The Unified State Exam now includes tasks on knowledge of the main dates of foreign history. This means that if:

- political history Europe and America are a dark spot for you

- the chronology of world events is confused

- calendar historical events blurred, and comparison of the history of Russia and the West is impossible

Human history is divided into centuries BC (BC) and centuries AD. Our era begins with the birth of Jesus Christ. Up until 1917, people in Russia did not say the words “our era,” but they said “Nativity” when they wanted to clarify the time of an event.It is from this date that we will begin to present our brief chronology.

In the I - V centuries. AD the great Ancient Rome is gradually losing its power. The empire is weakening, the barbarian tribes threaten to destroy it, which they manage to do in 476. This year is considered the end of an era Ancient world and the beginning of the Middle Ages. Rome fell. On its ruins, Byzantium and new barbarian states arose.

Dates I - V centuries. from the Unified State Exam assignments:

476 - capture of Rome by barbarians, fall of the Western Roman Empire

Byzantium is ruled by Emperor Justinian. He builds the famous Hagia Sophia in Constantinople (now Istanbul). The Great Migration continues in Europe: the Lombards conquered Italy, Germanic tribes The Angles, Saxons and Jutes invaded Britain, where the legendary King Arthur began to rule.The monk Dionysius the Small proposed to calculate time from the Nativity of Christ.

By the 6th century refers to the first mention of the Slavs. From sources we learn that withSlavic tribes moved to the Balkans.

In this century, the prophet Muhammad lives and dies, with whose name the emergence of Islam is associated. A new state is born - the Arab Caliphate. Christianity is spreading in Britain.

Slavic tribes continue to move eastward across Europe.

The most powerful state in Europe in this century is the kingdom of the Franks. Bright rulers rule here - Charles Martel, Pepin the Short and, finally, Charlemagne. The latter conquers many lands, is crowned king from the hands of the Pope and creates a new, almost within the Roman Empire, state of the Franks (including the territories of modern France, Germany and Italy).The iconoclastic era begins in Byzantium.

Dates of the 8th century from the Unified State Exam assignments:

732 - Battle of Poitiers

The Kingdom of the Franks split into Italy, the West Frankish State (France) and the East Frankish State (Germany).

In this century, Rurik was invited to reign in Rus'. The formation of the Old Russian state is associated with his name.

Dates of the 9th century from the Unified State Exam assignments:

843 - collapse of the Frankish Empire (Treaty of Verdun)

The reign of the German king Otto I (936 - 973) began. He created a state called the "Holy Roman Empire" (after the conquest of Northern Italy).

In Rus' they adopted Christianity.

Dates of the 10th century from the Unified State Exam assignments:

962 - formation of the Holy Roman Empire (during the reign of Otto I the Great)

In the 11th century, the first split within Christianity occurred - the united church was divided into the Catholic and Orthodox churches. The Arabs conquered Palestine (the Holy Land for Christian Europeans), which became the reason for the start of the first crusade in history (1096)

In Rus' - the reign of Yaroslav the Wise.

Dates of the 11th century from the Unified State Exam assignments:

1066 - Battle of Hastings (victory for William the Conqueror, which gave him the English crown)

In the 12th century the second (1147 - 1149) and third (1189 - 1192) happened. crusades hiking. Such legendary figures as the English King Richard took part in the third campaign Lion Heart and the German king Frederick I Barbarossa.

In Rus' there was a period of feudal fragmentation.

Dates of the 12th century from the Unified State Exam assignments:

1147 - 1149 - second crusade

1189 - 1192 - third crusade

1199 - 1204 - fourth crusade

The fourth crusade ended (1999 - 1204). The campaign, like the previous ones, was aimed at liberating the Holy Land from the Arabs, but the knights did not reach the Holy Land. They settled in Constantinople, the capital of Christian Byzantium, and subjected it to a terrible defeat. In England, the Magna Carta was proclaimed, the articles of which were designed to protect free people from the arbitrariness of the authorities. In the same century, parliament appeared in England (1295).The Renaissance (or Renaissance) begins in European art.

The Mongols captured Rus' and established a yoke.

Dates of the 13th century from the Unified State Exam assignments:

1204 - defeat of Constantinople by the crusaders

1215 - adoption of the Magna Carta in England during the reign of King John the Landless

1295 - the beginning of the work of the “model” parliament in England

In France, an analogue of the English parliament appears - the Estates General. In 1337, the Hundred Years' War began between England and France.Tamerlane (Timur) makes his famous campaign of conquest across Asia.

At this time, on Russian soil, Dmitry Donskoy defeated the Mongols in the Battle of Kulikovo.

Dates of the 14th century from the Unified State Exam assignments:

1302 - convening of the states general (prototype of parliament) in France

1381 - Wat Tyler's rebellion in England

1389 - Battle of Kosovo, battle of the Serbs and Bosnians with the Turks.

In 1453, the Hundred Years' War ended in victory for France. The victory was largely helped by the participation of Joan of Arc at the last stage of the conflict. In 1431, the British burned her at the stake as a witch. Columbus discovered America.Byzantium was captured by the Turks and ceased to exist as a state, Constantinople fell. Leonardo da Vinci and Raphael Santi were born in this century.

At this time, Russia got rid of the Tatar-Mongol yoke. Andrei Rublev died in this century.

Dates of the 15th century from the Unified State Exam assignments:

1415 - uprising of Jan Hus in the Czech Republic (and his burning at the stake)

1419 - 1434 - Hussite wars in the Czech Republic, Jan Zizka’s participation in them

1453 - fall of Constantinople, capture of the city and defeat of Byzantium by the Turks led by Mehmed II the Conqueror

1492 - Columbus's discovery of America

The Reformation movement began in Europe (associated with the name of Martin Luther), which split Christianity once again: Protestants separated from the Catholics. In many European countries, the Reformation led to long and bloody religious wars. One of the most striking events associated with them was St. Bartholomew's Night in France, when the wedding of Queen Margot was used to destroy the Huguenots (Protestants) who came to Paris for the celebration. The first bourgeois revolution in history took place in the Netherlands.

At this time, Ivan the Terrible rules in Russia.

Dates of the 16th century from the Unified State Exam assignments:

1555 - Peace of Augsburg (between Lutherans and Catholics of the Holy Roman Empire)

1588 - death" Invincible Armada", the death of the Spanish fleet in the battle with the British

The British formed colonies in America. In the middle of the century, a revolution will begin in England. The English will execute their king, and Oliver Cromwell will seize power. As a result of the revolution, the third estate (bourgeoisie) will receive the right to vote in power. Thomas Hobbes will write his Leviathan, and John Locke will write his Two Treatises of Government.

At this time in Russia there was Troubles and a rebellious age.

Dates of the 17th century from the Unified State Exam assignments:

1653 - 1659 - Oliver Cromwell's Protectorate ( The final stage English revolution)

1649 - England declared a republic

1688 - "glorious revolution" in England

In Europe - the Age of Enlightenment. This means that life and thinking become secular, the role of religion decreases, the role of so-called common sense and science increases. The main European events will happen in France. Here the French, prepared by the works of the philosophers Montesquieu, Rousseau, Voltaire and Diderot, will begin a revolution in 1789. The unfortunate Louis XVI and his wife Marie Antoinette will be executed, France will receive the first Constitution with ideas about natural human rights enshrined in it.

A war of independence will break out in America: the English colonies will rebel against the English king, start a war, win it and create a new country - the United States of America. Thomas Jefferson, George Washington and Benjamin Franklin took an active part in the events.

At this time in Russia - Peter I and the era of palace coups.

Dates of the 18th century from the Unified State Exam assignments:

1775 - 1783 - war for the independence of the American states from England

1789 - beginning of the French Revolution

Napoleon will conquer all of Europe and begin a campaign in Russia, where he will be defeated. The strongest and richest power is England; India and China become its colonies. Türkiye will continue to lose strength and suffer further defeats from Russia. It will begin big war with the participation of England and France. Russia will lose ( Crimean War) and will be isolated. In addition to wars, there are a series of revolutions in Europe. Pan-European revolutions occurred in 1830 and 1848. There will be another one in France in 1870. The many German principalities will finally unite into a single state of Prussia, for which they thank politics " iron chancellor"Otto von Bismarck.Will start in the USA Civil War which will lead to the abolition of slavery.

At this time in Russia - Alexander I, Nicholas I, Alexander II and Alexander III. Pushkin, Gogol, Dostoevsky and Tolstoy.

Dates of the 19th century from the Unified State Exam assignments:

1850 - 1864 - Taiping Rebellion in China

1861 - 1865 - American Civil War

1862 - Homestead Act (land allotment law in the United States, adopted during the Civil War)

1865 - assassination of Abraham Lincoln

The century of the First (1914-1918) and Second (1939-1945) World Wars. The century of the emergence and fall of the totalitarian regimes of Hitler, Stalin, Pinochet, Pol Pot and others. The century of an unprecedented breakthrough in science: Einstein’s theory of relativity, space flights (the first flight was made by Yuri Gagarin in 1961), exploration nuclear energy. The century in which the world's population reached six billion people. A century that brought a lot of harm to the nature and ecology of planet Earth.

Dates of the 20th century from the Unified State Exam assignments:

1914 - 1918 - First World War

1939 - 1945 - The Second World War

They lived in poverty and ignorance. The idea that the Earth is a ball, that the world is large and diverse, was forgotten. There were many robbers on the roads, neighbors often fought with each other. Europeans, with the exception of the Vikings, or Normans - northern people (Nord - north), traveled little.

Main events

• Reconquista.
• Merovingian Empire (Frankish).
• Viking Age.
• Formation of the Holy Roman Empire.

Early Middle Ages culture

Main events

• Scholasticism.
• Trade.
• A sharp leap in the development of science and technology.

Strengthening royal power in Europe

The Iberian Peninsula

Italy

Significant changes occurred in the 13th century. in Southern Italy.

Holy Roman Emperor Frederick I Barbarossa(1152-1190) in 1186 married his son to the only heiress of the Kingdom of Sicily, created by the Normans in the 11th century. and which included, in addition to the island of Sicily, also the south of Italy.

In 1265, Pope Clement IV granted the Kingdom of Sicily to the brother of the French king Louis IX, Charles of Anjou, who in 1266 established himself on the Sicilian throne. The harsh policy of Charles of Anjou led in 1285 to an uprising in Sicily, called the “Sicilian Vespers,” after which the island of Sicily passed into the possession of the kingdom of Aragon. However, the possessions of Charles of Anjou in southern Italy, from that time called the Kingdom of Naples, were assigned to his descendants, who ruled in southern Italy until 1435.

At the end of the XIII - beginning of the XIV century. Venice And Genoa, the largest and richest trading ports of Northern Italy, became independent oligarchic republics.

Old Russian state

Late Middle Ages (XIV-XV centuries)

• Hundred Years' War.
• The Great War and the Battle of Grunwald.
• Conquests of the Ottoman Empire.
• Development of art (Renaissance).

The Iberian Peninsula

In 1479, the unification of the two largest Christian states of the Iberian Peninsula - Castile and Aragon - led to the emergence Spanish Kingdom.

Scandinavia

At the very end of the 14th century. important changes took place on the political map of Scandinavia.

Short story The Middle Ages: Epoch, states, battles, people Khlevov Alexander Alekseevich

Chronology of major events in Europe I–XVI centuries

5 – The troops of Emperor Tiberius reach the Elbe.

9 – The uprising of the Germans led by Arminius and the defeat of Roman troops in the Teutoburg Forest.

14–16 – The campaigns of the commander Germanicus across the Rhine. Victory over Arminius. Victory over the Mars and Hutt tribes.

43 – The transformation of Britain into a Roman province as a result of the campaigns of Aulus Plautus and Claudius.

73–74 – Wars of the Romans in Upper Germany.

77–85 – Conquest of Northern Britain.

85–89 – Dacian wars of the Romans.

98 – "Germany" by Tacitus.

101–106 – Conquest of Dacia and its transformation into a Roman province.

167–180 – Marcomannic Wars. Germanic invasions of Northern Italy.

212 – Edict of Caracalla granting the rights of Roman citizenship to all freeborn inhabitants of the Empire.

238 – Invasion of the Goths across the Danube.

253 – The start of sea voyages is ready in Asia Minor.

258–274 – Usurpation of power in the provinces by Postumus, secession from the empire of Gaul, Britain and Spain (the so-called Gallic Empire).

284 – The beginning of the period of dominance.

286–287 – Revolt of Carausius.

293 – Establishment of the tetrarchy.

301 – Edict of Diocletian on maximum prices for food and handicrafts.

303 – Edict against Christians.

313 – Rescript of Milan on the free practice of Christianity. Official recognition of Christians by Constantine.

316–332 – Edicts of Constantine on the attachment of columns to the land, artisans to colleges, curials to cities.

324 – The emergence of Constantinople.

325 – The first ecumenical (Ecumenical) Council in Nicaea.

350–360 – The first invasions of the Franks, Alemanni and Saxons into Gaul.

361 – Edict of Julian the Apostate on the restoration of paganism. Return to a policy of religious tolerance.

374–375 – The defeat of the Gothic tribal union (the Power of Germanaric) by the Huns.

376 – The Goths flee across the Danube from the Huns to the Roman Empire. Uprising of the Goths on the Danube.

378 – The defeat of the Romans in the battle with the Goths at Adrianople, the death of Emperor Valens.

382 – Settlement of the Goths in Moesia as federates.

392 – Theodosius prohibited the practice of pagan cults.

395 – The final division of the empire after the death of Theodosius. Rise of Alaric and the Visigoths.

401–402 – Alaric's Visigoth invasion of Italy and their defeat at Pollentia.

406 – Barbarian invasion of Gaul.

407 – The departure of the Romans from Britain.

409 – Invasion of Vandals, Alans and Sueves into Spain.

418 – The emergence of the first barbarian kingdom of the Visigoths in Aquitaine.

429–439 – Formation of the Vandal kingdom in the province of Africa.

449 – The Anglo-Saxon conquest of Britain begins.

451 – Battle of the Catalaunian Fields.

452 – Attila's campaign in Italy.

453 – Death of Attila. Collapse of the Huns.

454 – The murder of Aetius and the settlement of the Ostrogoths in Pannonia.

455 – The Vandals, having landed troops in Italy, captured Rome.

476 – Odoacer's overthrow of Emperor Romulus Augustulus and the disappearance of the empire in the West.

477 – Migration of the Britons to Armorica.

481–511 – Clovis is the king of the Salic Franks.

486 – The Franks captured the last Roman possession in Gaul - the state of Syagria.

493 – The complete capture of Italy by the Ostrogoths and the murder of Odoacer by Theodoric. The rise of the Ostrogothic kingdom.

529 – Founding of the first monastery at Monte Cassino by Benedict of Nursia.

535–555 – The war between Byzantium and the Goths for Italy.

554 – Conquest of South-Eastern Spain by Byzantium.

560–570 – Foundation of the Avar Khaganate in Pannonia.

568 – Invasion of Italy by the Lombard tribes.

597 – The beginning of the Christianization of the Anglo-Saxons (the baptism of King Ethelbert I of Kent).

602 – Ethelbert's Truth of Kent is the first record of the legal customs and laws of England.

616–620 – The Goths conquer Spain from Byzantium.

622 – The flight of Muhammad and his followers from Mecca to Medina (“hijra”). Beginning of the Muslim calendar.

632 – Muhammad died. The emergence of the Islamic Caliphate.

680 – The Byzantine Emperor Constantine IV convened the VI Ecumenical Council, which restored peace between the Eastern and Western churches.

687 – Majordomo of Austrasia Pepin of Geristhal became mayordomo of the entire Frankish state.

711–714 – The Arab Caliphate conquers Visigothic Spain.

714 – The beginning of the reign of the mayor of the Frankish state, Charles Martell.

718 – In the Cavadonga Valley in Spain, a militia led by Pelayo defeated a detachment of Arabs. The beginning of the Reconquista and the formation of the Kingdom of Asturias.

720 – The Arabs began the conquest of Southern Gaul.

726 – The Byzantine Emperor Leo III initiated iconoclasm.

732 – Charles Martell defeated the Arabs at Poitiers.

751 – Mayor Pepin the Short was officially proclaimed King of the Franks. Beginning of the Carolingian (Pipinid) dynasty.

754–756 – Pepin's campaign in Italy. Victory over the Lombards.

756 – Formation of the secular state of the popes.

757 – Offa becomes King of Mercia. Mercian hegemony among the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms.

768 – Beginning of the reign of Charlemagne.

773–774 – Charlemagne conquered the Lombard kingdom in Italy.

782 – Charlemagne defeated the Saxons on the Weser.

788 – Charlemagne abolished the ducal power in Bavaria and divided this region into counties.

788–803 – Wars of the Franks with the Avar Khaganate.

793 – The beginning of the Viking campaigns to the West.

796 – Liquidation of the Avar Kaganate.

800 – Pope Leo III in Rome crowned Charlemagne Emperor of the West.

801 – The Franks recaptured Barcelona from the Arabs.

817 – The Frankish emperor Louis the Pious divided the administration of the Frankish state between his sons, retaining supreme power.

825 – The beginning of Wessex's hegemony in Britain. King Egbert.

833 – The beginning of regular Danish raids on the Anglo-Saxons.

840–842 – The internecine war of the sons of Louis the Pious: Lothair I, Louis the German and Charles the Bald.

843 – The Treaty of Verdun on the final division of Charlemagne's empire between his grandchildren - Lothar, Charles the Bald and Louis the German.

847 – The Arabs' march on Rome.

855 – Collapse of Lothair's state. Formation of the kingdoms of Italy, Provence and Lorraine.

865–876 – Massive Danish invasion of England.

871–896 – The war of King Alfred the Great of Wessex with the Danes. Unification of the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms.

888 – Guthrum's agreement with the Danes on the division of England into two parts - Anglo-Saxon and Danish.

890 – The beginning of the reign of the Norwegian king Harald Fairhair. The first unification of the country.

899 – The beginning of the Hungarian aggression.

911 – The French king Charles III the Simple ceded the territory of Normandy to the Normans.

921–924 – Invasion of Italy by the Hungarians.

933 – The Hungarians invaded the lands of the Eastern Franks, Gaul, and Italy. Victory of the German king Henry I over the Hungarians.

955 – Otto I defeated the Hungarians at Lech, after which their raids ceased.

951 – The first campaign of Otto I in Northern Italy.

961–962 – Otto I's second campaign in Italy, his coronation with the imperial crown. Formation of the Holy Roman Empire.

967–971 – Third campaign of Otto I in Italy.

982 – Otto II tried to conquer southern Italy, but was defeated by the Arabs.

987 – Beginning of Capetian rule.

997–1038 – The beginning of the reign of the Hungarian prince (from 1000 - the first king of Hungary) Stephen (Stephen) I Saint. Baptism of Hungary.

1000 – Battle of Svolda (“Battle of the Three Kings”).

1000 -1004 – Icelander Leif Eiriksson's voyages to North America.

1014 – The victory of the Irish king Boru Brian over the Vikings at the Battle of Clontarf.

1016 – Treaty for the division of the kingdom of England between Edmund Ironside and Cnut the Great.

1016 -1042 – Dominion in England of the Danish dynasty.

1017 -1029 – The beginning of the Norman conquests in Italy.

1022 – Pope Benedict VIII and Emperor Henry II at the Council of Pavia spoke in favor of excluding violators of celibacy from the clergy.

1031 -1039 – Wars of King Henry of France with the rebel feudal lords.

1037 – The emergence of the Kingdom of Castile.

1042 – Return to power in England of the Anglo-Saxon dynasty.

1044 – Marriage of King Henry I of France to Anna, daughter of Yaroslav the Wise.

1045 – Recognition by the Hungarians of fief dependence on the emperor.

1046–1047 – Emperor Henry III's campaign in Italy (1046–1047). The period of maximum dominance of emperors over popes.

1046 – Robert Guiscard conquered Calabria and Apulia.

1054 – Separation christian church to Western and Eastern.

1060–1091 – Conquest of Sicily by the Normans.

1066 – The defeat of the Norwegians at Stamfordbridge, the death of King Harald the Severe of Norway (September 25).

1066 – The landing of William the Conqueror's Normans in Britain, the beginning of the Norman Conquest. The defeat of the Anglo-Saxons at Hastings (October 14).

1071 – In the Battle of Manzikert (Asia Minor), the Seljuk Turks defeated the army of the Byzantine emperor Roman IV Diogenes. The loss of Armenia and almost all of Asia Minor by Byzantium.

1071 – Fall of Bari; The Normans conquered Byzantine possessions in Italy.

1076 – The first "Communal Charter".

1076–1077 – “Walking to Canossa” (December-January).

1085 – The Spaniards occupied Toledo.

1086 – The “Salisbury Oath” is a direct vassalage of all land holders to the king. "The Book of the Last Judgment."

1095 – Pope Urban II at a church council in Clermont (France) called on Christians to liberate the Holy Land (November).

1096–1099 – First Crusade.

1097 – The Crusaders occupied the capital of the Seljuk Turks, Nicaea.

1097 – Battle of Dorylaeum.

1098 – The Crusaders captured Edessa and Antioch, forming the first crusader states: the County of Edessa and the Principality of Antioch.

1099 – Capture of Jerusalem by the Crusaders. Creation of the Kingdom of Jerusalem.

1100 – The first "Charter of Liberty" in England, guaranteeing the king's observance of the rights and privileges of large property owners (Henry I).

1108 – Beginning of the reign of the French king Louis VI. Strengthening central power, fighting feudal lords in the royal domain.

1122 – The “Concordat of Worms” between the pope and the emperor is the end of the struggle for investiture.

1128 – Marriage of Matilda, daughter of Henry I, and Geoffrey V Plantagenet, Count of Anjou.

1135 – The beginning of feudal strife after the death of Henry I. The struggle for power between King Stephen of Blois and Matilda, daughter of Henry I, heir to the throne.

1135–1154 – The reign of the English king Stephen of Blois.

1137 – Byzantine Emperor John II Komnenos established Byzantine sovereignty over Antioch.

1137 – Catalonia and Aragon united to form the Kingdom of Aragon.

1137 – Marriage of Louis VII with Alienora, heir to the Duchy of Aquitaine.

1144–1155 – As a result of the anti-papal uprising of the Romans under the leadership of Arnold of Brescia, the Roman Republic arises, liquidated with the help of Frederick I Barbarossa.

1144 – The Seljuk Turks captured Edessa.

1147–1149 – Second Crusade.

1152 – Divorce of Louis VII from Alienor. Alienor's marriage to Henry II Plantagenet.

1152 -1190 – The reign of the German king Frederick I Barbarossa, from 1155 - Holy Roman Emperor.

1153 – "Wallingford Agreement" - Matilda recognized Stephen as king, Stephen recognized Matilda's son Henry II Plantagenet as heir.

1154 – Accession to the English throne of Henry II Plantagenet. Annexation of the possessions of the House of Angevin to England.

1154 – The beginning of the campaigns of Frederick I Barbarossa in Italy (1154–1186).

1158 – The "Convention of Roncala", which prescribes the transfer of supreme power over Italian cities to the emperor.

1159–1299 – Franco-Angevin War.

1162 – Destruction of Milan by Frederick I Barbarossa.

1164 – The Clarendon Constitutions limit the competence of ecclesiastical courts in England.

1166–1179 – Judicial reform of Henry II.

1167 – The emergence of the Lombard League - a union of Italian cities to fight the Germans.

1169 – The beginning of the conquest of Ireland.

1170 – The murder of Thomas Becket on the orders of Henry II.

1170 – Founding of the Principality of Mecklenburg.

1175–1193 – The reign of the Egyptian Sultan Salah ad-Din (Saladin).

1176 – Battle of Legnano.

1180–1223 – The reign of the French king Philip II Augustus.

1181 – Confiscation of Henry the Lion's possessions in the empire.

1183 – The Peace of Constance between Frederick I and the Lombard League, Frederick's refusal of the Roncal Agreement and the restoration of self-government rights for northern Italian cities.

1186 – Marriage of Frederick I's son Henry VI and Constance, heir to the Kingdom of Sicily.

1187 – Defeat of the Crusaders at Hattin. Saladin occupied Jerusalem.

1189–1199 – The reign of the English king Richard I the Lionheart.

1189–1192 – Third Crusade.

1195 – The Livonian bishopric was established.

1195 – King Alfonso VIII of Castile is defeated by the Arabs.

1196 – Henry IV's attempt to make the German crown hereditary.

1196 – The beginning of active expansion of the Danes in the Eastern Baltic.

1198 – Founding of the Teutonic Order.

1200 – Founding of the University of Paris.

1201 – Founding of the Riga fortress by the crusaders.

1202 – Creation of the Order of the Swordsmen.

1202–1204 – Fourth Crusade.

1202 – Capture of Zadar by the Crusaders (November).

1203 – The first assault on Constantinople by the crusaders. Restoration of Isaac II Angelus to the throne (July).

1204 – Capture of Constantinople by the Crusaders (April). The actual collapse of the Byzantine Empire.

1209–1229 – Persecution of the Albigensians and Cathars - Albigensian Wars.

1212 – Battle of Las Navas de Tolosa; decisive victory over the Moors.

1212 – Children's Crusade.

1212–1250 – The reign of the German king Frederick II of Hohenstaufen.

1214 – The French king Philip II Augustus defeated the British and their allies at the battles of Bouvines and Laroche-aux-Moines.

1215 – "Magna Carta".

1217–1221 – Fifth Crusade.

1226 – The Teutonic Order begins the conquest of the lands of the Prussian tribe.

1226–1270 – The reign of the French king Louis IX Saint.

1228–1229 – Sixth Crusade. Temporary return of Jerusalem to Christians.

1233 – The Roman Curia established the Inquisition.

1237 – Merger of the Teutonic Order with the Order of the Sword.

1240 – The Swedes were defeated by the Russian army under the leadership of Alexander Yaroslavich (Nevsky) in the Battle of the Neva River.

1242 – “Battle of the Ice” – Alexander Nevsky’s victory over the German knights on Lake Peipsi.

1242 – The troops of Khan Batu defeated the army of King Belo IV of Hungary, captured Hungary and invaded Slovenia.

1244 – Muslim capture of Jerusalem. Pope Innocent IV blesses the new crusade.

1245 – The Council of Lyon excommunicated Emperor Frederick II from the church.

1248–1254 – Seventh Crusade.

1250 – Louis IX was taken prisoner by the Muslims.

1259 – Treaty of Saint Louis IX (Treaty of Paris), under which English king renounced claims to Normandy, Maine and other French territories lost to England under John the Landless, but retained Guienne (Aquitaine).

1270 – Eighth Crusade.

1282 – "Sicilian Vespers" - the expulsion of the French from Sicily. Transfer of power to the House of Aragon.

1291 – Fall of Acre. Final of the Crusader states in Palestine.

1300 – The core of the Ottoman state was formed in the northwestern part of Asia Minor.

1302 – Convening of the first Estates General in France. "Matins of Bruges" - the beating of the French garrison. Defeat of the French knights at the Battle of Courtrai.

1370–1377 – The Avignon Captivity of the Popes is the forced stay of the Popes in the city of Avignon (Southern France).

1315 – Battle of Mount Morgarten.

1337–1453 – The Hundred Years' War between England and France.

1340 – Battle of Sluys. British naval victory.

1346 – Battle of Crecy.

1356 – Battle of Poitiers, defeat French army Edward (“Black Prince”), the capture of King John the Good.

1381 – Wat Tyler's Peasant Revolt in England.

1406 – Florence captured Pisa.

1410 – The Battle of Grunwald combined forces of Poles, Lithuanians, Czechs, Russians and Tatars with the Teutonic Order; defeat of the order.

1411 – Peace of Torun with the Teutonic Order.

1414 – Prague University professor Jan Hus was burned at the stake in the city of Konstanz.

1429 – The beginning of hostilities under the leadership of Joan of Arc.

1431 – Joan of Arc burned in Rouen (May).

1434 – Medici rule was established in Florence.

1439 – Florentine Union of the Eastern and Western Churches: the Patriarch of Constantinople recognized the authority of Rome over himself.

1445 – Johannes Gutenberg produced the first European printed book.

1453 – The Ottoman Turks captured Constantinople.

1469 – Ferdinand II, heir to the throne of Aragon, married Isabella, sister of the King of Castile. The beginning of the unification of Spain into a single state.

1474–1477 – The Burgundian Wars are wars of the French king against the Duke of Burgundy for the territorial unification of France.

1477 – The defeat of the Burgundians at Nancy, the death of the Duke of Burgundy Charles the Bold. Annexation of Picardy, Nivernais and the Duchy of Burgundy to France.

1483 – The Balkan Peninsula was completely conquered by the Turks.

1492 – The fall of Granada in Spain, the end of the Reconquista.

1492 – Christopher Columbus is appointed admiral, viceroy and governor general of all the islands and lands that he manages to discover in the Western Ocean.

1494–1559 – Italian wars of France.

1498 – A Portuguese naval expedition led by Vasco da Gama reached India.

1500 – Portuguese navigator Pedro Alvares Cabral discovers Brazil.

1500 – Colonization of the Congo by the Portuguese.

1501 – The Portuguese establish the Cochin trading post in India. The beginning of European colonization of Western Hindustan.

1501 – Amerigo Vespucci's voyage along the coast ends South America. Vespucci made the final conclusion that the open lands were a new continent.

1502 – The marriage of King James IV of Scotland and the daughter of Henry VII, Margaret Tudor, determined the rights of the Stuarts to the English throne.

1511–1514 – Anglo-French war.

1512 – The Battle of Ravenna during the Italian Wars.

1513 – Final unification of Spain.

1513 – The Spaniard Vasco Nunez de Balboa crosses the Isthmus of Panama to the Pacific Ocean.

1516 – The Netherlands is annexed to Spain.

1517 – Martin Luther's speech in Wittenberg with 95 theses against indulgences. Beginning of the Reformation.

1519 – Election of Charles V of Spain as Holy Roman Emperor.

1519–1521 – Ferdinand Magellan's first circumnavigation of the world.

1520 – Luther's excommunication from the church.

1521 – Treaty of Worms on the division of the Habsburg Empire.

1525 – Secularization of the Teutonic Order. Taking the vassal oath to the Polish king.

1525 – Battle of Pavia. The defeat of the French and the capture of Francis I.

1531–1535 – Spanish conquest of the Inca Empire.

1534 – Founding of the Jesuit Order.

1557–1559 – The war of England and Spain against France. Expulsion of the British from the port of Calais. Peace in Cateau Cambresis.

From the book USA: History of the Country author McInerney Daniel

Chronology of main events BC. e., 14 000-10 000 Estimated time when the first people appeared in North America 10 000-9000 Paleo-Indians 8000–1500 Archaic Indians Appearance of the first crops in the Western Hemisphere 1500 Poverty Point culture (territory

From book Tatar-Mongol yoke. Who conquered whom? author

7. Why was one of the main units of measuring distances in medieval Western Europe called “ruten”? At different times and in different places people measured distances in different units. Among them, attention is drawn to one, previously used in Western Europe, and

From the book Spain. History of the country by Lalaguna Juan

Chronology of main events BC. e.Ok. 1100 Founding of Gades (Cadiz) by the Phoenicians. Approx. 1000 The arrival of the Celts on the Iberian Peninsula. Approx. 650 Carthaginians settle in Ebesus (Ibiza). Approx. 600 Tartessus, west of

From the book 1759. The year Britain gained world domination by McLynn Frank

Chronology of events December 12, 1758 - February 16, 1759 French siege of Madras. December 20, 1758, Bougainville arrived at Versailles on a mission from Montcalm. January 13, 1759, the British fleet arrived in Martinique with the aim of conquering the island. February 5. Choiseul had a conversation with

From the book Ireland. History of the country by Neville Peter

From book Last days Incas by McQuarrie Kim

CHRONOLOGY OF EVENTS 1492 Columbus arrives on a ship to the islands now called the Bahamas; this is the first of his four voyages to the New World. 1502 Francisco Pizarro arrives on the island of Hispaniola. 1502–1503. Columbus explores the coast on his last voyage

From the book General Vlasov by Sven Steenberg

Chronology of events September 1, 1901 - the birth of Vlasov. March 1919 - Vlasov’s entry into the Red Army. November 1938 - the beginning of Vlasov’s work in China (until November 1939). June 5, 1940 - Vlasov was promoted to general - majors. January 24, 1942 - Vlasov was promoted to

From the book German Occupation of Northern Europe. Combat operations of the Third Reich. 1940-1945 by Ziemke Earl

Appendix A Chronology of events 1939 September1 The Second World War begins with the invasion German troops to Poland.2 Germany warns Norway about the need to maintain strict neutrality. October 10 Raeder points out to Hitler the advantages of the German military -

From the book Our Baltics. Liberation of the Baltic republics of the USSR author Moshchansky Ilya Borisovich

Chronology of events The Red Army's struggle for the liberation of the Baltic states was integral part general strategic efforts made by the Soviet Armed Forces in 1943–1945, liberating the temporarily occupied territory of our Motherland from German invaders.

From the book England. History of the country author Daniel Christopher

Chronology of main events BC. e. (gg.)55-54 Expeditions of Julius Caesar to EnglandN. e. (gg.)43 Invasion of Emperor Claudius47 Tribes of Southern and Eastern England fight the Romans c. 50 Founding of London61 Revolt of the Iceni led by Boudicca70-84 Conquest of Wales, and

From the book Book 1. Western myth [“Ancient” Rome and the “German” Habsburgs are reflections of the Russian-Horde history of the 14th–17th centuries. Heritage Great Empire into a cult author Nosovsky Gleb Vladimirovich

4. Why one of the main units of measuring distances in medieval Western Europe was called “ruthen” Of course, distances were measured in different units. But among them, one immediately attracts attention, used in Western Europe and sometimes mentioned FIRST in the series

From the book Egypt. History of the country by Ades Harry

Chronology of main events BC. e. (years)Ok. 600 00 °The earliest tools found in Egypt. Approx. 50 00 °The earliest anatomically “modern” human remains in Egypt. Approx. 12,000 Origin of agriculture on the Nile. Approx. 8800 First pottery, possibly livestock raising

From the book Italy. History of the country author Lintner Valerio

Chronology of main events BC. e. (years)About 200,000 First traces human life on the peninsulaAbout 60,000 Middle Paleolithic period; Neanderthals About 30,000 Lower Paleolithic period; first people in Sicily Around 10,000 Cro-Magnons Around 5,000 Mesolithic period Around 3,500–2,500

From the book Russian Anarchists. 1905-1917 by Evrich Paul

CHRONOLOGY OF MAIN EVENTS July 18761 - death of Bakunin. 1892 Creation of the Anarchist Library in Geneva. 1903 Kropotkin founded "Bread and Freedom" in Geneva. The Black Banner group appeared in Russia. January 19059 - Bloody Sunday. April - July - Bidbey released "Leaflet" in Paris

From the book Donetsk-Krivoy Rog Republic: a dream shot author Kornilov Vladimir Vladimirovich

CHRONOLOGY OF EVENTS (Dates up to February 14, 1918 are given according to the old style) 1917 March 2 - Nicholas II abdicated the throne, the February Revolution was victorious in Russia. March 13 - The Provisional Committee of the Donetsk Basin was created by the Provisional Government of Russia. March 15–17 - in Bakhmut

From the book History of State and Law of Russia author Tolstaya Anna Ivanovna

Preface The course of the history of the Russian state and law is one of the fundamental, fundamental legal disciplines that occupies an important place in curriculum training students in the specialty “Jurisprudence”. History of state and law - science and

The development of world history was not linear. At each stage there were events and periods that can be called “turning points.” They changed both geopolitics and people’s worldviews.

1. Neolithic revolution (10 thousand years BC - 2 thousand BC)

The term “Neolithic revolution” was introduced in 1949 by the English archaeologist Gordon Childe. Child called its main content the transition from an appropriating economy (hunting, gathering, fishing) to a producing economy (farming and cattle breeding). According to archaeology, the domestication of animals and plants occurred in different time independently in 7-8 regions. The most early center The Neolithic revolution is considered to be the Middle East, where domestication began no later than 10 thousand years BC.

2. Creation of the Mediterranean civilization (4 thousand BC)

The Mediterranean region was the birthplace of the first civilizations. The appearance of the Sumerian civilization in Mesopotamia dates back to the 4th millennium BC. e. In the same 4th millennium BC. e. Egyptian pharaohs consolidated the lands in the Nile Valley and their civilization quickly expanded across the Fertile Crescent to East Coast Mediterranean Sea and further throughout the Levant. This made Mediterranean countries such as Egypt, Syria and Lebanon part of the cradle of civilization.

3. Great Migration of Peoples (IV-VII centuries)

The Great Migration of Peoples became a turning point in history, defining the transition from antiquity to the Middle Ages. Scientists are still arguing about the causes of the Great Migration, but its consequences turned out to be global.

Numerous Germanic (Franks, Lombards, Saxons, Vandals, Goths) and Sarmatian (Alans) tribes moved to the territory of the weakening Roman Empire. The Slavs reached the Mediterranean and Baltic coasts and settled part of the Peloponnese and Asia Minor. The Turks reached Central Europe, the Arabs began their campaigns of conquest, during which they conquered the entire Middle East to the Indus, North Africa and Spain.

4. Fall of the Roman Empire (5th century)

Two powerful blows - in 410 by the Visigoths and in 476 by the Germans - crushed the seemingly eternal Roman Empire. This jeopardized the achievements of ancient European civilization. A crisis Ancient Rome didn't come suddenly, but for a long time matured from the inside. The military and political decline of the empire, which began in the 3rd century, gradually led to the weakening of centralized power: it could no longer manage the sprawling and multinational empire. The ancient state was replaced by feudal Europe with its new organizing center - the “Holy Roman Empire”. Europe plunged into the abyss of turmoil and discord for several centuries.

5. Schism of the church (1054)

In 1054, the final split of the Christian Church into Eastern and Western occurred. Its reason was the desire of Pope Leo IX to obtain territories that were subordinate to Patriarch Michael Cerullarius. The result of the dispute was mutual church curses (anathemas) and public accusations of heresy. The Western Church was called Roman Catholic (Roman Universal Church), and the Eastern Church was called Orthodox. The path to the Schism was long (almost six centuries) and began with the so-called Acacian schism of 484.

6. Little Ice Age (1312-1791)

Beginning of the Small ice age, which began in 1312, led to a whole environmental disaster. According to experts, during the period from 1315 to 1317, almost a quarter of the population died out in Europe due to the Great Famine. Hunger was a constant companion of people throughout the Little Ice Age. During the period from 1371 to 1791, there were 111 famine years in France alone. In 1601 alone, half a million people died in Russia from famine due to crop failures.

However, the Little Ice Age gave the world more than just famine and high mortality. It also became one of the reasons for the birth of capitalism. Coal became the source of energy. For its extraction and transportation, workshops with hired workers began to be organized, which became a harbinger of the scientific and technological revolution and the birth of a new formation public organization- capitalism. Some researchers (Margaret Anderson) also associate the settlement of America with the consequences of the Little Ice Age - people traveled for better life from “God-forsaken” Europe.

7. Age of Great Geographical Discoveries (XV-XVII centuries)

Age of the Greats geographical discoveries radically expanded the ecumene of humanity. In addition, it created the opportunity for the leading European powers to make maximum use of their overseas colonies, exploiting their human and Natural resources and making fabulous profits from it. Some scholars also directly link the triumph of capitalism with transatlantic trade, which gave rise to commercial and financial capital.

8. Reformation (XVI-XVII centuries)

The beginning of the Reformation is considered to be the speech of Martin Luther, Doctor of Theology at the University of Wittenberg: on October 31, 1517, he nailed his “95 Theses” to the doors of the Wittenberg Castle Church. In them he spoke out against existing abuses catholic church, in particular against the sale of indulgences.
The Reformation process gave rise to many so-called Protestant Wars, which seriously influenced the political structure of Europe. Historians consider the signing of the Peace of Westphalia in 1648 to be the end of the Reformation.

9. The Great French Revolution (1789-1799)

The French Revolution, which broke out in 1789, not only transformed France from a monarchy into a republic, but also summed up the collapse of the old European order. Its slogan: “Freedom, equality, brotherhood” excited the minds of revolutionaries for a long time. French revolution not only laid the foundations for the democratization of European society, it appeared as a cruel machine of senseless terror, the victims of which were about 2 million people.

10. Napoleonic Wars (1799-1815)

Napoleon's irrepressible imperial ambitions plunged Europe into chaos for 15 years. It all started with the invasion of French troops in Italy, and ended with an inglorious defeat in Russia. Being a talented commander, Napoleon, nevertheless, did not disdain the threats and intrigues with which he subjugated Spain and Holland to his influence, and also convinced Prussia to join the alliance, but then unceremoniously betrayed its interests.

During the Napoleonic Wars, the Kingdom of Italy, the Grand Duchy of Warsaw and whole line other small territorial entities. The commander's final plans included the division of Europe between two emperors - himself and Alexander I, as well as the overthrow of Britain. But the inconsistent Napoleon himself changed his plans. The defeat in 1812 by Russia led to the collapse of Napoleonic plans in the rest of Europe. The Treaty of Paris (1814) returned France to its former 1792 borders.

11. Industrial revolution (XVII-XIX centuries)

The Industrial Revolution in Europe and the USA made it possible to move from an agricultural society to an industrial one over the course of only 3-5 generations. The invention of the steam engine in England in the second half of the 17th century is considered to be the conventional beginning of this process. Over time, steam engines began to be used in manufacturing, and then as a propulsion mechanism for steam locomotives and steamships.
The main achievements of the era Industrial Revolution can be considered the mechanization of labor, the invention of the first conveyors, machine tools, and the telegraph. The advent of railways was a huge step.

The Second World War took place on the territory of 40 countries, and 72 states took part in it. According to some estimates, 65 million people died in it. The war significantly weakened Europe's position in global politics and economics and led to the creation of a bipolar system in world geopolitics. Some countries were able to achieve independence during the war: Ethiopia, Iceland, Syria, Lebanon, Vietnam, Indonesia. In countries of Eastern Europe, busy Soviet troops, socialist regimes were established. World War II also led to the creation of the UN.

14. Scientific and technological revolution (mid-20th century)

The scientific and technological revolution, the onset of which is usually attributed to the middle of the last century, made it possible to automate production, entrusting the control and management of production processes to electronics. The role of information has seriously increased, which also allows us to talk about an information revolution. With the advent of rocket and space technology, human exploration of near-Earth space began.

John Hurst

A Brief History of Europe

The most complete and shortest guide

INTRODUCTION

If you like to read books from the end, wanting to know how it all ends, then you will definitely like this book. The end is described here almost immediately after the beginning, because the history of Europe is told as many as six times, each time from a different angle.

Initially, these were lectures designed to give university students a general understanding of European history. But they did not begin from the very beginning and did not continue in a certain sequence to the end. I did a short one general review, and then went back and considered this or that topic in more detail.

In the first two lectures, the history of Europe is described in the most general outline. And this is actually the “shortest” story. The next six lectures focus on specific topics. Their purpose is to explore the topic in more depth and explore it in more detail.

Any “story”, in the ordinary sense of the word, has a plot: a beginning, middle and end. Civilization in this sense is not history at all, it has no plot, although, of course, it is much more interesting for us to study it if we believe that a period of development is necessarily followed by a period of decline, and then complete and final destruction.

I set myself the goal of showing how the main components of European civilization interacted and were closely intertwined, how new things arose from the old over time, how the old stubbornly maintained its position and returned.

History textbooks tell of numerous events and historical figures. This is one of the strengths of the story because it brings us closer to real life. But what is the point of all this? What really matters and what doesn't special significance? Many people and events that are mentioned in the pages of other history books are not even mentioned in textbooks.

The more detailed lectures included in the second part of the book end around the year 1800, and only because, when I read them, the students were listening to another course of lectures on the history of Europe after 1800. But this excludes so many interesting things! From time to time I jump over this line, but if my approach is correct, you yourself will easily understand that the basics modern world, in which we live, were laid a long time ago.

After the story about the era of Antiquity, the story is mainly about history Western Europe. Not all regions of Europe made equal contributions to the formation of European civilization. The Renaissance in Italy, the Reformation in Germany, parliamentarism in England, revolutionary democracy in France - all these phenomena had more significant consequences than, say, the partitions of Poland.

In my work, I have drawn heavily on the work of historical sociologists, especially Michael Mann and Patricia Crone. True, Professor Crone specializes not in the history of Europe, but in the history of the Islamic world, but one of the chapters of her small book “Pre-industrial Societies” is called “Oddities of Europe”. In it, on thirty pages, she outlines European history in the most general terms - much like I do here. It was Professor Crone who gave me the idea to analyze the main components of European civilization, which is what I do in the first two lectures. For this reason, I owe her a lot.

I was fortunate to have Professor Eric Johnson as my colleague at La Trobe University in Melbourne for several years. He was a real advocate of a broad approach to history, and I learned a lot from his book The European Miracle.

In my work I do not claim originality, except perhaps the method. I gave these lectures to Australian students; they were taking a detailed course in Australian history, and they knew too little about the history of the civilization of which they were a part.

John Hurst

Brief history

Chapter first

ANCIENT AND MEDIEVAL EUROPE

European civilization is unique in that it is the only civilization that has had a fundamental influence on the world. She managed to achieve this through conquests and migrations; thanks to economic power and the power of ideas; and also because it was able to provide what everyone wanted. Today, all countries of the world use scientific achievements and the technologies developed with their help, but science is a European invention.

European civilization is based on the following three elements:

1. Culture of Ancient Greece and Ancient Rome.

2. Christianity, which itself is a branch of Judaism, the religion of the Jews.

3. The culture of the Germanic tribes that invaded the Roman Empire.

Thus, European civilization is a mixture of heterogeneous elements. We will learn later why this is so important.

* * *

If we think about the origins of our philosophy, our art, our literature, our mathematics, our science, our medicine and our understanding of politics, we have to admit that we owe all these intellectual achievements to ancient Greece.

During its heyday Ancient Greece was not a single state; it consisted of small states, or “city-states” as we now call them. Each of these states was a separate city with surrounding lands, which could be walked around in a day. In a sense, the Greeks belonged to this or that state, just as we are members of this or that club. It was in these small states that the concept of democracy first arose. It was not a representative democracy like today - no one was elected as a member of parliament. The entire male population of the city gathered in a certain place and discussed public affairs, adopted laws by voting and resolved political issues.

As populations grew, city-states established colonies in other parts of the Mediterranean. Greek settlements arose in what is now Turkey, along the coast of North Africa, and even along the coasts of what is now Spain, southern France, and southern Italy. And it was in Italy that the Romans, who were a rather backward people during the period of history and lived in a city-state, the center of which was Rome, first encountered the Greeks and borrowed a lot from them.

Ancient Greek cities and colonies. Ancient Greek civilization consisted of cities and colonies engaged in trade and agriculture and located on the coast of the Mediterranean and Black Seas.

Over time, the Romans created a huge empire that included themselves and Greece and the Greek colonies. In the north, the borders of the empire ran along two big rivers, Rhine and Danube, although sometimes these boundaries were expanded. In the west, the natural border was Atlantic Ocean. England was part of the Roman Empire, but Scotland and Ireland were already outside its borders. To the south lay the deserts of North Africa. The most uncertain was the eastern border, because there were empires rivaling Rome. In general, the Roman Empire surrounded the Mediterranean Sea and included not only part of what is now Europe, but also territories beyond Europe: Turkey (Asia Minor), the Middle East and North Africa.

The Romans fought more skillfully than the Greeks. They were better at drawing up the laws by which they governed their empire. They were superior to the Greeks in construction and engineering structures, useful both for war and for peaceful life. But in all other respects they recognized the authority of the Greeks and slavishly copied their achievements. A typical representative of the Roman elite spoke two languages: Greek and Latin (the language of the ancient Romans); he sent his sons to the Athenian school or hired a Greek slave to teach his children at home. Therefore, when we talk about “Greco-Roman” culture, we do so following the Romans themselves.

Territory of the Roman Empire in the 1st century.

The most clear demonstration of the keen mind of the Greeks is geometry. Many people have probably forgotten what it is, so let's start with the basics. Geometry is structured in exactly the same way - it begins with the simplest definitions, which serve as the basis for further reasoning and conclusions.

A starting point is a point that the Greeks defined as having a position in space but no magnitude. Of course, on this page it has a certain value, but we're talking about about the ideal case belonging to the realm of pure ideas. Second definition: a line has length but no width. Further, a straight line is the shortest distance between two points.

Based on these three definitions, we can give a definition of a circle: first of all, it is a closed line that forms a certain figure. But how do we define “roundness”? With common sense, this is quite difficult to do, although it is possible. In order not to torment you, I will immediately say that a circle is a figure inside which there is a point that has a certain property: straight line segments drawn from this point to any point on the circle will be of equal length.