Foreign words enter the Russian language along with many concepts, ideas, theories and concepts. Inventing your own terms to express borrowed concepts is often too difficult and even impractical, so in most cases, along with a new concept, a word or phrase that expresses it also comes into the language. For example: floppy disk (from the English diskette) is a small-format magnetic disk, usually flexible, a storage medium for processing on a computer.
The number of such words is gradually increasing in the context of expanding political, economic, scientific, technical and cultural ties. Over time, many of the borrowed words are polished, adapted to the norms of the Russian language, and become changeable in accordance with these norms, which greatly facilitates their use. For example: audit (from the English audit) is a form of financial control over the activities of organizations, enterprises, firms, carried out at the request of the client. In addition, we say audit, meaning another meaning of the word: audit. An auditor (from Latin auditor - listener, investigator) is a person who checks the financial and economic activities of a company on the basis of a contract. This noun, like the word audit, is inflected.
The process of “Russification” of borrowed words is the subordination of borrowed unchangeable nouns and adjectives to the norms of inflection of the Russian language: kepi - cap, papua - papuans, papuan, lobby - lobbying - lobbyist - lobbyist, pike - dive, bezh - beige, etc.
However, there are many examples when borrowed words remain “foreigners” in the system of the borrowing language (jury, highway, scoreboard, attaché, kangaroo, etc.). Difficulties often arise in determining the grammatical gender of these words, in their pronunciation and stress placement. Things to remember:
1) indeclinable words of foreign language origin, denoting inanimate objects, belong to the neuter gender: publicity (advertising, fame, popularity); summary (a brief conclusion from what was said, a brief summary of the essence of the speech).
Although the word coffee is masculine, colloquial speech Can be used on average;
2) if the word is included in a more general one, generic concept, then it correlates with this concept in grammatical gender. Thus, indeclinable nouns included in the concept of “language” belong to the masculine gender: Bengali, Pashto, Hindi, etc.; the word Esperanto is used in both the masculine and neuter gender; the word sirocco is masculine (under the influence of the word wind); the words beriberi (disease), kohlrabi (cabbage), salami (sausage) are feminine; the word breeches is not only neuter, but also plural (trousers);
3) indeclinable foreign words denoting animate objects (animals, birds, etc.) are masculine: gray kangaroo, small chimpanzee, funny pony, pink cockatoo. But: hummingbird, kiwi-kiwi feminine (influenced by the word bird); iwasi (fish, herring), tsetse (fly) feminine; if it is clear from the context that we are talking about a female, then the names of the animals refer to feminine: the kangaroo carried a baby kangaroo in her bag; a chimpanzee was feeding a baby;
4) indeclinable nouns of foreign origin, denoting people, are classified as masculine or feminine in accordance with the gender of the person designated: rich rentier, old lady; the same applies to proper names: great Verdi, poor Mimi; bigeneric words are vis-a-vis (my vis-a-vis is my vis-a-vis), protégé, incognito;
5) the gender of indeclinable nouns denoting geographical names (cities, rivers, lakes, etc.) is determined by grammatical gender common noun, denoting a generic concept (i.e., by the gender of the words city, river, lake, etc.): sunny Batumi, wide Mississippi, deep-water Ontario, picturesque Capri (island), inaccessible Jungfrau (mountain);
6) the same principle is used to determine the grammatical gender of indeclinable names of press organs: “The Times” (newspaper) published...; Figaro Literaire (magazine) published...; Time (magazine) published...;
7) the pronunciation of foreign words has a number of features: in borrowed words, in place of the letter o in an unstressed position, [o] is pronounced, i.e. without reduction: b[o]a, [o]tel, kaka[o], for [o] ]; Double pronunciation is allowed: p[o]et - p[a]et, s[o]net - s[a]net, etc.; Before the vowel, denoted by the letter e, in many foreign words the consonants are pronounced firmly: at[e]lie, code[e]ks, cafe[e], Shop[e]n.
Simultaneously with the borrowing, another (Russian in origin) word with the same meaning can function in the Russian language, for example: aloe - agave, lumbago - lumbago, rendezvous - date.
Borrowed words characterizing specific national characteristics of life different nations and used when describing non-Russian reality are called exoticisms. Thus, when depicting the life and way of life of the peoples of the Caucasus, the following words are used: aul, saklya, arba, horseman; Italian flavor is conveyed by the words gondola, tarantella, tavern, spaghetti, pizza, etc.
Many borrowings, unable to withstand the test of time, quickly disappeared from the modern dictionary, but are found in literature: victoria (victory), plaisir (pleasure), voyage (travel), polites (politeness), etable (arrange).
In recent decades, the abuse of calques from foreign words has become a frequent occurrence, although there are Russian equivalents to denote the corresponding concepts. For example, we read in the newspapers: the summit participants came to a consensus... There is a large selection of ready-to-wear clothing in the boutiques... We hear on the radio: primaries have been held in the United States, the rating of the main candidate for the post of contender has decreased.
At the same time, the development of a market economy in Russia naturally supplemented our speech with such borrowed words as broker (intermediary), dealer (a person or company acting on the market using trademark manufacturers), tender (official offer to fulfill an obligation), tranche (financial part, series), transfer (financial transfer), offer (official offer to conclude a deal) and many others.
It is worth noting such a phenomenon in the life of a foreign word as a shift in the hierarchy of meanings inherent in the source of borrowing. Thus, our dictionaries of foreign words give the following meanings of the English word sponsor: 1. Guarantor. 2. The person financing the event or organization. In modern Russian the first meaning has not taken root. The word sponsor means “a structure, a person who finances someone.” A similar shift has occurred in the use of the word business. In the Russian interpretation, business is a commercial activity, non-state trade, while the dictionary gives the following basic meanings: business, permanent occupation, specialty, duty, duty.
One more group of words should be highlighted. Their semantic transformations illustrate a certain change in socio-economic and - as a consequence - linguistic guidelines. Consider, for example, the words control, control. They have long been included in the Russian language, being borrowed from French, and mean accordingly: check, check. Since the 1990s, the word control has come to mean primarily not inspection, but management, keeping under influence. The pattern is found in English, where control means, first of all, management. In the new usage, the meaning of verification shifts to the number of secondary ones.
The words have undergone similar changes: analyst (now not so much the one who analyzes, but rather the observer, commentator); administration (now not only and not so much the governing body of the enterprise, but the body state power); director or CEO(not only the head of the enterprise, but also often its co-owner). A similar transformation can be found in the meanings of the words liberalization, model, policy.
The main thing in the use of borrowings is precise knowledge of the meaning or meanings of a foreign word and the appropriateness of its use.
On Friday, June 6, Russian Language Day is celebrated in our country, simultaneously with the anniversary of Alexander Pushkin. the site decided to find out what words our “great and mighty” enriched other languages.
Troika, vodka, samovar
Trade is not only the engine of progress, but also a means of spreading the language. As you know, one of the most popular Russian goods (before it became popular to sell oil) was fur. For some of them, especially valuable ones, there was no name in European languages, so they had to be borrowed from the country of origin. So in English language The word "sable" appeared, in German - "Zobel", and in French - "zibeline", which means "sable".
There was also no name for another exclusive Russian product - sterlet, which is why in almost all European languages this fish is called “sterlet”. These are some of the earliest borrowings. For example, in England they were recorded back in the 14th century.
Later, with the development of trade relations, more and more Russian words penetrated into other languages, but they, as a rule, denoted objects and phenomena associated exclusively with life in Russia. For example, when English merchants came to the Muscovites, they sold them their goods for roubles and copecks. On the streets they met Cossacks, and if they hesitated under the hooves, they could get a knock.
One of the most interesting Russian borrowings, which has become widespread in modern English, is the word mammoth (mammoth). This word should have entered the vocabulary as mamont, but in the process of borrowing it “lost” the letter n. After all the changes, the word mammoth appeared in vocabulary in the form of mammoth.
A curious story happened with the word "hat". It comes from the French "chapeau", which means "hat", "cap". Later, a reverse borrowing occurred, and now the French have the word “chapka” to designate a fur hat with earflaps.
Among other Russian words that foreigners remember, we will find “steppe” (steppe), “verst” (verst), “tsar” (king), “borsch”, “samovar”, “vodka” and many others. It is difficult to say how often these words are used in colloquial speech. But, for example, on the website of the largest American newspaper The New York Times, tsar, borsch, and samovar have appeared dozens of times over the past year, however, exclusively in the context related to Russian events.
From nihilists to perestroika
Another large layer of Russian words that have replenished foreign dictionaries is associated with historical and cultural events in Russia.
For example, when the American linguist Eugene Schuyler translated and published the novel Fathers and Sons in 1867, the English language added the word “nihilist.” Of course, this word has Latin root, but it penetrated into the English language straight from Turgenev’s book.
The foreign press has always responded to the socio-political processes that took place in Russia. It was from newspapers that the words “narodnik”, “pogrom”, “intelligentsia” came into European languages.
Just as the Russian language was once enriched with French “revolutionary” words like “Jacobins” and “guillotine,” so after October revolution European newspaper readers learned new concepts: “Soviet”, “bolshevik”, “kolkhoz”, “komsomol”, stakhanovit (Stakhanovite), etc.
Later it was also included in many languages Russian word"dacha".
When in 1957 Soviet Union sent the world's first satellite into space, all the world's media reported this event, preserving Russian name this spacecraft. From that day on, the word “sputnik” meaning “artificial satellite” became international.
Here it is - Sputnik. Photo: ITAR-TASS, 1957
In French under the influence of Russian, the use of the word “le cosmos” itself changed; it began to mean “extraterrestrial space”, along with the word “l’espace”. The designation of an astronaut by the word "le cosmonaute", along with "l'astronaute", is also a result of the influence of the Russian language. Initially, the French press called the Soviet cosmonauts “le cosmonaute” and the American ones “l’astronaute”, and then they began to use the word “le cosmonaute” in relation to the Americans.
The Gorbachev era introduced new terms into foreign dictionaries: “perestroika” and “glasnost”, as well as “Chernobyl”.
"Good old dratsing"
The American writer Anthony Burgess borrowed a lot of Russian words for his dystopia A Clockwork Orange. His characters speak slang, called "nadsat" in the novel - as a Russian suffix for the numerals from eleven to nineteen (similar to the English "teen"). This is explained by the fact that the bearers of nadsat in A Clockwork Orange were teenagers (or nadtsatyje).
Most of the words in nadsat are words written in Latin from the Russian language: droog, moloko, malchik, korova, litso, viddy - to see, dratsing - fight, krasting - theft, dobby - kind, etc. In one Russian translation of the novel, the words nadsat were simply not translated, although they were inclined according to the rules of the Russian language, in another they were replaced by English words written in Cyrillic: “man”, “face”, “shop”, “friend”.
Charmers in the bistro
There are also words that are mistakenly considered borrowed. One of these is the designation of French eateries "bistros". According to a widespread legend, this word appeared in the French language when Russian troops entered Paris in 1814. It is believed that the Cossacks in restaurants demanded drinks and food, shouting “quickly, quickly!” However, in reality, the first “bistros” appeared almost 60 years after the Russians left Paris, which means that there are almost no people left who remembered them. There are several versions of the origin of this word. In particular, "bistraud" means in one of the dialects a wine merchant's assistant. Another version connects bistro with the word bistingo - tavern. Alternatively, bistro may go back to the colloquial word bistrouille, which refers to poor quality alcohol.
Grigory Medvedev
FOREIGN WORDS IN MODERN SPEECH: PROS AND CONS
Dolgorukov Alexander Igorevich
3rd year student, Department of ISE, Perm State Technical University, Russian Federation, Yoshkar-Ola
Email: djinka08@ mail. ru
Bogdanov Anton Igorevich
scientific supervisor, Ph.D. f. Sciences, Art. teacher. Perm State Technical University, Russian Federation, Yoshkar-Ola
Nowadays, it is very common to hear some foreign words in people's conversations. This fact can be seen especially clearly in the communication of young people. At the same time, many people probably have a question: is it possible to say the same word, only in Russian? In most cases, this question can be answered positively. Then it becomes interesting, why use other words, since there are native ones that have long been used in the Russian language? It turns out that the topic is very relevant for modern society and we need to determine exactly whether such borrowings bring benefit, or perhaps harm, to our language.
The purpose of this work is to study the arguments for and against words borrowed from other languages in our modern speech.
Among the objectives of our research, we highlight the following: processing various sources of information on this issue, familiarizing ourselves with the history of the emergence of borrowings in the modern language and analyzing what was done and drawing conclusions about the research.
According to many researchers, the lexicon of our language has undergone a long journey of development. Our vocabulary consists not only of ancient Russian words, but also words that appeared as a result of borrowing from other languages. All nations live among others and in most cases have some kind of connections with them: for example, trade, industrial and economic. The result is the mutual influence of peoples on each other. Moreover, the more stable and lasting the connections, the stronger the influence. Foreign words replenished our language all the way historical development. But some borrowings were made in ancient times, while others were relatively recent. Our research will help us find out how things stand now.
The languages of contacting peoples have mutual influence, since they are the main means of contact, the means through which international relations are carried out. The main form of linguistic influence of one people on another is the borrowing of new words from other peoples. Borrowing enriches any language, makes it more stable and usually does not infringe on its independence, since it preserves the basic vocabulary of the language, the grammatical structure characteristic of a given language, and the internal laws of language development are not infringed.
Russians throughout their history have had various connections with other peoples around the world. The result of these connections was a large number of foreign words borrowed by the Russian language from other languages.
In linguistics, a borrowed word is understood as a word that came into the Russian language from another source, even if the morphemes of this word do not differ at all from the original Russian words.
The process of borrowing new words is a completely adequate phenomenon, and in certain historical periods even inevitable and necessary for the development of the people as a whole. In principle, learning a foreign vocabulary enriches the vocabulary of the current language. One can recall the great role played by Greek and Latin languages in Europe, Old Slavonic language in the Slavic world, Arabic in the Muslim East. Borrowing words from non-native languages has been, is happening and will continue at all times, regardless of the language of the people. If you count borrowed words, you can get very interesting results. For example, among Germans, borrowings range in the region of tens of thousands of words, and in the English lexicon they make up more than half.
Thus, borrowing words from a foreign language into one’s native language is quite understandable, since the development of a people cannot occur without this borrowing. In addition, there is probably not a single language in the world that does not have any borrowings at all. We will consider the reasons contributing to the arrival of foreign words in the current language in the next subheading.
The reasons for borrowing are divided into two groups: extralinguistic and intralingual.
The main reason for external borrowing is the close political, trade, economic, industrial and cultural ties between representatives and native speakers of languages. The most common form of influence explained by such connections is the borrowing of a word together with the borrowing of its definition or subject. For example, with the advent of such inventions in our lives as the car, conveyor belt, radio, cinema, television, laser and many others, their names, which were not originally originally Russian, also entered the Russian language.
Another reason for such borrowing is giving meaning, with the help of a foreign word, to some special kind of objects or concepts that were previously called just one Russian word (or a word borrowed before this new word). For example, for the designation that distinguishes jam from the Russian variety (in the form of a thick, homogeneous mass), the English word “jam” has been fixed. The need for a narrow meaning of things and definitions leads to the borrowing of most scientific and technical terms, for example, “relevant” - “essential”, “local” - “local”, “transformer” - “converter”, etc.
Another intralingual reason for borrowing, inherent in all languages, including Russian, is the replacement of a descriptive name consisting of several words with one-word ones. Because of this, a borrowed word is often preferred to an existing multi-word descriptive phrase if both serve to define the same concept, for example, “sniper” instead of marksman, etc.
It happens that the tendency to replace native descriptive phrases with borrowed words is opposed by another, only on the contrary restraining the action of the first. And it consists of the following: groups of names appear in the language that have the meaning of correlative concepts, and usually the names that form these groups are similar in structure: either they all consist of one word (the most common), or they consist of two words ( White bread- black bread, etc.). If the names forming a group consist of two words, then replacing one of the names with a borrowed word occurs very rarely.
Thus, with the advent of “silent” films with sound, the German word “film” appeared in our language. But it could not become part of the language due to the fact that there already existed a formed group of names consisting of two words: “silent film” - “sound film”.
One more reason can be named that contributes to the emergence of foreign words. If borrowed words are strengthened in our language, which contribute to the emergence of a series united by the similarity of meaning and morphological structure, then borrowing a new word similar to the words inherent in this series becomes much easier. Thus, in the 19th century, the words gentleman and policeman were borrowed from English. Already in late XIX- At the beginning of the 20th century, an athlete, a record holder, and a yachtsman were added here. As a result, a number of words appeared that had the meaning of person and a common element - men. New borrowings began to join this small series, which these days are already quite significant and frequently used: bartender, businessman, showman, etc.
Among the reasons and conditions for borrowing, a certain role is given to the public assessment of a “foreign” word as more prestigious than a native one with a similar lexical meaning: “presentation” instead of “presentation”, “exclusive” instead of “exceptional”, etc.
Thus, all the reasons for the appearance of borrowed words in the current language are divided into two categories, each of which is explained in the text described above. These reasons once again confirm borrowing as a factor in the development of any language as a whole.
But what about the borrowed words (in relation to quantity) in the Russian language now?
Foreign words in vocabulary modern literary language may be quite numerous in the lexicon, but still do not exceed 10% of the entire lexicon. In the general system of a language, only a small part is common vocabulary common to all styles; most of them have a stylistically fixed use in speech and therefore are used in a narrow field of application (terms, professionalisms, specific book words, etc.) /
There is no doubt that even with borrowing, our vocabulary still remains Indo-European-Slavic-Russian at its core. And this is an indicator of the preservation of the originality of the Russian language.
In fact, it is not so easy to establish the difference between the concepts. Borrowing can develop in two ways: oral and written (through books). When borrowing in writing, the word practically does not change; when borrowing orally, it often changes more.
Borrowings can be direct (from one language to another) and indirect (through intermediaries): “painter”, “fair” - from German through Polish.
It is definitely clear that as part of the general literary language, special foreign vocabulary does not lose its terminological character.
The normal process of borrowing is a creative and active act. He assumes high degree independence, a high degree of language development. The effectiveness and meaning of language contacts lie not so much in the number of borrowings, but in those processes of creative excitement, creative activity and strength that arise in the language’s own means as a result of these contacts.
Thus, with regard to the admissibility of this or that borrowing, it is necessary to take into account that it is not the borrowed words themselves that are bad, but their incorrect use, unnecessary use without the need and taking into account the genres and styles of speech to which these words relate.
Having analyzed different opinions experts, we can sum up the results of our work.
It is worth emphasizing that there is nothing critical in the presence of native language I don’t see new words from other languages; they are borrowed as a result of communication between different peoples. In addition, borrowings are an indicator of the normal development of a language and its integration into international society /
In addition to the above, it is necessary to clearly understand and distinguish the meaning of the foreign words used, since in this case they can harm our speech and language as a whole, being used in erroneous or inaccurate meanings. However, very often new foreign words that have come into the language make it possible to replace entire phrases with one new word, which cannot be assessed negatively. If the wrong meaning of words is used, the meaning of their appearance in the language as a whole is lost.
As a result of the study, it must be said that borrowed words play a positive role in modern speech if used in correct values and do not use them to “dominate” your own speech. In our information society, the influence of different languages on each other is inevitable, so you should perceive this fact positively, but not allow a foreign language to completely replace your native one.
I hope that in the current political situation the Russian language will not perish under the influence external factors, and will further develop without violating its originality.
Bibliography:
- Drovnikova L.N. Priority and alternative // Russian speech. 1998. No. 5.
- Morozova L.A. Reflections on new terms // Russian literature. 1993.No. 1.
One of the ways to develop a modern language is to borrow foreign words. The development of language is always closely related to the development of progress and society. Borrowed words in the Russian language are the result of contacts and relationships with other peoples, professional communities and states. Along with words and expressions that came to us from other languages, Anglicisms are very common in our speech. We'll talk about them today.
Specific words and expressions that came into the Russian language from English are called Anglicisms or Americanisms. Over the past 20-30 years, they have been rapidly penetrating the Russian language, and in such quantities that linguists have started talking about a phenomenon called English-Russian bilingualism.
This invasion was caused primarily by the fact that modern society open to international contacts, as well as the international status of the English language. These are the main reasons for the massive entry of borrowings into the Russian language (in particular from American English).
Reasons for borrowing foreign words
In most cases, the borrowing of foreign language vocabulary occurs due to the absence of a corresponding concept in the cognitive base of the language. For example, English borrowings appeared in the Russian language such as computer, player, toaster, impeachment, voucher, charter, barrel, surfing.
Among other reasons, there is the need to express ambiguous Russian concepts using a borrowed word. Examples: hotel for motor tourists - motel, meeting at top level— summit, figure skating skiing - freestyle, marksman - sniper, short press conference for journalists - briefing, hired killer - hitman, parking lot - parking/parking, short distance running - sprint, drop in production - recession, retail - retail and a lot others.
Foreign words in Russian allow you to increase it means of expression. Particularly noticeable in last years the appearance of foreign language stylistic synonyms such as maintenance - service, shopping - shopping, motorcyclist - biker, security - security, party - party, loser - loser, girlfriend - boyfriend, dancing - dance hall, friend - boyfriend, performance - performance, receiving guests - reception, etc.
English borrowings in the Russian language are also due to the need for specialization of objects and concepts, therefore many scientific and technical terms are borrowed from English. A significant number of foreign words from formal / book vocabulary have corresponding Russian synonyms. Here is a list of such words:
- accentuate - highlight;
- similar - similar;
- vary - change;
- vulgar - rude, vulgar;
- misinform - give false information;
- decorate - decorate;
- ideal - perfect;
- infectious - contagious;
- memoirs - memories;
- permanent - constant, continuous;
- reconstruction - restoration;
- elastic - flexible, etc.
Some English words appeared in the Russian language due to the presence of similar semantic and morphological series. In the 19th century, the words gentleman, policeman came into the Russian language from English; already at the end of the nineteenth and beginning of the twentieth centuries, an athlete, a record holder, and a yachtsman were added to them. Thus, a group of words appears that have the meaning of a person and a common element - “men”. Gradually, the group began to be replenished with new borrowings: businessman, congressman, showman, superman.
The most popular anglicisms
In almost any field of activity you can find words that came to us from the English language. Foreign language is especially widely used in the names of clubs, TV programs, and stores: talk show; dog show; strip show; Coach Center; Show Business; hit parade; Fan club; Tennis Hall; Brain-ring; Home Credit Bank; Fan Park (Roev Ruchey); Second hand; Call center; Real-comfort; Sweet Mama.
Below is a list of areas and Anglicisms that have recently been most often used in them.
Politics/economics/positions:
summit, briefing, speaker, rating, electorate, voucher, holding, impeachment, image maker, speechwriter, investment, sponsor, barrel, media, recession, marketing, offshore, leasing, sequestration, tender, retail, price list, (top) manager , distributor, dealer, businesswoman, promoter, mentality.
Food/clothing/trade:
popcorn, hamburger, hot dog, barbecue, cheeseburger, fishburger, chocopie, pudding, (orange) fresh juice, yogurt, lunch, Coke-Cola, Nuts, Twix, Sprite, fast food, shorts, boots, bandana, cotton, top, non-roll (pillow), multi-brand, unisex, casual, catering, shopping, shopaholic, sale, Kodak Express, gel, SPA - salon, supermarket, VIP room, catering, second-hand, discount.
Sport:
shaping, diving, surfing, fitness, bodybuilding, snowboarding, paintball, frisbee, fitball, freestyle, wrestling, power lifting, training, skating rink, forward, bowling, goalkeeper, biker, sniper, turboslim, scooter, step class, overtime , contest.
Art/radio/TV:
western, video clip, thriller, music video maker, newsmaker, blockbuster, bestseller, musical, casting, supersta, underground, pop-Art, (had) rock, rock and roll (l), shake, breakdance, Brain ring, (current ) show, hit parade, skinhead, meteotime, superman.
Home/household/office:
air conditioner, mixer, toaster, blender, cooler, siding, roller shutters, antifreeze, roller blinds, Bullet Magic, Vanish, Fairy, Comet, Head & Shoulders, Dove, Tide, cleaning company, scrub, perfume, spray, tape, color, diaper, stapler.
Information and communication technologies:
computer, display, calculator, monitor, laptop, printer, Internet, scanner, CD, DVD, device, hacker, processor, upgrade, click, SMS, website, blog, smiley.
Anglicisms are present in all European languages, in the languages of African peoples and peoples of other continents that were once politically dependent on Great Britain or subject to American influence (cultural, economic, etc.). For example, in Japanese the word “cassette” sounds like tepu-rekoda from the English tape-recorder. The presence of Anglicisms in the Chukchi language, which penetrated through American traders, was noted: the word “sopy” means “soap” (in English “soap”), “manet” - “money” (in English “money”).