic.
There was a rich selection of traditional dishes during holidays, weddings and funerals. Predominated meat dishes In the process of urbanization in national cuisine Urban dishes have penetrated, but traditional food is still widespread.
According to religion, the entire population of the Caucasus was divided into Christians and Muslims. Christianity began to penetrate the Caucasus in the first centuries of the new era. In the 4th century. it established itself among Armenians and Georgians. The Armenians had their own church, called “Armenian-Gregorian” after its founder, Archbishop Gregory the Illuminator. At first, the Armenian Church adhered to the Eastern Orthodox Byzantine orientation, but from the beginning of the 6th century. became independent, accepting the Monophysite teaching, which recognized only one “divine” nature of Christ. From Armenia, Christianity began to penetrate into Southern Dagestan and Northern Azerbaijan - into Albania (VI century). During this period, Zoroastrianism was widespread in Southern Azerbaijan, in which fire-worshipping cults occupied a large place.
From Georgia and Byzantium, Christianity came to the Abkhazians and Adyghe tribes, to the Chechens, Ingush, Ossetians and other peoples. The emergence of Islam in the Caucasus is associated with the conquests of the Arabs (UP-US centuries). But Islam did not take deep roots under the Arabs. It began to truly establish itself only after the Mongol-Tatar invasion. This primarily applies to the peoples of Azerbaijan and Dagestan. Islam began to spread in Abkhazia from the 15th century. after the Turkish conquest.
Among the peoples of the North Caucasus (Adyghe, Circassians, Kabardians, Karachais and Balkars), Islam was implanted by the Turkish sultans and Crimean khans. From Dagestan, Islam came to the Chechens and Ingush. The influence of Islam has especially strengthened in Dagestan. Chechnya and Ingushetia during the period liberation movement mountaineers under the leadership of Shamil. The majority of Muslims in the Caucasus are Sunni; Shiites are represented in Azerbaijan. However, neither Christianity nor Islam supplanted ancient local beliefs (cults of trees, natural phenomena, fire, etc.), many of which became part of Christian and Muslim rituals.
The oral poetry of the peoples of the Caucasus is rich and varied. The oral poetry of the Caucasian peoples is characterized by a variety of subjects and genres. Epic tales occupy a significant place in poetic creativity. In the North Caucasus, among the Ossetians, Kabardians, Circassians, Adygeis, Karachais, Balkars, and also Abkhazians, there is the Nart epic, tales of the Nart heroic heroes.
The Georgians know the epic about the hero Amirani, who fought with the ancient gods and was chained to a rock for this; the romantic epic “Eteriani”, which tells the story of the tragic love of Prince Abesalom and the shepherdess Eteri. Among the Armenians, the medieval epic “The Heroes of Sasun”, or “David of Sasun”, is widespread, glorifying the heroic struggle of the Armenian people against their enslavers.