As noted earlier, the term “innovation” is synonymous with the term “innovation”. By specific innovation (innovation) we usually understand actions associated with the introduction of a new one, i.e. the process of applying a certain innovation. Thus, a logical connection is provided between the concepts of “innovation (innovation)” and “innovation (innovation)”. From the beginning of its spread, an innovation becomes an innovation - an innovation.
Innovation is closely related to scientific and technical progress, being, on the one hand, its results, and on the other, integral elements of general progress that contribute to its further development. Innovation is the main object of the discipline “Innovation Management”.
The concept of innovation underlies the processes and patterns of a technical, economic, production and social nature in the development of the state and society. Innovations have a strong impact on all areas of business and entrepreneurship, helping to build up the scientific, technical, production and economic potential of the enterprise.
Currently, in the literature there are different definitions of innovation and there is not one accepted as an absolute. One of the reasons for this situation is related to the existence of different points of view among specialists on understanding the initial essence of innovation.
Innovation is the result (final or intermediate) of the targeted and organized implementation of the innovation process in the form of new competitive products (services), technologies, forms and methods of production and management, used for public and (or) commercial purposes.
Depending on the places of application (consumption) There are three main groups of innovations:
grocery (Prodact Innovations) - new products consumed in the sphere of production (as means of labor) or in the sphere of consumption (as an item of consumption or labor);
technological (Technological Innovations) - new technologies (methods) for the production of existing or new products;
organizational and managerial (Organizational-Managerial Innovations) - new methods of organizing work and managing production.
For enterprises that manufacture products (services), the first group of innovations is decisive, and often primary, causing the need for technological and other innovations in the cycle of innovative transformations.
The current state of innovation is characterized by the use of different approaches to the general classification of innovations. The most famous classification is developed by the Russian Scientist A. I. Prigozhin. It is based on the systematization of innovations proposed by Him:
by type of innovation;
by implementation mechanism;
on innovative potential;
in relation to the previous prototype.
By type of innovation innovations are divided into two main groups: material and technical and social.
Material and technical innovations include:
equipment (equipment, instruments, devices, products, etc.);
technology (technological processes and operations);
industrial materials (raw materials and final product).
Social Innovation are divided into the following types:
economic (new material incentives, indicators, remuneration systems, etc.);
organizational and managerial (new organizational structures, forms of labor organization, methods and forms of information support, etc.);
social and managerial (new forms of motivation, educational work, etc.);
legal (changes in labor and economic legislation);
pedagogical (methods of teaching, education).
Sometimes economic, organizational, and legal innovations are combined into a group called “managerial innovations.”
By support mechanism highlight innovations:
single, carried out at one site;
diffuse, distributed over many objects and requiring their own replication;
completed and unfinished;
successful and unsuccessful (effectiveness or degree of effectiveness compared to costs).
By innovation potential innovations are divided into the following types:
radical or basic (fundamentally new products, technologies, methods of organization and management);
combinatorial (use of various combinations of structural connections of elements);
modifying (improvements, additions to original designs, principles, forms).
Radical (basic) innovations require the greatest degree of enterprise readiness for their implementation in organizational, technological, financial, personnel and material aspects. A fundamentally new product provides for the emergence of a new consumer and a new market with a distribution and service network.
In relation to the previous prototype new products are classified into the following types:
replacement - complete replacement of existing products;
canceling - complete exclusion of the product due to the appearance of new functions;
returnable - return to previous types, methods, methods;
opening - products that do not have comparable functional predecessors;
retro-introduction - reproduction of old shapes of devices on a modern basis.
In terms of time, innovations are cyclical. For the first time I paid attention to the cyclical nature of innovation J. Schumpeter, linking the wave-like process of economic development (with alternating booms and busts) with the spasmodic nature of the implementation of innovations. Practical confirmation of this connection was obtained in original innovative research N. D. Kondratieva- author of the theory of large cycles of economic conditions. He identified empirical patterns in the emergence of radical innovations (“long waves”, otherwise known as “big cycles”) and their impact on economic progress.
The theory of cyclicality proceeds from the fact that the economy as an open system is in a state of smooth deviation from the state of equilibrium between aggregate demand and aggregate supply within both individual states and the world economy. The duration of the equilibrium state is determined by the life span of a particular generation of equipment, technology, and methodology. Deviations from equilibrium states cause fluctuations (rises and declines) in the economic development of a social community. The presence of contradictions between the current production system, the growing requirements of product users and competitive conditions in the market leads to economic losses of an individual enterprise and creates the need for innovative transformations.
The cyclical nature of innovation is influenced by various factors, such as the pace of scientific and technological progress and the receptivity of the economic system to the use of its achievements, the system of motivations for each commodity producer, etc. Innovations are born in groups, or clusters. The cluster approach is the basis of one of the modern trends in the development of innovation.
1.1. Basic concepts of innovation management
In world economic literature "innovation" is interpreted as the transformation of potential scientific and technological progress into real progress, embodied in new products and technologies. The issue of innovation in our country has been developed for many years within the framework of economic research on scientific and technical progress.
The term “innovation” began to be actively used in the transition economy of Russia, both independently and to designate a number of related concepts: “innovation activity”, “innovation process”, “innovative solution”, etc. To clarify the concept of innovation, we will introduce readers to different views on its essence.
There are many definitions in the literature. For example, based on content or internal structure, innovations are distinguished as technical, economic, organizational, managerial, etc. Features such as the scale of innovation (global and local); life cycle parameters (selection and analysis of all stages and substages), patterns of the implementation process, etc.
Various scientists, mostly foreign (N. Monchev, I. Perlaki, V.D. Hartman, E. Mansfield, R. Foster, B. Twiss, J. Schumpeter, E. Rogers, etc.), interpret this concept depending on from the object and subject of your research. For example, B. Twiss defines innovation as the process in which an invention or idea acquires economic content. F. Nixon believes that innovation is a set of technical, production and commercial activities that lead to the appearance on the market of new and improved industrial processes and equipment. According to B. Santo, innovation is a socio-technical-economic process that, through the practical use of ideas and inventions, leads to the creation of products and technologies that are better in their properties, and if the innovation is focused on economic benefit, profit, its appearance on the market can bring additional income . J. Schumpeter interprets innovation as a new scientific and organizational combination of production factors, motivated by the entrepreneurial spirit. In the internal logic of innovation, there is a new moment in the dynamization of economic development.
Analysis of various definitions of innovation leads to the conclusion that the specific content of innovation is change, and the main function of innovation activity is the function of change.
The Austrian scientist J. Schumpeter identified five typical changes:
1) the use of new equipment, new technological processes or new market support for production (purchase and sale);
2) introduction of products with new properties;
3) use of new raw materials;
4) changes in the organization of production and its logistics;
5) the emergence of new markets.
J. Schumpeter formulated these provisions back in 1911. Later, in the 30s, he already introduced the concept of innovation, interpreting it as a change with the aim of introducing and using new types of consumer goods, new production and Vehicle, markets and forms of organization in industry.
Sometimes innovation is seen as a process. This concept recognizes that innovation develops over time and has distinct stages.
The methodology for systematic description of innovations in a market economy is based on international standards. To coordinate the collection, processing and analysis of information on science and innovation within the framework of the Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), a Group of National Experts on Science and Technology Indicators was formed, which developed the Frascati Manual (Suggested Standard Practice for Research and Development Surveys). experimental developments"). This document received this name due to the fact that the first version of the recommendations was adopted in Frascati (Italy) in 1963.
The provisions of the Frascati Guide are periodically updated due to changes in the strategy of scientific and technological policy at the national and international levels, in the organization of scientific research and development. The latest edition of the Frascati Manual was adopted in 1993. It contains basic concepts related to scientific research and development; their composition and boundaries; methodology for measuring the number of personnel engaged in research and development, etc.
The methodology for collecting data on technological innovation is based on recommendations adopted in Oslo in 1992. It is called the Oslo Manual.
In accordance with international standards, innovation is defined as the final result of innovative activity, embodied in the form of a new or improved product introduced on the market, a new or improved technological process used in practical activities, or a new approach to social services.
Innovation can be considered in both dynamic and static aspects. In the latter case, innovation is presented as the final result of the research and production cycle (RPC).
The terms “innovation” and “innovation process” are close, but not unambiguous. Innovation process associated with the creation, development and dissemination of innovations.
Creators of innovation (innovators) are guided by such criteria as the product life cycle and economic efficiency. Their strategy aims to outperform competitors by creating an innovation that will be recognized as unique in a particular field.
Scientific and technical developments and innovations act as an intermediate result of the scientific and production cycle and, as they are practically applied, they turn into scientific and technical innovations - the final result. Scientific and technical developments and inventions are the application of new knowledge for the purpose of its practical application, and scientific and technical innovations (STI) are the materialization of new ideas and knowledge, discoveries, inventions and scientific and technical developments in the production process with the aim of their commercial implementation to satisfy certain consumer requests. The essential properties of innovation are scientific and technical novelty And production applicability. Commercial feasibility in relation to innovation acts as a potential property, the achievement of which requires certain efforts.
From the above it follows that innovation - the result - must be considered inextricably with the innovation process. Innovation is characterized equally by all three properties:
1) scientific and technical novelty;
2) production applicability;
3) commercial feasibility.
The commercial aspect defines innovation as an economic necessity realized through the needs of the market. Let us pay attention to two points: the “materialization” of innovation, inventions and developments into new technically advanced types of industrial products, means and objects of labor, technologies and production organization, and “commercialization”, turning them into a source of income.
In practice, the concepts of “innovation”, “novation”, “innovation” are often identified, although there are some differences between them.
Innovation May be new order, new method, invention. Innovation means that the innovation is being used. From the moment it is accepted for distribution, an innovation acquires a new quality And becomes innovation.
Therefore, scientific and technical innovations must:
Possess novelty;
Satisfy market demand;
Bring profit to the manufacturer.
The dissemination of innovations, as well as their creation, is an integral part of the innovation process (IP).
There are three logical forms of the innovation process: simple intra-organizational (natural), simple inter-organizational (commodity) and extended.
Simple intra-organizational IP involves the creation and use of an innovation within the same organization; the innovation in this case does not directly take a commodity form.
At simple inter-organizational IP innovation acts as an object of purchase and sale. This form of the innovation process means separating the function of the creator and producer of innovation from the function of its consumer.
Advanced IP is manifested in the creation of new innovation producers, in breaking the monopoly of the pioneer manufacturer, which contributes through mutual competition to the improvement of the consumer properties of the manufactured product. In the conditions of the commodity innovation process, there are at least two economic entities: the producer (creator) and the consumer (user) of innovation. If the innovation is a technological process, its producer and consumer can be combined in one economic entity.
A simple innovation process turns into a commodity process in two phases: 1) the creation of an innovation and its dissemination; 2) diffusion of innovation. The first phase is the successive stages of scientific research, development work, the organization of pilot production and sales, and the organization of commercial production. In the first phase, the beneficial effect of the innovation is not yet realized, but only the prerequisites for such implementation are created. In the second phase, the socially beneficial effect is redistributed between producers of the innovation (IP), as well as between producers and consumers.
Diffusion of innovation is an information process, the form and speed of which depend on the power of communication channels, the characteristics of the perception of information by business entities, their ability to practically use this information, etc. The fact is that business entities operating in the real economic environment show different attitudes towards the search for innovation And different abilities to assimilate them.
Diffusion of innovation- the process by which an innovation (I) is transmitted through communication channels between members of a social system in time. Innovations can be ideas, objects, technologies, etc. that are new to the relevant business entity. In other words, diffusion - this is the dissemination of an innovation that has already been mastered and used in new conditions or places of application
opinions. As a result of diffusion, the number of both producers and consumers increases and their qualitative characteristics change. The continuity of innovation processes determines the speed and boundaries of innovation diffusion in a market economy.
In real innovation processes, speed diffusion of innovations depends on various factors:
1) forms of decision-making;
2) method of transmitting information;
3) properties of the social system, as well as the properties of the NV itself.
Properties NV are: relative advantages compared to traditional solutions; compatibility with established practice and technological structure; complexity; accumulated implementation experience, etc.
One of the important factors in the diffusion of any innovation is its interaction with the corresponding socio-economic environment, an essential element of which is competing technologies. According to J. Schumpeter's theory of innovation, innovation diffusion is a process of cumulative increase in the number of imitators (followers) who introduce innovation after the innovator in anticipation of higher profits.
Subjects of the innovation process can be divided into the following groups: innovators; early recipients; early majority and laggards.
Innovators are generators of scientific and technical knowledge. These could be individual inventors or research organizations. They are interested in receiving part of the income from the use of inventions.
In the role early recipients are entrepreneurs who were the first to master an innovation and who strive to obtain additional profit by promoting innovations to the market as quickly as possible. They were called “pioneer” organizations.
Early Majority represented by firms that were the first to introduce innovation into production, which provides them with additional profit.
Laggards Firms are faced with a situation where a delay in innovation leads to the release of new products that are already obsolete. All groups, except the first, belong to imitators.
J. Schumpeter considered the expectation of super-profits to be the main driving force behind the adoption of innovative technologies. However, on early stages diffusion of innovative substances, none of the economic entities has sufficient information about the relative advantages of competing innovative substances. But business entities are forced to introduce one of the alternative innovations under the threat of being forced out of the market.
Implementation of NV is always a difficult and painful process for any organization.
In all cases, in order to make decisions by each subject, alternative technologies are compared with the decisions made by previous recipients. But obtaining such information is quite difficult, since it is related to the competitive position of firms in the market. Each firm may be familiar with the experience of a limited sample of firms, smaller than the entire set of recipients. This causes uncertainty in the decision-making processes and diffusion of innovations in a market economy. Another source of uncertainty relates to the NVs themselves. In the early stages of diffusion, their potential profitability is unknown. With the accumulation of experience in implementing and using NV, uncertainty can be eliminated. However, as the uncertainty and risk of applying an innovation decrease, its market penetration potential is exhausted and its profitability decreases. The possibility of extracting additional profit from the use of any innovation is temporary and decreases as the limit of its distribution approaches.
Consequently, the diffusion of an innovation depends both on the strategy of imitators and on the number of pioneer recipients. Entrepreneurs discover new technological opportunities, but their implementation depends on the choice of simulator. The likelihood of market dominance will be greater for a technology adopted by a large number of pioneer organizations. Of course, the result of technology competition is determined by the choice of all agents in the market, but the influence of earlier recipients will be stronger than that of subsequent ones.
It is difficult to assess the relative advantages of innovations in the early phase of their diffusion, especially when it comes to radical innovations. In such a situation, the choice of followers plays a significant role in the future technological development. The fact is that each choice allows you to increase the competitiveness of the corresponding technology and increases its chance of adoption by subsequent business entities, which will take into account the previously made choices. After sufficient experience has been accumulated, when many business entities have already mastered alternative technologies and their relative advantages are known with high reliability, subsequent recipients make decisions based on the expected profitability of alternative technologies. As a result, the ultimate division of the market by new alternative technologies is determined by the strategies of imitators.
To quickly spread innovation, a developed infrastructure is needed.
The innovation process is cyclical.
The activities representing individual entrepreneurs are divided into separate areas that differ from each other and materialize in the form of functional organizational units, isolated as a result of the division of labor. The economic and technological impact of IP is only partially translated into new products or technologies.
It manifests itself much more in the increase in economic, scientific and technical potential as a prerequisite for the emergence of new technology, i.e. the technological level of the innovation system and its constituent elements increases, thereby increasing susceptibility to innovation.
In general, the IP can be written as follows:
FI- PI- R- Etc- WITH- OS- PP- M- Sat,
Where FI- fundamental (theoretical) research; PI - applied research; R - development; Pr - design; C - construction; OS - mastering;
PP - industrial production; M - marketing; Sat - sales.
To analyze this model, one should abstract from the factors feedback between its various elements, take into account the duration of the FI - OS cycle, which can last over 10 years, and the relative independence of each of the phases (FI - PI; Pr - S), etc.
The initial stage of the innovation process is fundamental research (theoretical), associated with the concept of scientific activity. Of course, everyone separate element cycle (FI, PI, R, Pr, S, OS and PP) is full of scientific activities related to FI.
What does it represent scientific work, on the development of which the emergence of innovations depends? Scientific work - This is a research activity aimed at obtaining and processing new, original, evidence-based data and information. Any scientific work must have novelty, originality, and evidence.
It is typical that the amount of new information decreases from FI to PP. Research activities are increasingly being replaced by skills, experience and standard techniques.
If we talk about the final result of FI, then it is necessary to highlight research activities, aimed at obtaining and processing new, original, evidentiary data and information only in the field of theory of the issue.
Theoretical (FI) research is not directly related to the solution of specific applied problems. However, it is precisely this that forms the foundation of the innovation process. At the same time, the need for theoretical research may be determined by the needs of practice and the synthesis of previous knowledge about the subject.
Basic research usually translates into applied research, but this does not happen immediately. Development can be carried out according to the scheme in Fig. 1.1.
Rice. 1.1. Scheme for the development of fundamental research
Only some fundamental research is embodied in PI - R - Pr, etc. Approximately 90% of basic research topics may have a negative outcome. And of the remaining 10% with a positive result, not all are put into practice. The goal of FI is the knowledge and development of the process (the theory of the issue).
Have a different focus applied research(PI). This is the “reification of knowledge”, its refraction in the production process, the transfer of a new product, technological scheme etc.
As a result developments designs of new machines and equipment are created and the process smoothly moves into the following phases: design(Etc), construction(WITH), development(OS) and industrial production(PP). Phases M and Sb are associated with the commercial implementation of the results of the innovation process.
Thus,
an innovation manager deals with various phases of the innovation process and builds his management activities with this in mind.
Innovation management is a set of principles, methods and forms of management of innovation processes, innovation activities, organizational structures and their personnel engaged in these activities. Like any other area of management, it is characterized by the following:
Goal setting and strategy selection;
The four stages of the cycle are: planning, defining and organizing, executing, leading.
Innovation management is shown schematically in Fig. 1.2.
Rice. 1.2. Innovation management scheme
At each stage of the cycle certain tasks are solved.
1. Planning- drawing up a strategy implementation plan.
2. Definition of conditions and organization- determining the need for resources to implement various phases of the innovation cycle, setting tasks for employees, organizing work.
3. Execution- carrying out research and development, implementing the plan.
4. Management- control and analysis, adjustment of actions, accumulation of experience. Evaluating the effectiveness of innovative projects, innovative management decisions, application of innovations.
1.2. Classification of innovations
Successful innovation management requires careful study of innovation. First of all, you should learn to distinguish innovations from insignificant modifications in products and technological processes (for example, aesthetic changes - colors, shapes, etc.); minor technical or external changes in products that leave the design unchanged and do not have a sufficiently noticeable impact on the parameters, properties, cost of the product, as well as the materials and components included in the products; from expanding the range of products due to the development of production of products that were not previously produced at this enterprise, but already famous in the product market in order to meet current demand and increase enterprise income.
The novelty of innovations is assessed based on technological parameters, as well as from market positions. Taking this into account, a classification of innovations is constructed.
In industry There are two types of technological innovations - product and process.
Product Innovation cover the introduction of technologically new or improved products. Technologically new product(radical product innovation) is a product whose technological characteristics (functional features, design, additional operations, as well as the composition of materials and components used) or intended use are fundamentally new or significantly different from similar previously produced products. Such innovations may be based on fundamentally new technologies or on a combination of existing technologies in new applications (including the use of research and development results). Examples of innovations of a radical type (fundamentally new) are microprocessors and video cassette recorders. The first portable cassette player, which combined the essential design principles of tape recorders and miniature in-ear loudspeakers, was an innovation of the second type. In both cases, none ready product not previously released.
Technologically advanced product(in the terminology of the Oslo Manual - incremental product innovation) is existing product, the quality or cost characteristics of which have been significantly improved through the use of more efficient components and materials, partial changes in one or a number of technical subsystems (for complex products).
Process Innovation include the development and implementation of technologically new or significantly improved production methods, including product transfer methods. Innovations of this kind are based on the use of new production equipment, new methods of organizing the production process, or a combination of these, as well as the use of research and development results. Such innovations are typically aimed at improving the efficiency of production or transfer of existing products in an enterprise, but are sometimes also intended to produce and supply technologically new or improved products that cannot be produced or supplied using conventional production methods.
The following changes do not apply to technological innovations in industry:
Aesthetic changes in products (color, decor, etc.);
Minor technical or external changes in a product, leaving its design unchanged and not having a sufficiently noticeable impact on the parameters, properties, cost of a particular product, as well as its constituent materials and components;
Expansion of the product range due to the introduction into production of types that were not previously produced at this enterprise, but are already quite well known in the sales market
products (possibly non-core) in order to ensure immediate demand and income of the enterprise.
In service industries, a service is considered a technological innovation when its characteristics or methods of use are either fundamentally new or significantly (qualitatively) improved technologically. The use of significantly improved methods of producing or transferring services is also a technological innovation. The latter covers changes in equipment or production organization associated with the production or transfer of new or fundamentally improved services that cannot be produced or transferred using existing production methods, or with increased efficiency in the production or transfer of existing services.
The following changes are not technological innovations unless they directly relate to the introduction of new or significantly improved services or methods of producing (transferring) them:
Organizational and management changes, including the transition to advanced management methods, the introduction of significantly changed organizational structures, the implementation of new or significantly changed directions in the economic strategy of the enterprise;
Implementation of quality standards such as ISO 9000.
Product Innovation include the use of new materials, new semi-finished products and components; obtaining fundamentally new products. Process Innovation mean new methods of organizing production (new technologies) and may be associated with the creation of new organizational structures within an enterprise (firm).
1. Based on the type of novelty for the market, innovations are divided into new for the industry in the world; new to the industry in the country; new for a given enterprise (group of enterprises).
2. By place in the system (in an enterprise, in a company) we can distinguish:
Innovations at the enterprise input (changes in the selection and use of raw materials, materials, machinery and equipment, information, etc.);
Innovations at the output of the enterprise (products, services, technologies, information, etc.);
Innovation of the system structure of the enterprise (managerial, production, technological).
Depending on the depth of changes made highlight innovations:
Radical (basic);
Improving;
Modification (private).
The Scientific Research Institute for System Research (RNIISI) has developed an expanded classification of innovations, taking into account spheres of activity of the enterprise. Innovations stand out on this basis:
Technological;
Production;
Economic;
Trading;
Social;
In the field of management.
A Russian scientist proposed a fairly complete classification of innovations A.I. Prigozhin 1:
1) By prevalence:
Single;
Diffuse.
2) By place in the production cycle:
Raw materials;
Providing (binding);
Grocery.
3) By succession:
Substitutes;
Cancellers;
Returnable;
Openers;
Retroscience.
4) By coverage of the expected market share:
Local;
System;
Strategic.
5) By innovative potential and degree of novelty:
Radical;
Combinatorial;
Perfectors.
The fourth and fifth directions of the classification, taking into account the scale and novelty of innovation, the intensity of innovative change, most express quantitative and quality characteristics innovation and are important for economic assessment their consequences and rationale for management decisions.
The original innovative observation was made by a famous Russian scientist N.D. Kondratiev in the 1920s 2.
N.D. Kondratiev is the author of the theory of large cycles of economic conditions. He substantiated the idea of multiple cycles and developed models of cyclic fluctuations: seasonal (duration less than a year), short (duration 3-3.5 years), commercial and industrial (medium) cycles (7-11 years), large cycles (48-55 years ). The concept of large cycles N.D. Kondratiev consists of the following main parts: empirical proof of the “large cycle model”, some empirically established patterns accompanying long-term fluctuations in the market, their theoretical explanation, or the theory of large cycles of the market.
To justify large cycles N.D. Kondratiev processed extensive factual material. Statistical data was analyzed for four leading capitalist countries - England, France, Germany, and the USA; The dynamics of prices, interest on capital, wages, the volume of foreign trade, as well as the production of main types of industrial products were studied. The dynamics of coal and iron production were taken into account by N.D. Kondratiev on global production indices.
The studies carried out revealed the presence of cyclical waves lasting 48-55 years. The analysis was carried out on data covering a period of 140 years.
According to N.D. Kondratiev, periods of large cycles from the end of the 18th century. turned out to be the following:
1 Prigozhin A.I. Innovation: incentives and barriers (social problems
innovations). - M.: Politizdat, 1989. - P. 270-275.
2 Kondratyev N.D. Main problems of economic dynamics. - M.: Science,
1991.
I 1. Upward wave: from the late 80s - early 90s. until 1810-1817
2. Downward wave: from 1810-1817. until 1844-1851
II 1. Upward wave: from 1844-1851. until 1870-1875
2. Downward wave: from 1870-1875. until 1890-1896
III 1. Upward wave: from 1890-1896. until 1914-1920
2. Probable downward wave: from 1914-1920.
N.D. Kondratiev identified empirical patterns that accompany long-term fluctuations in economic conditions. He believed that before and at the beginning of the upward wave of each major cycle, profound changes occur in the economic life of society, which are expressed in significant changes in technology (preceded by technical discoveries and inventions). He assigned the main role to scientific and technical innovations. In the development of the first upward wave (late 18th century), inventions and shifts in textile industry and iron production. Growth during the second wave (mid-19th century) was primarily due to construction railways, development maritime transport. The third upward wave (late 19th - early 20th centuries) was associated with inventions in the field of electronics and the mass introduction of electricity, radio and other innovations.
Innovations transform the economic situation from a downward trend to an upward trend, causing waves.
N.D. Kondratiev showed that innovations are distributed unevenly over time, appearing in groups, or, in modern terms, clusters. Thus, in his research, for the first time, the foundations of the so-called cluster approach are visible. Recommendations N.D. Kondratieff can be used in developing an innovation strategy.
Innovation as an object of innovation management. Types of innovation
The scientific and educational literature provides various definitions of the concept “innovation” or “innovation”:
Transformation of potential scientific and technological progress into real progress, embodied in new products and technologies;
The result of the creative process in the form of created (or introduced) new consumer values, the use of which requires the individuals or organizations using them to change the usual stereotypes of activity and skills;
Result creative activity, aimed at the development, creation and distribution of new types of products, technologies, implementation of new organizational solutions, etc., satisfying the needs of man and society, at the same time causing social and other changes;
New way satisfying existing social needs, providing an increase in beneficial effect and, as a rule, based on the achievements of science and technology.
At the beginning of the 21st century. The need for a deeper understanding of the essence, patterns and specifics of innovation processes has become increasingly felt. But already at the beginning of the last century, J. Schumpeter formulated the patterns of technological evolution and the role of innovation at various stages of the development cycle of science and technology, analyzed in detail approaches to the classification of innovations, identifying five of their varieties:
New, that is, a good still unknown in the sphere of consumption or a new quality of a known good;
A new, more efficient method of producing well-known products;
Discovery of new patterns of sales of known products;
Discovery of new sources of raw materials or production of semi-finished products;
Reorganization of production leading to the undermining of some established monopoly.
I. Schumpeter identified innovation with the “implementation of new combinations,” that is, any innovation is a unique selection of resources from existing ones - knowledge (conceptual provisions, theories, methods, etc.), material, financial and other resources. Moreover, the results of innovation serve in turn as components in the formation of solutions for future problems. J. Schumpeter sought to ensure that the term “innovation” was used in a very specific sense: it was supposed to denote the decision of an entrepreneur to implement (for the first time) a new idea regarding technology or any other issue related to enterprise management (procurement of materials , sales, etc.).
An idea, proposal, project, research result, invention, etc., although they act as a new product, are not innovation in their pure form. And only when embodied in products, services, technologies that are accepted by consumers, they become innovations, or innovations.
There are three components of innovation:
A need to be satisfied, i.e. a function or set of functions that needs to be performed;
The concept of an object or set of objects capable of satisfying a need, i.e. new idea;
Components representing the totality of available knowledge, materials and available technologies, allowing to bring the concept to working condition
Depending on the nature of the concept on which the innovation is based, there are:
Technologically dominant innovations that change the physical properties of a product at the level of production, the use of a new component or new material, the creation of fundamentally new products, new products, a new physical state or new complex systems. They arise as a result of the application of exact sciences in production practice and are born in scientific organizations and R&D departments (Table 3.1);
Innovations with a commercial or marketing dominant, mainly related to sales and communications management options as components of the process of commercial sale of a product or service (Table 3.2).
Table 3.1
Innovation with technological dominance
Commercial innovations arise from the application of human sciences and are organizational. They need creativity, ingenuity and know-how more than financial resources.
The line between these forms of innovation is blurred, and technological innovation often leads to commercial innovation.
For example, advances in information processing have led to the development of a barcode system that can reduce customer service time and theft in supermarkets. But the reverse sequence is also possible: some organizational innovations contribute to the introduction of technological innovations. Thus, the spread of the idea of self-service led to the creation of vending machines.
Table 3.2
Innovation with a commercial or marketing dominant
It is believed that in every business there are three types of innovation:
In products or services;
Markets, consumer behavior and values (social innovation);
Various changes in the organization’s activities necessary to create products and bring them to the market (managerial innovation).
The concept of “innovation” is closely related to the concepts of “change” and “development”. Continuous innovation creates an endless stream of potential changes. Real changes are achieved only by a portion of all the innovations created. Changes are determined by volume and direction, duration and speed. The concept of “development” is usually associated with positive changes and progress. However famous philosopher B. Russell believes that “change is one thing, but progress is another. "Change" is a scientific concept, and "progress" is an ethical concept. Change is undeniable, while progress is debatable."
Thus, innovation, or innovation, means not only the introduction new technology and the release of new products, but also changes in business organization, company management, relationships with consumers, etc. (for example, mobilization of purchasing power through a bank loan).
Innovation is an economic and social term and, to a lesser extent, a technical one. Its criteria are related to changes in economic and social environment, in the behavior of people, both producers and consumers. The measure of innovation is its impact on the external environment.
Innovation also creates potential for action. The emergence and widespread use of computers in various fields of activity has radically changed the work processes and life of people. Moreover, universal computerization and the development of information transmission networks were one of the decisive signs (factors) of humanity’s transition to a post-industrial information society, which determines its further development. B. Gates says: “Business will change more in the next 10 years than in the previous fifty.”
Innovation has two main features:
The novelty of using a given consumer value to satisfy a certain general need (market novelty);
The novelty of a scientific idea or technical solution underlying the innovation.
Based on the economic nature of innovation, market novelty is the main one, and scientific and technical novelty is of subordinate importance.
Market novelty is considered in a broad and narrow sense. Market novelty in in a broad sense, or absolute market novelty, is a product that is different from any other product sold anywhere. Market novelty in the narrow sense, relative or local novelty, is possessed by a product for some part of its consumers. It is not important when the innovation actually appeared on the market.
Scientific and technical novelty is a mandatory property of an invention, or scientific and technical know-how, and not an innovation. If an innovation is based on one or more inventions or know-how, then in addition to market innovation it also has scientific and technical novelty. The degree of originality of the scientific and technical idea on which the innovation is based is not of interest to the consumer. It evaluates the beneficial effect of a product in accordance with the costs of its acquisition, operation and disposal.
For the manufacturer, the degree of scientific and technical novelty is important: primacy allows you to monopolize the right to an idea with the help of patents and production secrets. The monopoly right of the manufacturer, combined with the exceptional properties of the product, which provide consumers with a significantly greater effect per unit price compared to previous products, allows the company to maintain a stable economic position for a certain period.
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innovation innovation policy implementation
Innovation management is a relatively new concept for the scientific community and business circles in Russia. Right now, Russia is experiencing a boom in innovation. Some forms and methods of economic management are being replaced by others. In these conditions, all organizations, all business entities from the state level of management to the newly created limited liability company in the field of small business are literally forced to engage in innovative activities.
In specialized literature and official documents, the concepts most often used were the management of scientific and technological progress, the introduction of scientific and technological achievements into production, etc., which is typical for a centrally controlled economy. In market economic conditions, where commercial organizations have complete legal and economic independence, there can be no talk of any introduction of anything. This fundamental difference explains the difference in the content of individual concepts in the field of innovation management.
It is generally accepted that the concept of “innovation” is a Russian version English word innovation. The literal translation from English means “introduction of innovations” or in our understanding of the word “introduction of innovations”. Innovation means a new order, new custom, new method, invention, new phenomenon. The Russian phrase “innovation” literally means “introducing something new” and means the process of using an innovation.
Thus, from the moment of acceptance for dissemination, an innovation acquires a new quality - it becomes an innovation (innovation). The process of introducing an innovation to the market is usually called the commercialization process. The period of time between the emergence of an innovation and its implementation into an innovation (innovation) is called the innovation lag.
In everyday practice, as a rule, the concepts of novelty, novation, innovation, innovation are identified, which is quite understandable. Any inventions, new phenomena, types of services or methods only receive public recognition when they are accepted for distribution (commercialization), and in a new capacity they act as innovations (innovations).
It is well known that the transition from one quality to another requires the expenditure of resources (energy, time, finances, etc.). The process of translating an innovation (innovation) into an innovation (innovation) also requires the expenditure of various resources, the main of which are investment and time. In market conditions, as a system of economic relations of purchase and sale of goods, within the framework of which demand, supply and price are formed, the main components of innovation activity are innovations, investments and innovations. Innovations form a market for innovations (innovations), investments, a market for capital (investments), innovations (innovations) a market for pure competition of innovations. These three main components form the scope of innovation activity (Fig. 2.).
Rice. 2.
Innovation in a broad sense refers to the profitable use of innovations in the form of new technologies, types of products and services, organizational, technical and socio-economic solutions of a production, financial, commercial, administrative or other nature. The period of time from the origin of an idea, the creation and dissemination of an innovation, and until its use is usually called the life cycle of an innovation. Taking into account the sequence of work, the life cycle of an innovation is considered as an innovation process.
Market of innovations (innovations)
The main product of the market is a scientific and scientific-technical result, a product of intellectual activity, which is subject to copyright and similar rights, formalized in accordance with current international, federal, corporate and other legislative and regulatory acts.
In world practice, it is customary to distinguish between scientific (research and development), scientific and technical activities, as well as experimental (developmental) developments. Scientific (research) activities are aimed at obtaining, disseminating and applying new knowledge.
The market for innovations is formed by scientific organizations, universities, temporary research teams, associations of scientists, research divisions of commercial organizations, independent laboratories and departments, domestic and foreign innovators. The classification of innovations and innovation processes is presented in Figure 3.
Market of pure competition of innovations
A market of pure competition is a set of buyers and sellers who make transactions with similar goods in a situation where no one buyer or seller has much influence on the level of current prices. Using the concept of “pure” competition allows us to avoid considering issues of price, non-price, unfair and other types of competition and struggle between subjects of production relations for the most profitable areas of investment of capital, sales markets, sources of resources and the results of scientific and scientific-technical activities.
It was previously noted that from innovation as a result of scientific and scientific-technical activity to innovation as public recognition of new technologies, goods, types of services, new methods, etc. The process is carried out with the expenditure of time and resources. The market of pure competition appears in this process from dual positions, which represent the unity and struggle of opposites.
With all the variety of forms of participation of organizations in the innovation market, the determining condition is the volume of investment both in the field of scientific and scientific-technical activities, and in the process of transforming innovations into innovations.
Capital (investment) market
It is difficult to find an organization that would not like renewal and development. Household it is necessary to purchase and/or update furniture, video equipment, a car, carpets, lighting equipment, etc. It is desirable for an enterprise to acquire new technologies that are competitive in the foreign and domestic markets for products (services), to find new markets for its products, new suppliers and buyers. The state requires new types of weapons, environmentally friendly types of energy, resource-saving technologies and so on. The world community is examining projects for the further development of near-Earth space, flight to Mars, use of the resources of the World Ocean, etc. Modern development Science and technology makes it possible to achieve all this today. However, the main limitation on the satisfaction of the needs of any business entity is capital in all its forms (loan, working capital, equity, venture, charter, etc.).
In the innovation sphere, the decisive role is played by long-term and medium-term investments, since the innovation process lasts on average 3-5 years or more. In conditions of deep economic crisis in Russian Federation government sources of funding are sharply reduced. The concept of state industrial policy of Russia, developed by State Committee of the Russian Federation on industrial policy, it is envisaged to legislate the following basic norms of investment policy in industry:
On an irrevocable basis, only fundamental scientific research, as well as federal non-commercial objects and objects related to maintaining national security, can be financed from the federal budget;
All other types of centralized investments can only be carried out on a repayable and competitive basis;
The preferred forms of providing government resources on a repayable basis are investing through the purchase of securities or the issuance of government guarantees for issued securities.
In its most general form, investments are long-term investments in various sectors of the economy with the aim of making a profit. In the specialized literature you can find various options investment classifications, one of which is presented in Fig. 5. By economic essence and purposes, investments are divided into real and financial. Real investments are made by organizations and other business entities, acquiring land, means of production, intangible and other assets. Financial investments are the purchase by business entities and individuals of securities of various issuers. In this case, the influx of capital into the business occurs through investing in securities.
Having considered the innovation market, the pure competition market and the capital (investment) market as the main components of the innovation sphere, we will formulate the content of the concept of “innovation sphere”, define the area of innovation activity as a form of social division of labor and characterize the main stages of the innovation process.
The innovation sphere is a system of interaction between innovators, investors, producers of competitive products, services and the organization as a whole. This completes the innovation process.
Subjects of innovation activity
The main subjects of innovation are: innovator, innovator, investor.
An innovator is a participant in the innovation process, searching for innovative ideas and developing innovations based on them.
An innovator is a participant in the innovation process who implements and promotes an innovation on the market.
An investor is a participant in the innovation process who finances the development and implementation of an innovation.