medical term borrowed from Latin
In Russia, Latin became widespread with the reforms of Peter I. At first, it was used exclusively by scientists, diplomats and lawyers, but gradually Latin was Russified and became understandable to wider layers of society, and many Latin words firmly entered the Russian language and took root: literature, architecture, fashion, notary, lawyer and many other words are no longer perceived as foreign.
In modern society, Latin is extremely necessary not only for doctors, but also for entrepreneurs, lawyers, barristers and representatives of other professions. Persona non grata, status quo, terra incognita - this is just a tiny part of those Latin expressions and catchphrases that we come across almost every day. Moreover, without minimal knowledge of the Latin language, without understanding well-known Latin expressions, proverbs and catchphrases, it is no longer possible to imagine a modern intelligent person.
The original Russian medical vocabulary is rooted in the common Indo-European base language and the common Slavic base language, on the basis of which in the 7th - 8th centuries. the Old Russian language arose. Writing appeared in Rus' in the middle of the 10th century. in the form of Old Church Slavonic (Church Slavonic) language.
It is possible that the original custodians of medical knowledge among the ancient Slavic tribes, like many other peoples, were the magician priests. The common Slavic word Doctor, which has a common root with the words “grumble”, “speak”, originally meant a sorcerer, sorcerer, fortune-teller, soothsayer, who heals with charms, incantations and incantations. From the depths of centuries, words have come down to us, attested in ancient Russian handwritten monuments, belonging to the common Slavic layer: thigh (diminutive “thigh, tibia”; hence “tibia”), thorn, side, eyebrow, hair, vospa (smallpox), head, throat , breast, hernia, lip, tooth, face, forehead, urine, nose, nail, fetus, kidney, cancer, hand, spleen, heart, crown, ear, etc.
We can consider Old Russian words that are common to the Church Slavonic and Old Russian languages, as well as words that belonged to one of them, but were firmly included in the Russian literary language, for example: pregnant, infertility, twins, illness, pain, sick, pus, shin, larynx, thirst, stomach, bile, conception, health, vision, intestines, skin, bone, medicine, medicinal, treatment, treat, brain, callus, muscle, nostril, smell, touch, swelling, poisoning, groin, liver, hymen, shoulder, sole, lower back, navel, erysipelas, mouth, cramp, body, jaw, skull, neck, ulcer, etc. Modern terminology includes such ancient names as nuchal ligament1, duodenum, epigastrium (the Church Slavonic and Old Russian word “neck” referred to neck, and the Church Slavonic words “finger” and “belly” meant “finger” and “stomach” respectively).
Many ancient Russian names of diseases and their symptoms have long gone out of use, and identifying them with modern terms is difficult. Such names include, for example, asthma (asthma), goldenrod (jaundice), kamchyug (arthritis), bloody womb (dysentery), epileptic illness (epilepsy), burning stomach (anthrax), leprosy (leprosy, lupus and some other lesions). skin), itching (scabies), shaking (malaria).
Some of the ancient Russian words used in the modern medical dictionary have changed their meaning. So, for example, the word “callus” in ancient times meant enlarged lymph nodes or an ulcer, the word “joint” meant a part of the body or an organ, as well as a joint in the modern sense, the word “gland” could mean a tumor (“gland merli People"). The Old Russian word “belly” had several meanings: life, property, animal. The word “eye”, which originally meant “ball (shiny)”, was used only in the 16th-17th centuries. acquired modern meaning along with its synonym - the common Slavic word “eye” and finally supplanted the latter only in the 18th century. In the literary monuments of the 16th century. The word “back” first appears as a synonym for the ancient word “ridge” in the monuments of the 17th century. -- the word "lungs" instead of ancient name“ivies”, the word “cough” appears for the first time.
Many original Russian names that existed in the language of Old Russian empirical medicine and were recorded in all kinds of “Healing books”, “Herbal books” and “Vertograds”, did not survive in the language of scientific medicine and gave way to other names, most often of Greek-Latin origin.
Greekisms of anatomical and physiological content are found sporadically already in the early monuments of ancient Russian writing. The penetration of Greekisms after the adoption of Christianity by Russia (10th century) was facilitated both by direct contacts with Byzantium and its culture, and by the growth in the number of translated Church Slavonic works. The latter were often compilations of passages from the works of Aristotle, Hippocrates, Galen and Byzantine doctors.
Latin vocabulary was also initially borrowed through the Greek-Byzantine medium, although to an extremely insignificant extent. It began to actively penetrate into the XV-XVI centuries. thanks to the Polish language. In the 17th century In connection with the progress of enlightenment in Ukraine, Latinisms began to be borrowed directly from works in Latin. Perhaps the very first of these works, Vesalius’s “Epitome,” which is the author’s brief extract from the work “On the Structure of the Human Body,” was translated in 1657-1658. prominent Russian enlightener Epiphanius Slavinetsky. It is assumed that the translation was supposed to serve as a textbook on anatomy for students of the school of Russian doctors, allegedly opened in 1654-1655. under the Pharmacy Order. Although the translation of E. Slavinetsky is lost, it can be assumed on the basis of his other work, “The Complete Greek-Slavic-Latin Lexicon,” that he created certain prerequisites for mastering the terminology of Western European medicine of that era. E. Slavinetsky used only two methods of translating terms - the use of original Russian equivalents and tracing [for example, he translated the term polyphagia (from the Greek poly- many and phagein) with the word “multiple eating”] and almost did not use borrowings.
A significant step in the comprehension and mastery of Greek-Latin vocabulary by Russians, including medical content, was made by a remarkable lexicographer of the early 18th century. F.P. Polikarpov. His “Trilingual Lexicon, that is, the sayings of Slavic, Hellenic-Greek and Latin treasures” (1704), consisting of 19,712 articles, contains a significant number of names of diseases and medicinal herbs in Greek, Latin and Russian. The large number of synonyms he cites indicates a wide range of literary medical sources used. Each article begins with a Russian name, which most often represents either a Russian equivalent (stone disease, smallpox, erysipelas, okovrach or ochnik, etc.), or a descriptive designation; Borrowings and Latinisms (apoplexy, dysentery, doctor, etc.) are used less frequently.
After the first graduations of the Greco-Latin Academy, in 1658 in Moscow, classicism began to be borrowed directly from the works of ancient authors and on a much wider scale than before. Particular attention was paid to teaching scientific anatomical and surgical terminology in Latin at the First Hospital School, established in 1707 on the orders of Peter I and led by N. Bidloo.
During the Peter the Great era and after it, throughout the entire 18th century, hundreds of scientific Latinisms were poured into the actively developing Russian literary language, both directly from Latin works and through Western European languages. At the beginning of the 18th century. The following words are widely used: medic, medicine, medicine, medicine, pill, pharmacist, recipe, sangva (Latin sanguis blood), urine (Latin urina urine), febra (Latin febris fever). In the middle of the 18th century. the words abscess, ampulla, amputation, tonsillitis, vein, consultation, constitution, contusion, muscle, nerve, ophthalmologist, patient, dissector, pulse, respiration (breathing), retina, relapse, section, scalpel, scurvy appear in the literature, temperament, fiber (vein), fistula, etc.
M.V. made a huge contribution to the substantiation of principles and the development of Russian scientific terminology. Lomonosov (1711--1765). A brilliant expert on classical languages, he repeatedly emphasized their importance for the needs of education and for the progress of terminology in Russia. M.V. Lomonosov took part in the review of the first anatomical atlas, translated from German by A.P. Protasov (1724-1796), who laid the foundations of scientific anatomical terminology in Russian.
Russian doctors-translators of the 18th century. belongs to the creation of Russian scientific medical terminology. It was truly a feat of scholarship and patriotism. Russian translators had to overcome significant difficulties when transmitting native language names of abstract concepts developed by Western European languages, including classicisms and neoclassicisms mastered by the latter.
The shortcomings of terminology were especially acutely felt by Russian medical teachers. Teaching medical disciplines in Russian was possible only if domestic terminology was developed. Therefore, many outstanding Russian doctors became both translators and philologists. Among them, first of all, we should mention the chief physician of the St. Petersburg Admiralty Hospital M.I. Shein (1712-1762), who created the earliest summary of Russian anatomical terms in Russian literature.
Translators were able to cope more easily with the names of diseases and symptoms, because for them there were often equivalent designations that existed in the language traditional medicine. The situation with scientific anatomy was more difficult, since many anatomical formations, for example, pleura, pancreas, trochanter, did not have Russian names at all. In such cases, descriptive compound terms were often created instead of a single Latin (or Latinized Greek) word. So, M.I. Shein created the Russian equivalent for the word diaphragma, “abdominal obstruction.” Along with this, translators resorted to tracing. A.P. Protasov introduced the name Clavicle, which is a tracing paper from the Latin word clavicula (from clavis key).
In the process of formation of domestic terminology, there was almost not a single foreign language term for which several equivalents in Russian were not proposed by different authors. Not all of them have stood the test of time and have been replaced by terms of Greco-Latin origin, including neologisms.
The first dictionaries of medical terms in Latin, Russian and French were compiled by the first Russian professor of “midwifery art” N.M. Ambodik-Maksimovich (1744-1812). In 1783, his “Anatomical and Physiological Dictionary” was published, containing about 4000 titles, and Russian ones were extracted, according to the author, “from various printed, church and civil, also new, old and handwritten books”, and also represented “his own handmade” work. The next issue - "Medical-Pathological-Surgical Dictionary" (1785) - collected "the names of diseases and their symptoms in the human body, as well as devices, operations, dressings used in surgery to perform certain manipulations."
Russian medical vocabulary was presented in the first academic dictionary of the Russian language - “Dictionary of the Russian Academy” (1789-1794) - with more than 600 words. Folk common Russian names were included, as well as borrowed scientific terms of Greek-Latin origin. The words were accompanied by very complete, carefully worded definitions. The medical part of the dictionary was compiled by leading Russian scientific doctors A.P. Protasov and N.Ya. Ozertskovsky (1750--1827). In this dictionary, in particular, the term Inflammation was first recorded, created by Shein in 1761 as a tracing paper from the Latin word inflammatio (from inflammo to set fire, set on fire, ignite).
A major contribution to the creation of Russian anatomical terminology was made by the founder of the Russian anatomical school P.A. Zagorsky (1764-1846), who wrote the first Russian anatomy textbook (1802), where he introduced Russian equivalents of a number of Latin terms. E.O. was heavily involved in the development of domestic anatomical terminology. Mukhin (1766-1850), who also created an anatomy course in Russian.
The “Medical Dictionary” compiled in 1835 by A.N. can be considered a qualitatively new stage in lexicographic processing, clarification and systematization of the rapidly growing Russian medical terminology. Nikitin - founder and first secretary of the Society of Russian Doctors of St. Petersburg. This was the first medical dictionary in Russia in which terms were interpreted. The medical community is the first half of the 19th century V. highly appreciated Nikitin’s work “for his deep knowledge of the Russian language and extensive acquaintance with Russian medical literature,” which made it possible “to present the nomenclature fully assembled without innovations and in such a form that henceforth it could serve as a model of Russian medical terminology.”
Throughout the 19th century. Russian medical vocabulary continued to be actively replenished with terms that had an international distribution, the predominant mass of which were classicisms and neoclassicisms, for example Abortion, alveolus (Alveolus of the lung), Ambulatory, Bacillus, Vaccine, hallucination (Hallucinations), Dentin, Immunization, Immunity, Heart attack, Infection, Cavern, Carbuncle, Lymph, Percussion, Pulp, Reflex, Exudate, etc., preserved to this day.
At the same time, among Russian doctors there were also extreme purists who objected to borrowings and neologisms, defending the original Russian common vocabulary, which they endowed with a special medical meaning. This point of view was held, in particular, by V.I. Dahl (1801-1872) - doctor by profession, creator of " Explanatory dictionary living Great Russian language." However, none of the replacements he proposed remained in the language of Russian medicine.
Most Russian doctors defended terms that were well established in professional usage, regardless of whether they were internationalisms of Greco-Latin origin or their Russian equivalents. They also realized the importance of preserving the Latin termini technici, i.e. standard, international not only in meaning, but also in form, according to the Latin transcription of names. In 1892--1893 The Encyclopedic Medical Dictionary by A. Vilare was published in translation from German. The preface to the Russian edition of the dictionary stated that “over the past decades, Russian medical terminology has developed significantly and strengthened among practical doctors, however, it is not yet at such a height that it excludes the use of Latin names.” It defended the advantage of the Latin terms generally accepted at that time such as auto?digestio, abrachia, acromegalia, epilepsia, and expressed an objection to the corresponding Russian names “self-digestion”, “armless”, “giant growth”, “eppileptic”, etc. It is interesting that the further fate of these terms turned out to be different: Self-digestion, and not autodigestio, was fixed in the language, and the remaining terms were preserved in the form of borrowing, without being accompanied by Russian equivalents (Abrachia, Acromegaly, Epilepsy).
Modern Russian medical terminology, based on linguistic origin, forms of writing, functions performed at the national or international levels, can be divided into the following main groups:
- 1) original Russian names;
- 2) borrowed classicisms, assimilated to varying degrees, adapted to the sound and morphological system of Russian literary language; the overwhelming majority of them actually perform the function of internationalisms, i.e. terms that have received cross-linguistic distribution in at least three languages from different language groups (for example, in Latin, French, English, German, Russian, etc.);
- 3) original Western Europeanisms, which actually perform the function of internationalisms;
- 4) Latin termini technici.
In the second half of the 20th century. medical vocabulary continues to be enriched with internationalisms. In modern Russian medical terminology, internationalisms and their Russian equivalents (including tracings of a foreign language term) act as synonyms. In some cases, the Russian equivalent is preferably used, for example, Lice instead of pediculosis (Pediculosis), Prurigo instead of Prurigo, Ossification instead of Ossification, Diarrhea instead of Diarrhea, Dwarfism instead of Dwarfism, Incarceration instead of Incarceration, Eversion of the eyelid instead of Ectropion. In other cases, internationalisms are preferred, such as Puncture rather than Puncture, Malignancy rather than Malignancy, Favus rather than Scab, Palpation rather than Palpation, Enucleation rather than Enucleation, Gynecophobia rather than Misogyny. In many of the above cases, the preferred use of a borrowed word is explained by the fact that its Russian equivalent is also used in the general literary language in a broader or different meaning. Sometimes the Russian equivalent gives way to internationalism, since it is easier to form derivative words from the latter, for example Placenta (placental) -- Children's place. Often such synonyms are practically equal, for example: Bleeding, Hemorrhage and Hemorrhage (hemorrhagic), Myopia and Myopia (myopic), pancreas and pancreas (pancreatic), Blood transfusion and Hemotransfusion (hemotransfusion).
Many terms of Greco-Latin origin, including neoclassicisms, penetrate into Russian terminology through Western European languages. Often they were able to gain the actual status of internationalisms, appearing almost simultaneously in two or more languages, and it is often difficult or impossible to find out in which Western European language a particular term, marked with the stamp of classical or neoclassical origin, first appeared. Many terms, having originally appeared in English, French or German linguistic form, undergo simultaneous or subsequent formal romanization; however, this process can also develop in the opposite direction: from a term Latinized in form to its nationally adapted analogue.
Sometimes a clear indication that classicism or neoclassicism was borrowed through Western European languages is provided by phonetic features that are not characteristic of classical languages. Thus, the presence in some words of the sound [w], which was absent in classical languages, indicates that the word was borrowed from German (Sciatica, neoclassicisms Schizophrenia, schizothymia, etc.). Under the influence of the phonetic system French The term senestopathy (French cеnestopathie) arose, derived from the Greek words koinos (general), aisthзsis (sensation, feeling) and pathos (suffering, disease).
Under the influence of Western European languages, in some Latinized words of Greek origin the sound [c] that was absent in the Greek language appeared, for example: Cyst (Latin cysta, from Greek kystis), Cyanosis (Latin cyanosis, from Greek kyanфsis).
The artificial (neoclassical) nature of a number of terms is indicated by the components of different languages, mainly Greek and Latin; for example: Vagotomy (Latin anat. nervus vagus vagus nerve + Greek tomz incision), Coronary sclerosis (Lat. anat. arteria coronaria coronary artery + Greek sklзrфsis hardening, sclerosis), Rectoscopy (Latin rectum rectum + Greek skopef to consider , research). “Hybrids” are formed similarly: Appendicitis, Gingivitis, Duodenitis, Conjunctivitis, Retinitis, Tonsillitis, etc. (to the Latin anatomical terms appendix - appendage, gingiva - gum, duodenum - duodenum, conjunctiva - connective membrane of the eye, retina - retina, tonsilla - tonsil, added the Greek suffix -itis, used to denote inflammation). The Greek prefixes Hyper-, Hypo-, Peri- and others are often combined with the Latin base: hyperfunction, hypotension, perivisceral, perivascular. There are also Greek-Russian “hybrids”: Allochondrium, leukovsus, Rechegramma, etc.
Such “hybridization” is quite natural within the framework of medical and biological terminology, where Greek and Latin roots and word-forming elements have grown into the fabric of national languages over many centuries and formed an international foundation in them. Therefore, the “hybrid” word “acidophilic” (Latin acidus sour + Greek philos loving, inclined) is just as legitimate as the monolingual word “thermophilic” (Greek thermos heat, warmth + Greek philos).
Original Western Europeanisms, i.e. There are relatively few words that arose from the lexical and word-formation material of Western European languages in Russian medical vocabulary. Their active implementation has been noted only since the end of the 19th century. and especially in the 20th century. They are presented mainly in terminology related to medical technology, surgical techniques, genetics, physiology, hygiene, and are much less common in the nomenclature of diseases. Thus, Anglicisms include, for example, Attachment, Blockade, Doping, Inbreeding, Clearance, Crossingover, Pacemaker, Site, shunt (arteriovenous shunt) and “hybrid” terms Aerotank, dumping syndrome, rant disease (Runt disease), Westing- syndrome. Borrowings from the French language include, for example, Absence, Midwife, Bandage, Bougie, Influenza, Drainage, Probe, Cannula, Whooping Cough, Cretinism, Curette, Patronage, Pipette, Raspator, Tampon, Teak, Yaws, Chancre, the “hybrid” term Culdoscopy . Examples of borrowings from the German language include boron (dental boron), Bugel, Klammer, Kornzang, Resort, Reiters, Spatel, Shub, “hybrid” words Abortzang, Rausch-narcosis, etc.
Some nosological terms of Italian origin have become internationalisms: Influenza, Malaria, Pellagra, Scarlet fever. The term Sigwaterra comes from the Spanish language, and Croup from the Scottish language.
There are individual words borrowed from Eastern and African languages: the Japanese word Tsutsugamushi, the African tribal word - Kwashiorkor, the Sinhala word - Beriberi. Sex therapists use some words of ancient Indian origin, for example, Vikharita, Virghata, Kumbitmaka, Narvasadata. The names of some medicinal substances were borrowed from the tribal languages of the American Indians: ipecac, curare, quinine.
A traditional feature of medical and biological terminology continues to be the use of termini technici - terms graphically and grammatically designed in Latin. Identity of their understanding various specialists in all countries makes termini technici an indispensable tool for the internationalization of terminology.
Large groups of termini technici are united in modern international nomenclatures and have an officially approved international status. These include nomenclatures of morphological and biological disciplines: anatomical, histological and embryological nomenclatures, codes of botanical and zoological nomenclature and a code of bacterial nomenclature. In the International Pharmacopoeia, the Latin name of the drug is indicated as the main, reference name.
Termini technici have a different status, relating to the dictionary of clinical medicine, denoting diseases, pathological conditions, symptoms, syndromes, etc. In most cases, they actually perform the function of international designations, but their use is optional. The “International Classification of Diseases, Injuries and Causes of Death” does not contain international Latin names as mandatory. In the USSR, most of these termini technici are used only in conjunction with their Russian equivalents, for example Hernia, Urticaria, Herpes Zoster, Cholecystitis. At the same time, some termini technici of this type are used in domestic medical terminology as preferred terms. These include, for example, Caries sicca, Carcinoma in situ, Partus conduplicato corpore, Situs viscerum inversus, Spina bifida, Status typhosus, Tabes dorsalis, plow vara (Coxa vara).
Even before the settlement of the Germanic tribes, the Angles, Saxons and Jutes in the British Isles, there were trade relations between these tribes and the Romans, which left some traces in the languages of these tribes. The borrowings of this period, which is commonly called the first period of Latin borrowings, reflect the nature of the cultural, economic and military relations of the Roman and Germanic tribes. New words usually express new concepts that arose in connection with the introduction to the higher culture of the Roman people of this period. Such borrowings include the following words: port (Lat. portus), cycene (kitcen) from Lat. coquina, piper (pepper) from Lat. Piper et al.
The assumption that these words were borrowed by the Anglo-Saxons even before moving to the British Isles is based on comparative historical analysis. By comparing the lexical composition of various Germanic languages and dialects, comparative historical linguistics has established the commonality of many words of Latin origin in these languages. Naturally, the assumption arose that the Anglo-Saxons brought these words with them. However, the presence of many of these words in the language of the Celts, with whom the Anglo-Saxons came into contact on the islands, does not make it possible to accurately establish, due to the lack of monuments, whether these words came into the Old English language directly from Latin language or were borrowed from the Celtic language already in Britain.
The bulk of Latin borrowings are associated with the introduction of Christianity in 597. Most of these borrowings express church and religious concepts. The general rise of culture associated with the introduction of Christianity led to the emergence of new concepts that needed appropriate linguistic design. New words appeared from the Latin language, denoting concepts from the sphere of culture and everyday life.
Let us give examples of Latin words that found their way into Old English and have been preserved in modern times. English language.
Household items, tools, implements: ancor (anchor) from Lat. ancora; box (box) from Lat. buxus; cealc (chalk) from Lat. calcem; paper (paper) from Lat. paryrus; pyle (pillow) from Lat. pulvinus; post (post) from Lat. postis; purs (purse) from Lat.bursa; sicol (sikle) from Lat. secula;
Items of clothing: cappe (cap) from Lat. cappa; socc (sock) from Lat. soccus.
Measures of weight and length: circul (circle) from Lat. circulus; pund (pound) from Lat. pondo; ynce (inch) from Lat. incia.
Names of animals, birds and fish: assa (ass) from Lat. asinus; camel (camel) from Lat. camelus; turtle (turtle) from Lat. turtur; truht (trout) from Lat. tructa.
Plant names: palm (palm) from Lat. palma; pere (pear) from Lat. pirum; rose (rose) from Lat. Rosa; lilie (lily) from Lat. lilium; plante (plant) from Lat. planta
Words related to religion:
engel (angel) from Lat. angelus; biscop (bishop) from Lat. episcopus; cyrice (church) from Lat. cyriaca; munuc (monk) from Lat. monachus; nunne (nun) from Lat. nonna; papa (pope) from Lat. papa.
In total, according to the calculations of the English linguist Bo, by the end of the Old English period there were about 450 Latin borrowings, not counting derivative words and proper names.
A significant number of Latin words entered the English language between the 11th and 13th centuries, during the Norman period. However, these words, for the most part, have already undergone, to a greater or lesser extent, phonetic, grammatical and semantic changes in the Norman dialect of French, which borrowed these words from Latin.
The largest number of words borrowed by the English language from the Latin language are so-called book borrowings. These are words that entered the language not as a result of direct, live communication between peoples, but through written documents, books, and so on. Book borrowings are qualitatively different from other types of borrowings. First of all, they are less susceptible to all kinds of changes, especially semantic ones. This is logical to explain by the fact that book borrowings, for a long period of time, are limited to the sphere of their use - the literary form of a given language. Further, these borrowings are usually abstract, abstract or terminological in nature.
Most of the Latin book borrowings in English occur during the 16th, as well as the 15th-16th centuries, that is, during the Renaissance in England. There are over a thousand Latin words in the works of Wycliffe, Langland and Chaucer that have not previously been attested in English. During the Renaissance, words from the fields of medicine, literature, theology, technical terms, etc. appeared. A list of these words cannot be given within a short chapter. To do this you need to compile a special dictionary.
Most of these borrowings can be distinguished by morphological characteristics, for example, verbs with the suffix –ate- in the infinitive, formed from the past participle of Latin verbs of the first conjugation, such as separate, translate, meditate, exaggerate, congratulate; verbs with the suffix –ute- in the infinitive, obtained from the stem of the past participle of the group of Latin verbs of the third conjugation, such as prosecute, execute; adjectives formed from Latin present participles with stems –ant- and –ent-, for example, evident, transparent, patient, triumphant, apparent, obedient.
The subsequent centuries - XVII, XVIII - witnessed book borrowings from the Latin language. In most cases, these are so-called “learned words”, often retaining the features of the morphological character of Latin words, such as inertia, sanatorium, genus, radius, curriculum, datum, vacuum.
Finally, in modern English there are also borrowings that have completely retained their Latin appearance, that is, they have not undergone and are not currently undergoing any linguistic assimilation. These words and expressions are used in the language as a kind of quotations from the Latin language. The scope of their use is very limited: they are usually used in scientific prose styles, in business documents, in an elevated oratorical style of speech. These borrowings include expressions such as: alma mater, bona fide, ex officio, conditio sine quanon, and so on.
As noted in the previous chapter, in the process of borrowing words by one language from another, there are cases when the same word is borrowed twice. This is possible only in cases of long-term historical and cultural ties between peoples whose languages come into contact. This is precisely the history of the influence of Latin on English. Many Latin words appeared in English twice: once from French, another time from Latin itself. The second borrowing is usually removed from the first by a significant period of time, which is necessary for the newly borrowed word to be considered as new. The result is etymological French-Latin doublets.
Some word-forming elements - prefixes and suffixes - should also be included among the Latin borrowings of a bookish nature. These derivational morphemes were not borrowed from Latin as independent lexical units; they were borrowed as part of whole words and only later interpreted as word-forming morphemes. However, in linguistic literature they are usually called borrowed affixes.
Thus, the Latin language had a significant influence on the enrichment of the English language with new words. This is largely due to the fact that the Norman conquest of England, which brought with it a huge number of French words, prepared the way for a relatively free influx of Latin words due to etymological affinities. In historical lexicology, it is sometimes difficult to determine whether a particular word came into English from French or Latin.
Among the borrowed Latin words, a certain group of words stands out, which in one or another sound form, grammatical design and semantic content can be found in a number of languages - international words. It was the Latin language that gave the most significant number of such words. This is explained by the fact that Latin in the era of feudalism was for many countries of Western Europe the international language of science, and in some countries it was even a literary language. The Latin language retained its importance as the language of science until the 17th-18th centuries. Modern medicine, chemistry, botany, zoology, philosophy, politics, and art still widely use Latin bases to denote newly emerging concepts. Of the Latin words borrowed by the English language and which are international words, the following words can be mentioned: obligation, constitution, alibi, agriculture, microscope, modern, laboratory, program, system, socialism, communism, capitalism, climate, radius, tradition and so on.
Latin words in Russian.
The Latin language played a significant role in the enrichment of Russian vocabulary (including terminology), associated primarily with the sphere of scientific, technical and socio-political life. The words go back to the Latin source: author, administrator, audience, student, exam, external student, minister, justice, operation, censorship, dictatorship, republic, deputy, delegate, rector, excursion, expedition, revolution, constitution, etc. These Latinisms came to our language, as well as to other European languages, not only through direct contact of the Latin language with some other language (which, of course, was not excluded, especially through various educational institutions), but also through other languages. The Latin language in many European countries was the language of literature, science, official papers and religion (Catholicism). Scientific works up to the 18th century. often written in Latin; Medicine still uses Latin. All this contributed to the creation of an international fund of scientific terminology, which was mastered by many European languages, including Russian.
The compilers of the anthology of medieval Latin literature write: “The Latin language was not a dead language, and Latin literature was not dead literature. They not only wrote in Latin, but also spoke it: it was a spoken language that united the few educated people of that time: when a Swabian boy and a Saxon boy met in a monastery school, and a Spanish youth and a Pole youth met at the University of Paris, then, to understand each other they had to speak Latin. And not only treatises and lives were written in Latin, but also accusatory sermons, meaningful historical works, and inspired poems.”
Most Latin words came into the Russian language in the period from the 16th to the 18th centuries, especially through the Polish and Ukrainian languages, for example: school, auditorium, dean, office, vacation, director, dictation, exam, etc. (The role of special educational institutions.) All current names of months from the Latin language are borrowed through Greek.
In addition to borrowing foreign language vocabulary, the Russian language actively borrowed some foreign language word-forming elements to create Russian words themselves. Among such borrowings, special mention is made of a group of international terms, for example: dictatorship, constitution, corporation, laboratory, meridian, maximum, minimum, proletariat, process, public, revolution, republic, erudition, etc.
Let us give examples of the use of Latin as a unified language of science, which allows us to avoid confusion and achieve understanding by people of different nationalities.
In astronomy, the most famous constellation of the northern hemisphere is Ursa Major (lat. Ursa Major) - this asterism has been known since ancient times among many peoples under different names: Plow, Elk, Cart, Seven Sages Hearse and Mourners.
In system chemical elements Uniform naming of all elements is applicable. For example, gold has symbol Au and scientific name (Latin) Aurum. Proto-Slavic *zolto (Russian gold, Ukrainian gold, Old Slavic gold, Polish złoto), Lithuanian geltonas “yellow”, Latvian zelts “gold, golden”; Gothic gulþ, German Gold, English Gold.
“Golden grass is the head of all herbs” - this is a popular saying about one of the most poisonous medicinal plants Russia. Folk names: cleanweed, chistets, podtynnik, warthog, prosornik, gladishnik, glechkopar, yellow milkweed, yellow spurge, nutcracker, zhovtilo, dog soap, swallow grass. It is unlikely that we recognized the well-known celandine. To understand which plant we are talking about, scientists use the Latin names (Chelidónium május).
If the Greeks took upon themselves the “responsibility” of giving names to poetic and theatrical terms, then the Romans took prose seriously. Latin experts will tell us that this short word can be translated into Russian by the phrase “purposeful speech.” The Romans generally loved precise and short definitions. It is not for nothing that the word lapidary came to us from the Latin language, i.e. “carved in stone” (short, condensed). The word text means “connection”, “connection”, and illustration means “explanation” (to the text). A legend is “something that should be read,” a memorandum is “something that should be remembered,” and an opus is “work,” “work.” The word fabula translated from Latin means “story”, “legend”, but it came to the Russian language from German with the meaning “plot”. A manuscript is a document “written by hand,” but an editor is a person who must “put everything in order.” Madrigal is also a Latin word, it comes from the root “mother” and means a song in the native, “mother” language.
The Romans developed a unique set of laws for that time (Roman law) and enriched world culture with many legal terms. For example, justice (“justice”, “legality”), alibi (“elsewhere”), verdict (“the truth has been spoken”), lawyer (from the Latin “I urge”), notary (“scribe”), protocol (“ first sheet"), visa ("viewed"), etc. The words version (“turn”) and intrigue (“to confuse”) are also of Latin origin. The Romans came up with the word lapse - “fall”, “mistake”, “wrong step”.
The following medical terms are of Latin origin: hospital (“hospitable”), immunity (“liberation from something”), disabled (“powerless”, “weak”), invasion (“attack”), muscle (“little mouse”) , obstruction (“blockage”), obliteration (“destruction”), pulse (“push”).
Currently, Latin is the language of science and serves as a source for the formation of new, never existing words and terms. For example, allergy is “another action” (the term was coined by the Austrian pediatrician K. Pirke).
Nowadays, scientific terms are often created from Greek and Latin roots, denoting concepts unknown in antiquity: astronaut [gr. kosmos - Universe + gr. nautes - (sea) - swimmer]; futurology (lat. futurum - future + gr. logos - word, teaching); scuba (Latin aqua - water + English lung - lung). This is explained by the exceptional productivity of Latin and Greek roots included in various scientific terms, as well as their international character, which facilitates the understanding of such foundations in different languages.
|
Latin - language Ancient Rome(VI century BC – V century AD). The overwhelming majority of Latin words began to penetrate into Old Russian, and then into Russian, when Latin was already a dead language. They entered through intermediary languages, first through Old Church Slavonic, then through Polish, German, French, etc. Among the words of Latin origin there are many scientific and political terms, in general words associated with “scientific” pursuits: aboriginal, abstraction, lawyer, axiom, alibi, audience, affix, vacuum, vein, deduction, dean, dictatorship, inertia, colleague, cone, conference, meridian, perpendicular, proportion, radius, rector, review, formula, constitution, manifesto, memorandum, plenum, revolution, republic, referendum, faction, etc. Words from other thematic groups: intelligentsia, chancellery, cooperation, culture, course, laureate , literature, maximum, minimum, motor, nation, innovator, revision, center, instance, etc. Many proper personal names come from Latin: August, Anton, Valentin, Valery, Victor, Ignatius, Innocent, Claudia, Konstantin, Maxim, Marina, Natalia, Pavel, Roman, Sergei, Felix, Julius, etc. Signs of Latin words - final - e nt, -tor, -um, -ur (a), -yc *, -tion, etc.: document, docent, incident, monument, ferment; author, speaker, doctor, innovator, rector, equator; quorum, consultation, memorandum, opium, plenum, presidium, forum; reinforcement, dictatorship, censorship, etc.; degree, consensus, cone, corpus, sinus, status, tone; diction, intelligentsia, constitution, nation, reaction, section, faction, etc. |
See also:
« Russian language And culture speeches" edited by Professor V.I. Maksimov. Recommended Ministry.P FOREWORD. Chapter I. Speech in interpersonal and social relationships.
Russian language And culture speeches. Speech and mutual understanding. On the process of mutual understanding in speech communication, certain features of use have a significant impact language V speeches.
Russian language And culture speeches. Culture speech communication. Under culture speech communication is understood as such selection and organization of linguistic means that contribute to the most effective achievement of goals in this area speech...
Russian language And culture speeches. Three main types of interaction between dialogue participants in Russian language.So, dialogical unity is ensured by the connection of various kinds of replicas (formulas speech etiquette, question - answer, addition, narration...
Russian language And culture speeches. Structure speech communications. Being an act of communication, speech always addressed to someone.
Russian language And culture speeches. Establishing (maintaining) business contacts .K communicative installationdefinition social and role status of communication participants, establishing social speech contact.
Russian language And culture speeches. Speech, her features.K speeches also include products of speaking in the form speech a work (text) recorded in memory or writing.
A significant place in the textbook is occupied by material related to culture speech communication and with the preparation of official documentation. The textbook aims to present modern views regarding Russian language And culture speeches at the beginning of the 21st century...
It is a world-famous fact that borrowings in different languages have different effects on enrichment vocabulary directly the languages themselves. Borrowings constitute a special part of the vocabulary, both in terms of naming and in terms of the validity of their use. What is universal for any language is that as a result of language contacts and the expansion of experience of a given language community, under the influence of the languages of other societies, as well as with the development of economic and cultural ties, borrowings become one of the means of satisfying the need for names of new directions of development of a given society. Borrowings are a kind of saving of linguistic effort to fill nominative gaps that have arisen in a given language.
The influence of Latin on the vocabulary of the German language is undeniable. The German language can boast of such an outstanding researcher vocabulary, like Jacob Grimm, who in his “History of the German Language” back in 1848 noted the importance of studying historical connections with other peoples in order to study the history of the language, which, in turn, will help to interpret the history of the people. Therefore, the purpose of this article is an attempt to reveal some aspects of Latin borrowings in close connection with historical events.
The presence of centuries-old trade, military and cultural ties between the Germans and Romans contributed to a huge number of borrowings into the German language from Latin. Over 600 borrowing words are known from the ancient period. Since the Romans were at a higher stage of development, the Germans mastered new concepts along with their names. As a result, we have the following borrowings:
lat. caupo– sutler, merchant of food and drinks > modern. kaufen- trade, buy,
lat. coin>modern Mü nze- coin,
lat. saccus>modern Sack- bag,
lat. asinus>modern Esel- donkey,
lat. piper>modern Pfeffer- pepper.
There is especially a lot of borrowing in the agricultural sector (field farming, viticulture):
lat. vinum>modern We in– wine,
lat. caulis>modern Kohl- cabbage,
lat. cucurbita>modern Kurbis- pumpkin,
lat. s inapis>modern Senf- mustard,
lat. menta>modern Minze– mint.
Along with the development of trade relations, another obvious reason for the widespread penetration of Latin words into the German vocabulary was a clear process of ethnic mixing. Interethnic connections contributed to the transfer from economic activity the Romans introduced new concepts, and with them new words. Mostly these are the names of agricultural tools, cultivated plants, defense structures, housing property, as well as some concepts in the field of trade and construction.
The Germans became acquainted with stone structures that were unknown to them:
lat. mṻrus>modern Mauer– stone wall,
lat. tẽgula>modern Ziegel- brick, tile,
lat. picem>modern Pech– resin.
We adopted the structural features of buildings and their names:
lat. cella>modern Keller- basement,
lat. coquina>modern Kü che- kitchen,
lat. fenestra>modern Fenster– window (set Windauge).
Items household and everyday life:
lat. cysta>modern Kisteh - box,
lat. tap(p)etum>modern Teppich - carpet,
lat. patina>modern Pfanne-pan,
lat. charte>modern Kerze- candle.
Borrowings from the culinary field:
lat. piscis>modern Fisch-fish,
lat. caseus>modern Kä se- hard cheese,
lat. butyrum>modern Butter- oil.
From the military case:
lat. Withampus>modern Kampf- fight, battle,
lat. pilum>modern Pfeil-arrow,
lat. titulus> modern Titel-rank.
The origin of the word is also associated with military roads
lat. viastrā ta> modern Straß e– paved street
lat. milia(thousand steps) > modern Meile mile
lat. distantia>modern Distanz distance
All of the above borrowings of the first wave fall under the phonetic laws of German and a number of Germanic languages. The reason for this is borrowing orally, directly from ordinary, spoken Latin, which provides more opportunities for deviations from the primary meaning or form - the phenomenon of assimilation. This pattern was noted in the work of Jacob Grimm “History of the German Language”
But the second wave of borrowings took place in writing, indirectly. This was also influenced by the spread of Christianity in the 8th-11th centuries. This may include the borrowing of some religious concepts:
lat. claustrum>modern Kloster- monastery,
lat. monachus>modern Mö nch- monk,
lat. cap(p) ella>modern Kapelle- chapel,
lat. crux>modern Kreuz-cross.
And also verbs:
lat. operari>modern opfern- sacrifice,
lat. signare>modern segnen- bless, be baptized.
Frankish and Anglo-Saxon missionaries introduced some concepts related to government:
lat. census>modern Zins– interest,
lat. scribere>modern schreiben – write ,
lat. par(a)veredus>modern Pferd- horse, originally had the meaning of a post horse.
With the spread of writing in monasteries and schools, the following concepts appeared:
lat. school>modern Schule-school ,
lat. tinctum>modern Tinte- ink,
lat. tabula>modern Tafel-board ,
lat. breve>modern Brief- letter.
The development of gardening, market gardening and floriculture in monasteries enriched the language with the following words:
lat. lilia>modern Lilie- lily,
lat. rosa>modern Rose - rose,
lat. petrosilium>modern Petersilie- parsley,
lat. mimus>modern Mimose- mimosa.
Note also that in the second wave of borrowings there are verbs and adjectives:
lat. sobrius>modern sauber- clean,
lat. spender>modern spenden- sacrifice,
lat. tractare>modern trachten- pursuit,
lat. praedicare>modern predigen- preach, teach,
lat. lavare>modern laben- refresh.
In comparison, the first wave represents exclusively nouns for naming new objects and phenomena of the surrounding reality.
The Renaissance and humanism reoriented worldviews and saw the flourishing of science, art, literature, education, music and painting. Therefore, the number of borrowings from Latin into the German language and in other areas of human activity has increased. Let's name just a few words:
Text-text, Logik-logics , Philosophy– philosophy, Astronomie-astronomy, Comet-comet, mixtur- potion, Medizin-medicine, Academy-academy, Auditorium-audience, Aula-Assembly Hall, Examen- exam, Fakultä t- faculty, Gymnasium-gymnasium, Doctor- doctor, Rector-rector, Professor- Professor, Student-student, Harmonie-harmony, Melodie-melody, Note-record, Pause-pause.
Some of the Latin borrowings listed above were so assimilated into the German language that they began to be perceived as native German:
der Tisch, das Fenster, die Mühle, der Wein, schreiben.
Thus, the lexical richness and diversity of the German language is associated with numerous borrowings from Latin. The use of Latin borrowings in German everyday life can be traced back to the Middle Ages. Today, these words function in almost all spheres of human activity, and are often found in Everyday life. Sometimes it's even hard to believe that some words have Latin origin. During complete assimilation, these lexical units lost their original characteristics, obeyed the norms of the German language and are now perceived as native German. For linguists, the etymological study of Latin borrowings is important for understanding internal form words and the primary meaning of Latin words.