While performing purely practical functions, windows and doors are at the same time an essential element of the architectural composition, largely determining its character. Window and door openings are organically included in the overall architectural solution, actively participating in the formation of proportions, scale, rhythmic structure and architectural image of the structure.
Overlapping openings can be rectilinear or curved, depending on the method of overlapping - a beam or an arch. Based on the outline of the curve, arches are distinguished into semicircular, radial, and three-centered *** (Fig. 82).
In a stone or brick wall, a window opening usually widens with slopes inward, forming a window embrasure. The part of the wall between the bottom of the window and the floor is called the window sill. On the side of the room it is covered with a window sill board, forming an internal window sill; usually it is made of wood, less often of stone. Outside, between the frame of the ram and the edge of the wall, the window sill is also covered with an inclined stone slab or hidden steel sheet. This is an external window sill, or window sill board, if the slab protrudes from the plane of the wall in the form of a shelf. The part of the wall between two windows is called a pier****.
The sizes of windows are determined primarily by functional requirements - to illuminate the interior. Secondly, they depend on technical capabilities, the height of the premises, which limits the height of the window, the design of the overlap of the window opening, which affects its width, and finally, the dimensions and shape of window openings are taken in accordance with compositional considerations, ideas about good proportions, dominant during the period of predominance of one or another style.
* This name was proposed by prof. N. Sultanov.
** The surface bounded by the archivolt is also called the tympanum, if its upper part is sealed, as well as curvilinear triangles on both sides of the archivolt, if the arch fits into a rectangular shape (Fig. 81, 85).
*** Not mentioned here are types of arches such as pointed, three-lobed, keeled, etc., characteristic of different architectural styles.
**** The part of the wall between the window and the corner of the building is called a corner pier.
IN classical architecture Such ideas were satisfied by openings with a width-to-height ratio of 1:2; the limit was considered to be a ratio of 1:1.5, i.e., one and a half squares. Naturally, architectural requirements must invariably be combined with practical ones: with the classical shape and proportions of windows and the conditionality of their sizes, the illumination of the premises was regulated by placing a larger or smaller number of windows.
The functions of the window are not limited to lighting and insolation of the room; it also serves as an observation and, in part, a ventilation opening. The window provides a visual connection between the interior and the external environment. In modern architecture, the latter function has acquired great importance. The desire characteristic of modern architecture to destroy the sharp line between indoor and outdoor space, and to achieve more uniform illumination of the interior, has led to the transformation of entire wall planes into solid windows, often to the complete destruction outer wall and replacing it with a glazed surface, which is facilitated by the capabilities of modern designs.
Since the 17th century. V large halls In large buildings occupying two floors in height, two-light lighting was common, i.e., two rows of windows located one above the other in accordance with the floor arrangement on the facade. Such double-height halls are available in many historical buildings in Moscow and Leningrad - halls in the Winter Palace in Leningrad, the Column Hall of the House of Unions in Moscow and many others.
Constructive techniques of modern construction give greater freedom in relation to the location and choice of size of window openings, allowing for a wide variety of solutions. The use of reinforced concrete lintels with strong reinforcement to cover window openings made it possible to significantly increase the width of the windows and give them a “lying” shape, in which the width of the window is much greater than its height. The appearance of such a window made it possible to more uniformly illuminate the room, and also improved the visual connection of the interior with the outside space, since one wide window can replace two or more vertical ones. The view from such a window is panoramic and is not interrupted by walls.
Modern designs allow you to install lightweight walls on remote consoles. Thanks to the use of such non-load-bearing walls, it is possible to completely eliminate the partitions and use continuous strip windows of great length or encircling the entire building, as is practiced in many buildings of modern architecture (see Fig. 73). These designs also make it possible to place windows not along vertical axes - a window above a window, but arbitrarily, for example, in a checkerboard pattern.
Depending on the nature of the architecture and the requirements of the composition, window openings have different plastic treatments, related to the design solution or having a purely decorative value. In its simplest form, a window is a gap in a smooth wall, devoid of any frame. The combination of such holes with each other and with the wall can create a feeling of harmony thanks to the perfection of proportions and a well-found rhythm. The form, devoid of decorative decoration that could hide its shortcomings, requires particularly precisely found proportional relationships. Similar solutions can be found in works of strict classics, such as the buildings of the architects Palladio, Quarenghi, and Stasov.
Some window treatment techniques arose as a result of design necessity. Following the general pattern of development of many architectural forms, these techniques gradually lose their original meaning, turning into a method of decorative processing that repeats the traditional form.
The most common method of window treatment in classical architecture is to frame the window opening from the outside with a profiled frame called a casing*. The origin of this form is associated with constructive techniques for creating openings. The casing appeared as a result of plastic processing of the lintel beam and the stone jambs supporting it, which were installed to prevent the lintel from directly resting on the wall masonry.
* It should be noted that the platband as a form resulting from the design of the opening exists not only in classical architecture. The design of openings with platbands was common in the architecture of various eras and styles.
This constructive technique has been known since ancient times.
The frame is made of stone blocks processed with profiles and forms the platband. In the case where the ends of the lintel protruded beyond the jambs, the internal profiles followed the outline of the span, and the outer profiles followed the outer contour of the lintel and jambs. This created the shape of the casing with ears.
In classical architecture, the profile of the platbands acquired a fairly stable shape, close to the shape of archivolt arches, with a small overall offset. The inner part of the casing, facing the opening, consisted of one or several smooth shelves, slightly protruding one above the other - fascia *; the outer edges usually ended in the profile of a cymatium or fillet with a shelf.
Often a cornice was placed over the openings to protect against rainwater running down the wall. The simplest form such a device is a remote shelf above the lintel. This cornice is called sandrik. It was also made in the form of a small pediment. Regular - the sandrik profile corresponds to the simplest classical cornice and preserves its main elements - the extension slab supporting the part in the form of a single profile, and the crowning cornice. Sandriks were placed above the openings and used with and without platbands. When there was an opening with a platband, the sandriks were located directly on it or at some distance from it, forming friezes. Sandriks were often supported by brackets, which sometimes corresponded to vertical shelves running along the edges of the casing - the so-called counter-platbands (Fig. 83).
The frames of openings are decorative in nature using an order in the form of pilasters or three-quarter columns placed along the edges of the opening and covered with an entablature with or without a pediment. This technique was especially common in the architecture of the Italian Renaissance, but was already used in ancient times (see Fig. 19).
Openings with curved ceilings in classical architecture were treated like arches: with archivolts with imposts or by revealing the wedge structure of the arch with jointing, highlighting the keystone. The seams of the arch were usually linked to the seams of the wall (see Fig. 82).
The arched span was also framed by a casing with sandstone, order columns or pilasters with an entablature. A unique type of such framing of an arched opening is the “Bramante window,” named after the famous Italian architect who used it in the building of the Palazzo Cancelleria in Rome. This technique arose from the method of wall cladding. Around the arched window opening, a rectangular depression was left in the cladding, into which, after the settlement had died down, a stone frame was inserted to frame it (Fig. 84).
Another type of frame of the opening is of a more decorative nature - the “Sansovino window”, which is an arched span treated with an archivolt and imposts resting on small columns placed against the lintels of the opening (Fig. 85).
The need to increase the light span without changing its height and maintaining the norms of classical proportions led to the creation of complex windows, which are a combination of several
* In plastering they are called plates.
openings. These are double and triple windows, which are a wide opening divided by posts supporting a lintel (Fig. 86). Of particular note is the type of triple window, called the “Palladio window” - named after the Italian architect of the 16th century. Andrea Palladio. This is a wide opening divided by columns into three parts: the middle one is covered with a semicircular arch resting on imposts, which serve as lintels for the side openings and at the same time are entablatures of columns dividing the window opening (Fig. 32, 87).
In some cases, depending on the nature of the compositional solution and practical requirements, round, oval, elliptical, square recumbent, semicircular, and multifaceted window openings were used. All these types of windows were usually used as auxiliary ones - for lighting mezzanines, intermediate service, ground and attic floors, as a “second light” in two-light halls.
The processing of doorways in classical architecture was carried out using the same techniques as the design of window openings. The difference was that the platband or other type of frame does not reach the bottom of the opening, but ends with the cabinet, i.e. stone insert against which it rests. A large door frame allows for more complex plastic processing. Doors of significant size with developed plastic decorative processing are called portals. An example of majestic and richly crafted portals are the doors of St. Isaac's and Kazan Cathedrals in Leningrad.
COLORS
Floors belong to the main structural parts of a building. Being one of the elements enclosing the internal space, ceilings, depending on their nature, can have a significant impact on the architectural design of the interior. In accordance with
The design of the floors can be divided into two main groups - flat (otherwise beam, or architrave) and vaulted. Next, we will consider the main types of architectural forms of floors and some techniques for their processing related to their tectonic basis.
In the case where sometimes the lower surface of the ceiling forms a smooth horizontal* plane of the ceiling, its processing is not related to the structural structure and can be done by any decorative means - modeling, ornamental painting, picturesque lampshades**, wood paneling, etc., including imitation of the structural structure. In the simplest case, the ceiling is a smooth plane without any processing, which is typical for the vast majority of mass-produced buildings. When the floor structure is exposed, the architectural form of the ceiling is inevitably related to its structural structure. The most common type of floor is flat, which in most cases is based on a beam structure. Among the monuments of ancient Greek architecture, a few examples of architectural design have been preserved
* In modern architecture there are not only horizontal flat floors. In some buildings, where these floors are not between floors and do not serve as the floor of the overlying floor, they are sometimes made inclined. In some cases, such sloping floors correspond to the sloping floor of the room above, as in a foyer concert hall in Turku.
** Plafond (French: Рlafond - ceiling). This is what they call ceilings with decorative finishes. Ceiling painting was often used or paintings specially made according to the rules of plafond painting, which are also called plafonds, were mounted on it.
beam ceilings, in which the space between the colonnade and the cella was covered with stone beams. Stone slabs - strothers - were laid along these beams. To facilitate the latter, square recesses were chosen in them - caissons, or cassettes. The beam itself was often treated like an architrave with fascias and a light profile at the top. Thus, the ceiling structure was at the same time a harmonious architectural form (see Fig. 48).
However, a very small span can be covered with a stone beam, so the construction of flat floors is relatively long span before the appearance of metal and reinforced concrete structures This was done using wooden beams or by hanging wooden ceilings from the rafters.
Open wooden beams in the form of rectangular bars, they were usually processed with decorative painting and carving. The ends of the beams often rested on consoles protruding from the walls. The ceiling panels between the beams were also decorated decoratively.
The use of a system of auxiliary beams intersecting the main ones in a perpendicular direction naturally created a system of rectangular caissons that filled the entire plane of the ceiling (Fig. 88). Due to the fact that structural beams limited the compositional possibilities of the decorative solution of the ceiling, they began to be replaced with suspended ceilings, on the surface of which decorative beams and caissons of a light box-shaped structure were placed, imitating the shape of structural beams, and their position on the ceiling plane was subject exclusively to decorative purposes and was not determined by the design . Such decorative caissons of the most varied shapes were finished with light profiles, modeling or carving, gilding and ornamental paintings. Italian Renaissance architecture contains many examples of this kind of solutions, characterized by exceptional decorative richness and richness.
In modern architecture, the tectonic form of flat floors is revealed in the ribbed structures of reinforced concrete floors, in which the slab is reinforced by protruding beams. This design, in pure form having a somewhat utilitarian nature, in some cases it finds a more expressive solution. An example of such a solution in modern buildings, the architecture of which is to a certain extent based on classical traditions, are the interiors of the New Town Hall in Stockholm (Golden Hall, gallery), the Ambassadors' Gallery in the building of the Finnish Diet in Helsinki, the exhibition hall in the House of Architects in Moscow, the railway station hall in the city of Pushkin, etc. (Fig. 89). The system of main and auxiliary beams in ribbed reinforced concrete structures creates a clear coffered floor structure, which can also be an architectural form.
The embodiment of new constructive ideas in the construction of reinforced concrete floors with ribs located along lines of equal moments reveals new, interesting opportunities architectural solution of flat floors, as can be seen in the example of floors designed by the engineer Nervi (see Fig. 89).
Due to saturation modern buildings With technical devices, suspended ceiling systems that are attached to the ceilings at a distance have become widespread. If in the architecture of the 16th - 18th centuries. When constructing suspended ceilings, they were guided primarily by aesthetic considerations, then modern conditions the installation of such ceilings serves practical purposes.
The space between the ceilings and the suspended ceiling is used for laying electrical, radio, television and telephone wiring, as well as for placing sprinkler systems, ventilation devices, lighting equipment, acoustic devices (the so-called acoustic ceilings in concert and theater halls).
Naturally, when designing suspended ceilings, aesthetic tasks are also set - to find a harmonious architectural form. This is facilitated by the fact that suspended ceilings, not directly connected to the structural structure, provide great opportunities for their plastic solution. For example, the system of built-in reflective heating in the building of pension funds in Helsinki and the system of acoustic and lighting devices in the House of German Radio in Berlin create a unique, unusual structure and plasticity of the ceiling surface (Fig. 90). Such solutions manifest a unique synthesis of new technology and architectural form.
Vaulted tectonic systems arose in the architecture of the great ancient civilizations (Egypt and Mesopotamia), but were widely developed only (in the architecture of Ancient Rome, where, along with the basic forms of wedge, stone and brick vaults, systems of cast concrete vaults were developed. The main types of these vaults also exist in our time.On their basis, a classification was established and a terminology was developed, which is largely valid even now, when new systems of vaulted structures have appeared - thin-walled, prefabricated and monolithic, reinforced concrete and reinforced cement vaults.
There are the following main types of brick, stone and concrete vaults (Fig. 91).
A barrel vault is a half-cylinder, the two long sides of which rest on walls or other continuous longitudinal supports, such as beams supported by mullions or arcades.
Varieties of the cylindrical vault are semicircular, elliptical, three- and multi-center vaults, the so-called box vaults, differing only in the shape of the Generating curve. The walls on which the vault rests are called supporting, and the walls perpendicular to them at the ends of the vault are called cheek walls*.
Cross vault. If a section of a cylindrical vault is cut by mutually perpendicular vertical planes diagonal to the axis of the vault, then four parts are formed: two of them, located along the vault, are called formworks, the other two, running across the vault, are called trays (Fig. 92).
One can imagine two perpendicularly intersecting cylindrical vaults with heels and shelves located on the same level. The intersection lines of these surfaces fully correspond to the traces of their section by two diagonally located vertical planes, and on the surfaces of two intersecting vaults, four formworks and trays are obtained. If we discard the trays, then four formworks connected diagonally form a cross vault: the protruding corners of the diagonal joints of the formworks - the ribs of the vault form a cross in plan. The cross vault rests on four points at which its heels converge. Thus, the supporting and cheek walls may be absent, and the vault rests on four pillar supports - the so-called canopy. Strippings can also be formed by intersecting any vaulted surface with another vault having the same or smaller radius - semicircular, box, elliptical, etc.
A closed vault is the opposite of a cross vault. It consists of four trays, which, closing diagonally, form incoming corners, in contrast to the cross girder, the ribs of which have projecting corners. The closed vault covered not only square and rectangular rooms, but also polygonal ones in plan, and the vault rested along the entire perimeter. The closed vault is also known as the monastery vault.
A mirror vault can be imagined as a closed vault, the upper part of which is cut off by a horizontal plane, forming a so-called mirror. The curved parts of the arch that frame the mirror are called paddugs**. The mirror was made in the form of a flat or very flat arch. In the first case, the vault had a trough-shaped cross-section; in the second case, it was a vault of a box profile with a middle part outlined by a large
* Essentially, a cylindrical vault may not be closed at the ends, for example, in covered passages or tunnels. The end can also be closed with a semi-dome (conch) or a section of transverse arch (tray). In this case, the vault is called closed.
** With flat floors, the transition from the ceiling to the walls is sometimes a curved surface, also called a paddug.
radius. The vault mirror, usually separated from the arch by a relief frame, was often used as a surface for a pictorial ceiling. The mirror vault, which appeared for the first time in Renaissance architecture, made it possible to significantly reduce the excessive height of rooms caused by the use of cylindrical, cross or closed vaults, which was especially important when the number of floors of buildings increased.
A dome vault, or dome, is formed by rotating a curve (semicircle, semi-ellipse, parabola, etc.) around vertical axis. Thus, in plan or horizontal section the dome gives a circle, and in any other section it gives a curved line*.
A dome can cover not only round rooms, where it rests on the walls along the entire perimeter, but also square and polygonal ones. In this case, the transition from a dome of a round shape to a room of a square or polygonal shape is carried out by means of spherical triangles - sails, or pandatives, or by arranging vaults in the form of a part of a cone - tromps, as well as using a system of arches. Spherical sails carry a support ring in their upper part, on which a dome or a cylindrical wall is erected - a drum, covered by a dome. The drum was usually used to place window openings to illuminate the space under the dome. Semicircular rooms in plan, such as apoids, were usually covered with a semi-dome, or conch.
The sail vault can be considered as a derivative of the dome vault. The geometric structure of the sail vault is obtained by cutting off the side parts from the dome surface with the planes of a prism, the longitudinal axis of which is aligned with the axis of the dome. A vault of this shape is a case of a dome on sails when both the dome and the sails have a common radius and thus belong to the same spherical surface. The upper part of such a vault above the sails, which is a spherical segment, is called skufia. Most often, such a vault covered a room with a square plan. It received its name due to its resemblance to a wind-inflated sail fixed at the four corners. A sail vault can cover rooms that are polygonal, as well as triangular in plan, for example, a thin-walled sail vault can cover a large span of a room that is triangular in plan - the auditorium of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. Like a cross vault or sail dome, a sail vault can rest on individual supports to form a canopy.
The term “undisturbed” applies to any vaults and even flat coverings that have a slight rise along a weak curve towards the middle - openness. Flat ceilings in large rooms are usually made slightly ruffled to eliminate the impression of sagging.
The listed basic forms of vaulted ceilings do not exhaust the variety of these structural systems used in the history of architecture. There were various types and combinations of the above vaults, for example, vaults on strippings, barrel vaults, etc. Modern reinforced concrete and reinforced cement vaults are even more diverse.
The methods of plastic development of gadflies are very diverse. Here we can touch only on those that arise from the very structure of the vaulted ceilings and reflect their tectonics. This is the technique of dividing a cylindrical vault with girth arches**, along which the slabs forming the surface of the vault are laid. This purely constructive technique, used in ancient Roman and Romanesque architecture, introduces a rhythmic principle into the architectural design of a smooth cylindrical vault.
* There are domes that are elliptical or oval in plan, the shape of which can be considered as the result of the rotation of a semi-ellipse or semi-oval around a horizontal axis. Depending on the nature of the generatrix of the curve, domes are obtained - of different shapes - spherical, in the shape of a hemisphere, elliptical (in section), sphero-conical, with a pointed upper part, etc. All domes that have the outline of a circular arc in cross-section are called spherical.
** Arches that support the arch or are intended to strengthen it are called girth arches; in dome systems - arches that serve as a support for the sails and support the support ring of the dome or drum; in cross and sail vaults there are arches located on the four sides of the vault and providing support for it.
A common technique for processing vaults, also related to their tectonics, is caissoning. In a stone vault, either barrel or box, the caissons are made by creating a frame of arches running in a curve across the vault and intersecting horizontal ribs along the vault. The cells obtained in this way are covered with slabs*. However, in its pure form, such a structure is extremely rare; an example is the covering of the portico of the Pazzi Chapel in Florence.
In Roman stone vaults, caissons were hewn out after the construction of the vaults, as was done in the Arch of Titus in Rome, where the caissons already have a purely decorative meaning, which is confirmed by the fact that their layout does not coincide with the seams of the masonry. More organic in nature were the caissons in the concrete vaults of ancient Roman buildings, which were obtained by laying wooden forms in the form of boxes with appropriate profiling on the formwork. During concreting, in places where the forms were installed, depressions and caissons were formed on the surface of the arch. The most typical example is the coffered dome of the Pantheon and the remains of the vaults of the Basilica of Maxentius in Rome.
Processing with caissons was used for vaults of all shapes - cross, dome, etc. The practical purpose of caissons is to lighten usually very thick concrete vaults. In the same way, caissons were created in vaults made of brick. Just as in flat ceilings, the caissons of the vaults were processed with profiles with carvings, moldings and other types of ornamental decoration. Often, sculptural rosettes were placed in the center of the caissons, which were sometimes made in metal, as in the caissons of the vault of the Kazan Cathedral in Leningrad.
The advent of reinforced concrete structures has opened up wide opportunities for the implementation of a wide variety of vaulted structures. This especially applies to thin-walled reinforced cement vaults, the so-called shell vaults, which, with a thickness of only a few centimeters, can span huge spans. To give the vaults greater rigidity, wavy shell profiles are used, giving a unique character to the surface of the ceiling. The rational form of these structures is at the same time an expressive architectural form (Fig. 93).
The achievements of modern construction technology bring to life new architectural forms, create the preconditions for the emergence of new, modern style, which is characterized by a synthesis of constructive, technical and aesthetic elements.
*This design is similar to the stone caissons in the pteron ceilings of Greek temples. Viollet-le-Duc gives a diagram of such a structural stone vault, where the horizontal ribs are wedged into the arches.
VERTICAL SUPPORTS
A classic example of an architectural form of support is a column. In ancient Greek architecture, pillar-columns carried a horizontal ceiling - an entablature. In late Roman architecture, a design arose in which columns served as supports for arches, with the arch directly resting on the capital of the column or between the fifth arch, and an intermediate part in the form of an entablature was inserted into the capital. The introduction of arcades on columns made it possible to move them much wider compared to stone architrave structures, limited by the size of the stone beam. Subsequently, the technique of supporting arches and vaults on columns was widely used in medieval buildings and in the architecture of the Renaissance (see Fig. 10).
A common type of support is pillars, round, polygonal, square or rectangular in horizontal section. The pillars can support a beam or vaulted ceiling or an arcade. In classical architecture, along with smooth pillars, you can find pillars with varying degrees of plastic processing - pilasters, blades, panels, etc. They usually have a plinth, a base and an end in the form of a cornice or a simplified capital. The pillars supporting the arches are usually terminated by an impost profile. Powerful pillars supporting arcades or girth arches are called pylons.
In ancient architecture, there are supports in the form of sculptural images of a male or female figure, for example, marble female figures that support one of the porticoes of the Erechtheion in Athens, the so-called caryatids, or kora, or caryatids of the Belvedere Palace in Petrodvorets (Fig. 94). For the same purpose, sculptural images of male figures are called atlantes, or telamons, a remarkable example of which are the granite atlases of the portico of the Hermitage in Leningrad. Naturally, such supports lost their constructive role over time, turning into a decorative element that creates the appearance of a support (Fig. 95).
Antique herms, i.e., stone square pillars, sometimes widening upward and ending with a sculpted bust, were also used in architectural compositions as a supporting element. An example is the porticoes of the Pink Pavilion in Petrodvorets (Fig. 96). In the Hermitage building, herms were used as a vertical impost in the double windows of the main facade (see Fig. 86).
IN modern construction Preferably reinforced concrete or metal posts are used as vertical supports, the shape of which varies widely both in terms of proportions and in relation to the outline of the horizontal section. With appropriate reinforcement, reinforced concrete columns can have a very large height relative to the diameter and a small cross-section under relatively large loads. Their cross section It can be a circle, a square, a rectangle, and the latter can be very elongated, so that the stoic takes on the appearance of a rib. The stand can also be multifaceted, have a complex cross-section with wests, etc., which is achieved by using appropriate formwork. These features help to identify the nature of reinforced concrete rack-mount structures.
We can distinguish some types of modern supports, characterized by the features of their design. Such supports can include upwardly expanding supports that support mushroom-shaped or funnel-shaped ceilings, Y-shaped supports that support the ceiling at two points, spindle-shaped ones that reflect the distribution of forces in the rack, etc. (Fig. 97).
BALCONIES
Balconies are building elements that serve certain practical purposes, improving the functional qualities of the structure. At the same time, they are important compositional elements that participate in shaping the appearance of the building and contribute to achieving greater plastic expressiveness. Balconies help connect indoor spaces with outdoor space. summer period, especially in areas with warm climates, they complement usable area premises, which is very significant for residential and some other types of buildings.
Installing openings in a frame house is a rather complicated matter, which is due to the complex design and multi-layer walls in such buildings. Installing windows with your own hands in a ready-made opening will not take much time, and installing doors will not be a problem either. But initially you will still need to make openings, the finishing of which takes a lot of time. They will be discussed in the article.
Finishing and arrangement of window openings in a frame house
Despite the fact that the theory of construction frame houses It seems extremely simple, but when it comes to practice, everything becomes significantly more complicated. This is especially true when it is necessary to do doorways and install windows yourself.
The main problem is that the frame walls are multi-layered. The external walls of prefabricated houses are distinguished by large layers (as standard - 9 layers, including thermal insulation, OSB boards, waterproofing, and so on).
With partitions (internal walls of the building) everything is somewhat simpler, since there are only 4 layers. It is for this reason that doorways are easier to install with your own hands than to install window hole. Finishing the openings is an optional, but desirable procedure.
Standard device diagram window opening in a frame house Sometimes it happens that the owner of a building, who carries out construction with his own hands, makes the openings uneven, which is why they have to be leveled with cement mortar.
The external walls of prefabricated houses are multi-layered, usually consisting of 9 layers.
It is also worth adding that the installation and finishing of the door and the opening under it, in its technology, is no different from the same work on creating window openings. So, it’s worth considering only the issue of installing windows and openings under them, and only then this practice can be used to install a door.
Frame features
The frame of a prefabricated house almost always consists of wooden elements (extremely rarely - of metal profile). For these reasons, it is imperative to calculate the maximum permissible load on such elements, especially on the corner parts of the structure.
In order to ensure an even load on the foundation, it is customary to make both the upper and lower framing of the frame, and the pitch of the racks will be about 1 meter.
An example of arranging openings in a Canadian frame house using a header This is very important, since this parameter determines, for example, whether it is possible to install a plastic window with a “warm double-glazed window” or not ( the main problem The disadvantage of such windows is that they greatly increase the load on the house, especially if the latter is a lightweight panel house, as small country houses often are).
And if a person is going to make a frame house with panoramic windows, then the main thing here is that the frames are level, which is quite difficult to do with your own hands. This applies not only to window recesses, but also to those where the doors will stand.
So, as noted above, the step of the racks should be about 1 meter, but where there will be various openings for windows, this step must necessarily be wider. Important point: if a person wants to install windows whose length exceeds 120 centimeters, he should know that such windows in a frame house will complicate the design too much.
Installation of side supports in window opening frame house
Firstly, this will require significant additional costs, and secondly, you definitely cannot install such structures with your own hands. Yes, and it will take quite a lot of time.
Finishing of holes can be done in 2 ways:
- using a device such as a deadbolt (we are talking about Finnish technology construction of frame houses);
- using a device such as a header (we are talking about Canadian technology construction of frame houses).
In Russia, frame houses are practically not built using Canadian technology, preferring Finnish technology using crossbars.
Crossbar and its structure
As already noted, the Finnish way of organizing openings for windows is based on the use of a crossbar. Crossbars are large supporting beams, and all other structural elements of the house rest on these beams, including windows and doors.
Diagram of a doorway in a frame house Interestingly, the support beam can be both upper and lower, however, only one is used. Most often, the Finnish method is used if there is a need to install a plastic window that has a relatively large weight.
If we consider a frame house specifically, then the crossbar in it will be a board that stands as if on an edge and is embedded in top part frame racks. The function of this board comes down mainly to the fact that it evenly distributes the load from the floor beams to the window openings, and the same applies to the door. Most often, the crossbar is not solid, but consists of several different parts.
The fact is that boards longer than 6 meters are not used in the construction of frame houses, and the wall of the house, as a rule, is longer than 6 meters. Interestingly, the device is connected exclusively to the window stand, which makes the structure itself much more reliable.
Opening in the wall of a frame house However, there is one nuance: when building a house with your own hands, you must avoid the situation where the crossbar is connected to the rack in the place where there is already a joint in the top trim. Otherwise, the structure will simply be unstable, which can lead to the plastic window simply falling.
By the way, experts recommend not using plastic frames in frame houses, but giving preference to wooden ones. On the other hand, finishing a wooden frame is also not an easy task, and it will have to be constantly maintained. It’s quite easy to make a crossbar with your own hands, by the way.
Hider and his device
Finishing window openings using the Canadian method involves the use of a header and double racks. The racks themselves consist of one main and a second additional one (for this reason they are called double).
Window racks are also installed both above and below the window opening, their pitch is the same as usual for the frame. In walls where there are no windows or doors, the load from the top frame is evenly transferred through the racks to the foundation. But where there is a hole, the distance between the main and additional posts is quite large.
Crossbar in the frame wall of a Finnish house For this reason, a header is installed in houses built using Canadian technology. Usually it consists of a double (in rare cases, even a triple) beam; its height can range from 100 to 130 centimeters, but no less and no more.
Specific sizes from this range will depend on the size of the window itself and cross beam(meaning floor joists). The header takes the entire load upon itself and distributes it evenly across the racks and onto the foundation. In general, it performs exactly the same function as the crossbar, so you can do both with your own hands.
True, experts say that installing a header is not so popular, since it requires more labor than installing a crossbar. However, if the finishing of the holes is carried out by specialists, then this does not matter. of great importance. Finishing will cost approximately the same, regardless of whether it is carried out using Canadian or Finnish technology.
Diagram of the pediment of a frame house The height of the header can vary from 100 to 130 cm.
Tips and recommendations for arranging openings in a frame house
What you should pay attention to when arranging holes:
Video
You can watch a video where experts talk about how to properly arrange window and door openings in frame houses.
Regardless of the dimensions of the bathhouse building and the aesthetic preferences of future owners, the issue of arranging windows and doors requires detailed analysis. To install these functional structures, openings are required, the location and dimensions of which should be thought out and calculated in advance. The design of window and door openings for bathhouses made of timber or logs is carried out taking into account specific rules, depending on operational features hygienic structure.
Why is it better to design everything in advance?
The windows and doors of a country bathhouse, by analogy with their other associates, are assigned a number of important functions. “According to the state,” they are supposed to allow lovers of bathhouse pleasures, natural light and streams of fresh air to pass through. It is not allowed to contribute to the loss of the required temperature, the creation of drafts and disruption of the technical condition of the building.
Architectural background
Country baths are built to accommodate popular procedures that attract people not only because of their standard hygienic effect. The indisputable priority of bath ceremonies is rightly considered to be the healing power and tonic effect. They are achieved due to the influence of steam, heat or heat and a special atmosphere. Therefore, the main task of the building is considered to be the preservation of a favorable regime, and not architectural “sharpness”.
Although no one claims that these two concepts should enter into irreconcilable contradictions with each other. In the name of preserving the not-so-cheap bathhouse atmosphere, it is customary to make the openings as small as possible, which is why bathhouses sometimes look “deaf” and “low-blind.” If you don’t know how to correctly design doors and windows for a bathhouse, the aesthetic component can seriously suffer.
Accounting for inevitable shrinkage
Steam and heat are far from the best allies of wood, which is very sensitive to unstable humidity and temperature fluctuations. Natural organic matter either increases in volume or shrinks following the changes occurring around the bath walls. In addition, like all wooden buildings, the bathhouse will definitely settle. In the first year, quite rapidly by 3-5 cm, depending on the quality of drying of the lumber and the type of wood. Then it’s not so fast by 1 cm or less. However, the movements inherent in wood will occur constantly, which needs to be taken into account when designing openings. Otherwise, the sagging crowns will simply squeeze out the window structures, and at the same time warp the roof and jam the door.
Forming openings in bath walls made of timber or logs is not at all a simple matter. To provide a reserve for the tireless movement of wood, it is necessary to leave gaps filled with insulation. A gap that is too wide will allow structures to move freely without breakage or damage, but will undoubtedly become an attractive area for heat leaks. Insufficiently wide stock does not guarantee safety window frames and door frames, which again strongly suggests the need for preliminary design.
Ensuring the strength of the structure
Among the good reasons for planning in advance the installation locations of window and door structures is the need for proper distribution of dowels or multi-faceted wooden coke connectors. They are used to hold the crowns of the log house from transverse deformations and from displacements of long wooden elements relative to each other. In the partition between adjacent openings, fastening should be done by installing at least two connectors on the crown.
If openings are formed directly during construction and the partitions are made up of short pieces, it is impossible to forget about installing bonding pins or cogs. However, master carpenters, trained in the experience of previous generations, strongly recommend initially erecting blank walls for uniform shrinkage of the entire frame. This method allows you to avoid sometimes noticeable differences in the height of individual components after shrinkage. True, the consumption of lumber increases, which does not bother those who want to build a beautiful, durable bathhouse. According to the recommended scheme, all openings, except for the entrance fellow, are cut down or sawed out with an electric saw after a year of shrinkage of the log house, but an inexperienced builder may not lay the dowels in the required place.
In order to clearly indicate the location of openings and partitions in a “solidly” laid log house, a hole is left only in the crown on which the window sill board or interior threshold will rest door frame. Next, the logs or beams are laid according to the principle of blank walls, and the cutting formed in the crown tells the builders where to install the connecting studs.
Impact of casing option
The casing or casing, also known as the frame, is a mandatory element for installing a window or door structure into a log house. It simultaneously performs several important work functions:
- serves as the basis to which windows and doors in the bathhouse are attached, because It is strictly forbidden to attach window frames and door frames to unstable wooden walls;
- her vertical elements play the role of a kind of guides along which gradual movement of door and window structures occurs during the shrinkage process;
- strengthens the frame in the area of the opening, ensuring a static position; in other words, it holds the laid logs or beams in a given position.
In the arsenal of experienced carpenters there are many options for producing sockets, differing in the method of execution. All kinds decide in the end general tasks. Structurally, in any design, they represent wooden box, essentially being a buffer between the log house and what is mounted in the opening. Any casing is attached to the opening using the “tenon-and-groove” principle.
Please note that fixing the casing to the frame with self-tapping screws or nails is unacceptable. The tightness of the joints between the tenons and grooves is achieved by laying insulation. It is prohibited to use polyurethane foam along the interface lines between the frame and the frame.
Common methods of constructing casing boxes:
- "Deck" installation. At the vertical ends of the opening, tenons are formed by sawing or carefully cutting them for subsequent attachment of carriages or thick boards with a groove hewn or cut along the central axis. If an independent designer prefers this method of constructing a frame, then he needs to take into account the thickness of the board or the equivalent size of the carriage. They will partially narrow the opening;
- Installation “on the embedded beam”. A groove is selected at the vertical ends of the opening for installing the embedded beam. Because The “floating” block is laid flush with the end plane of the opening, then the dimensions of this hole will be affected only by the thickness of the casing nailed or screwed to the block. But the window frame will be attached to it or. This means that the size of the casing must be taken into account;
- Budget analogue of the previous option, which consists only of installing the embedded beam into the grooves selected at the ends of the log house. According to this economical method, the frame is immediately attached to a movable guide on mounting plates. Those. the stage of constructing and fixing the casing to the embedded beam is completely absent, along with the consumption of material.
The last budget method is not reliable. It can only be used for installing window frames that are small in size and weight. Bath door leaves are usually quite massive. They are made from wood, which becomes even heavier under constant exposure to moisture. The beam simply cannot withstand a couple of emotional slams made by the exhausted bathhouse attendants.
We found out that windows and doors can be installed in a bathhouse different ways by following one or all of the above methods. Numerous variations on the presented theme of pigtails exist and are actively used. Often, openings are not selected during the construction of full-size crowns. They are brought to perfection before finishing. However, it is recommended to form the entrance door frame during the construction of the log house with strengthening the end of the decks with embedded bars. The top of the entrance opening is connected by a temporary jumper, eliminating distortions.
In general, if you plan to build a bathhouse with your own hands, at least approximate designs of the openings are necessary to mark the installation location of the frames and fastening points with studs.
General rules for arranging openings
The installation of a frame using any of the listed methods is a strict condition for installing windows and doors in a wooden frame. Even if it took several years for it to settle down. An equally mandatory condition is the formation of gaps between the structure mounted in the opening and the immediate end of the assembled crowns.
Between the mounted door or window structure and the frame you need to leave:
- along the side edges of the log house 1.5 - 2 cm on the left and right;
- on top 6% of the height of the installed frame;
- 0.5 cm below for laying insulation for installing a window or birch bark as a natural waterproofing under the door frame.
It’s easier for those who are going to show their personal carpentry and carpentry skills in making boxes and frames with their own hands. He just needs to accurately set the distances in each of the openings being arranged. To do this, you should arm yourself with a dash - a carpenter's tool similar to a compass. The “sword of Damocles” of a specific size does not hang over your head. Whether the opening is a little larger or a little smaller is not very important. The main thing is to cut off the excess equally. After all, a home craftsman will have to make frames for openings, and not vice versa.
When cutting out openings for factory window and door structures, you will have to tinker scrupulously so that the hole in the log house clearly corresponds to the size. To avoid the formation of too large gaps, which reduce the insulating qualities and aesthetic aspects. It is better to first cut the opening according to the exact dimensions of the frame, and then trim off the excess along the contour for the casing and mounting gaps. Please note that the use of polyurethane foam along the interface lines of the casing and window frame, as well as the casing and door frame, is allowed.
Choosing the right size
It cannot be said that the recommended sizes are regarded as technological dictates, but it is advisable to adhere to the advice given by the experts. After all, they rely on rules that have been formed over centuries among folk craftsmen. At the forefront of the design of openings is thermal insulation, according to which:
- Bath doors are built with a threshold height from 10 cm to 30 cm. The threshold will be a barrier from drafts. You need to arrange it according to your personal feelings of comfort and safety when stepping over. The presence of a threshold is required in the entrance door frame;
- There is no need for a door threshold between the steam room and the washing room. On the contrary, a gap of 5 cm should be left for free circulation of warm air flow;
- The optimal door height is from 1.6 to 1.8 m. A doorway that is too high will become an area of significant heat loss. For the same reason, you shouldn’t get carried away with width. The recommended size is 0.6 m, 0.8 m is possible. In extreme cases, for dense owners, a width of 1.0 m is allowed with minor deviations;
- The preferred window configuration is a rectangle, the long side of which is parallel to the plane of the floor. In priority small sizes window frames with an aspect ratio of two to three or three to four. Minimum height 30 cm, maximum length 90 cm;
- Windows are rarely installed in steam rooms, but those who wish can indulge in a small rectangular or square window with patterned glass. It is better to place it at the level of the top shelf of the bath;
- maximum glazing area in the steam room and washing room 5% of total area floor surfaces;
- There are discrepancies with the height of the bath windows. Some advise stepping back from the door threshold line 60 or 70 cm, some recommend 90 cm, or choose eye level as a guide.
Instruction in pictures and video guide
And here is the video:
There is advice from architects on the rational and most aesthetic arrangement of openings in the bathhouse - a single level for the upper elements of the casing for windows and doors. If you follow this rule, a building with small openings will look quite decent. And thermal insulation priorities will be preserved to the maximum. And terraces and verandas will help get rid of low-blindness in buildings with small windows. Their vertical elements, serving as supports for the roof or canopy, will imitate window openings.
Craftsmen who have started constructing a bathhouse on their own should do preliminary design work so that the result of construction does not disappoint and does not require alterations.
The dimensions of the doorway (as well as the window) can be standard or non-standard. In order to put the frame and the door into the latter, it becomes necessary to make a door (or window) to order. This, of course, will significantly affect the final cost of the order, as well as increase the duration of the work time. To avoid these nuances, there is such a thing as a standard. A standard doorway (or window) will save time and money. It will not be difficult to install the structure into it yourself. In addition, today manufacturing companies offer a huge selection of different models of windows and doors of standard sizes.
Standard doorway size for interior and entrance doors of an apartment
In order to avoid unexpected situations, it is necessary to seriously consider the dimensions of doors and doorways. It is best to choose in advance the company from which you will order the interior or entrance structure, and consult with specialists regarding the dimensions free space under it. It is worth noting that the standards for these indicators may be different in some companies. However, many companies adhere to the following door standards:
- Height 2 meters, width – 60; 70; 80 cm.
- Height 1.9 meters, width – 55 cm
A very important aspect is what room the structure is installed in (with or without a window). For rooms without windows, the following door opening parameters are typical (standard sizes):
- 2070 x 970 mm
- 2070 x 870 mm
- 2070 x 770 mm
- 2070 x 670 mm
- 1970 x 670 mm
- 1970 x 62 mm
Here, however, it is worth clarifying that these dimensions are also suitable for recesses for double doors.
Rooms with windows have their own dimensions:
- 2070 x970 mm
- 2070 x 870 mm
- 2070 x 770 mm
- 2070 x 670 mm
- 1970 x 670 mm
- 1970 x 620 mm
To calculate the size of the opening for sliding doors, you need to know that a standard door with a sliding kit (rollers with a rod, lower guide flag) has a height of 2005 mm. Space under sliding structure should be smaller and narrower than the canvas, vary between 1900-2002 mm.
For entrance structures, the standard are openings with a height of 2050 mm or 2150 mm, the most common width is 1000 mm or 900 mm.
How is the height and width of a window opening determined during the construction of a residential building?
During design and construction apartment buildings Most often they adhere to standard window openings. The same practice is observed in the construction of private housing. This saves a significant amount of time and money when installing double-glazed windows.
The standard dimensions of window space are designed taking into account functional purpose building, room dimensions, natural light depending on the location of the house.
For example, a residential multi-apartment panel building has the following parameters:
- Double-leaf windows - height 1400 mm and width 1300 mm.
- Tri-leaf – height 1400 mm, width 2050 mm or 2070 mm.
Khrushchev houses have a completely different approach to window openings: the dimensions depend on the width of the window sill. A double-leaf double-glazed window with a wide window sill is installed in an opening of 1450x1500 mm, a three-leaf one - 2040x1500 mm. Narrow window sills in Khrushchev-era buildings suggest 1300x1350 mm (for two sashes) and 2040x1350 mm (for three sashes)
What must be present in the design of any home? Of course, these are doors and windows. Planning, selection and installation of door and window openings has many nuances. We will tell you about some of them right now.
Standard sizes of windows and doors in a private house
The dimensions of these products largely determine the living comfort of residents. Doors that are too narrow or windows that are too small can cause many inconveniences. Window sizes for country house, as well as the parameters of doorways, are regulated by building codes and state standards.
The accepted standards greatly facilitate the issue of building design, allowing you to create optimal conditions operation of residential premises.
Options for installing doors
The convenience of entering/exiting a room directly depends on two interrelated parameters:
- Standard door opening dimensions.
- Options door leaf.
Standard domestic doors have a height of 1.9 or 2 meters and a width of 0.4 to 0.9 meters. The parameters of European models are slightly different. The height of such products is 202 and 215 cm, and the width can be 62, 72, 82 or 92 cm.
If you are planning to install regular swing doors, the finishing opening for them should be 70-80 mm larger than the leaf itself. If your plans include installing sliding doors, arrange the opening 50-60 mm smaller than the door leaf parameters. It is worth noting that the openings of interior doors are, as a rule, smaller than the parameters of the entrance ones.
Options for installing windows
The accepted standards for installing windows in a private house, as well as for balcony doors, are determined by state standard 11214-86. According to the standards, the width of a standard opening varies from 870 to 2670 mm, and the height ranges from 1160 to 2060 mm. The doors to the balcony have the same height (2755 mm), but may differ in width: 870, 1170 or 1778 mm.
The parameters depend on several factors:
- Room area.
- Necessary lighting.
- Architectural specifics of the room and the building itself.
Depending on the opening for windows planned in the house, the glazing system is determined, as well as the required number of sashes and transoms.
In addition, GOST regulates the height of window sills, which must be taken into account when organizing openings.
The window sill in the bedroom should be at a height of 700-900 mm, in the kitchen - 1200-1300 mm. Window sills for bathrooms and utility rooms also have their own standards. For the former, the height of the window sill should not be less than 1600 mm. For the latter, this value should be in the range from 1200 to 1600 mm.
Non-standard size of window opening in the house
Modern technologies and the preferences of owners make it possible to create house designs that use windows non-standard forms. Windows in a cottage, the sizes of which depend on the characteristics of the structure, can be triangular, trapezoidal, semicircular, round or arched. Such products give the house individuality, but their layout and installation have their own nuances.
Door and window openings for houses made of different materials
The layout of a private house largely depends on what materials it is built from.
Door and window opening in a wooden house
Organization of windows and doors in wooden buildings requires the preparation of a special structure (frame). Its task is to compensate for the shrinkage of the log house, which is typical for wooden buildings.
To install openings in a log cottage you will need:
- Installing a block with a gasket for insulation onto a pre-prepared groove.
- Installation of casing box.
- Treatment of gaps with heat-insulating materials.
- Installation of a door leaf or window block into a casing.
- Decorative design: installation of ebbs and slopes.
When installing the casing, it is very important to leave a gap at the top in case the structure shrinks.
The size of the gap largely depends on the degree of humidity of the wood used, while not exceeding 6-7% of the entire height of the opening. A properly installed casing box will protect windows and doors from being “squeezed out” when the building shrinks.
Door frame and window opening in a timber house
The organization of windows and doors in timber structures is practically no different from the installation of window openings in a log cottage.
As in the first case considered, to install the products it is necessary to organize a casing structure.
The casing is installed without permanent fastening. To install it, a tongue-and-groove system is used. Thanks to this design, windows and doors do not deform when the timber house shrinks.
When installing, make sure that polyurethane foam did not connect the casing to the wall. Otherwise, the casing structure will not be able to lower along with the shrinkage of the house.
Doors and window opening in a brick house
Carrying out work in brick houses requires the installation of special floors. They can be used as steel profile, iron bars or reinforced concrete lintels.
Window in brick house installed at a height of 10 rows brickwork. The doorway should be installed after 2 rows of brickwork. These parameters are recommended by the standards adopted in construction. However, they can be adjusted depending on the height of the structure being built.
Installation features for frame-type structures
If you are going to install window openings in a frame house, you need to take into account the material features of buildings of this type.
Are you building using Canadian technology? This means you need to use double racks. This solution will allow you to correctly distribute the weight of the structure itself and the weight of the window without damaging the entire structure.
In Finnish frame houses, single window mullions are installed. A special element of a frame house - the crossbar - will allow you to optimally distribute the weight of the structure.
Other nuances of selecting window and door openings
As we said earlier, organizing openings for doors and windows requires observing a number of nuances.
Installing a balcony block also has its own characteristics. Top line balcony door should be in line with the top of the window. And the exterior floor finishing should exceed the bottom line of the balcony opening by 10 cm.
We hope you found this information useful. Remember that for the implementation of any construction projects it is better to contact people who have professional experience in such matters.
We wish you success in all your endeavors!
Zabaluev S.A.