§1. general characteristics noun

A noun is an independent significant part of speech.

1. Grammatical meaning - "item".
Nouns include words that answer questions:
Who? , What?

2. Morphological characteristics:

• constants - common/proper nouns, animate/inanimate, gender, type of declension;
• changeable - number, case.

3. Syntactic role in a sentence any, especially frequently: subject and object.

Guys love vacations.

As an address and introductory words, the noun is not a member of the sentence:

- Sergey!- Mom calls me from the yard.

(Sergey- appeal)

Unfortunately, it's time to go do homework.

(Unfortunately- introductory word)

§2. Morphological features of nouns

Nouns have a set of morphological features. Some of them are permanent (or unchangeable). Others, on the contrary, are impermanent (or changeable). Unchangeable features relate to the entire word as a whole, and changeable features refer to the forms of the word. So noun Natalia- animate, own, f.r., 1 text. No matter what form it takes, these signs will remain. Noun Natalia may be in the form of units. and many more numbers, in different cases. Number and case are inconsistent features of nouns. In the illustration, dotted lines lead to such unstable or variable morphological characters. It is necessary to learn to distinguish which signs are constant and which are not constant.

§3. Common nouns - proper nouns

This is the division of nouns according to their meaning. Common nouns denote homogeneous objects, i.e. any object from their series, and proper nouns name a separate specific object.
Compare nouns:

• child, country, river, lake, fairy tale, turnip - common nouns
• Alexey, Russia, Volga, Baikal, “Turnip” - own

Common nouns are varied. Their ranks by value:

• specific: table, computer, document, mouse, notebook, fishing rod
• abstract (abstract): surprise, joy, fear, happiness, miracle
• real: iron, gold, water, oxygen, milk, coffee
• collective: youth, foliage, nobility, spectator

Proper nouns include names of people, names of animals, geographical names, names of works of literature and art, etc.: Alexander, Sashka, Sashenka, Zhuchka, Ob, Ural, “Teenager”, “Kolobok” and so on.

§4. Animation - inanimateness

Animate nouns name “living” objects, while inanimate nouns name non-living objects.

• Animated: mother, father, child, dog, ant, Kolobok (fairy tale hero acting as a living person)
• Inanimate: orange, ocean, war, lilac, program, toy, delight, laughter

For morphology it is important that

• in plural in animate nouns
  Near the school I saw familiar girls and boys (vin. fall. = born. fall.), and for inanimate nouns wine form pad. matches the form. pad.: I love books and films (vin. pad. = im. pad.)
• singular in animate nouns of the masculine gender wine form pad. coincides with the form of the genus. pad.:
  The fox saw Kolobok (vin. fall. = born. fall.), and for inanimate nouns the masculine gender wine form pad. matches the form. pad.: I baked a bun (vin. pad. = named pad.)

The remaining nouns have the forms im., vin. and family cases differ.

Means, sign of animate-inanimate can be determined not only based on the meaning, but also on the set of word endings.

§5. Genus

Gender of nouns- This is a constant morphological feature. Nouns do not change according to gender.

There are three genders in Russian: male, female And average. The sets of endings for nouns of different genders differ.
In animate nouns, classification as masculine or feminine is motivated by gender, since words denote male or female persons: father - mother, brother - sister, husband - wife, man - woman, boy - girl etc. The grammatical sign of gender is correlated with gender.
For inanimate nouns, the belonging of a word to one of the three genders is not motivated. Words ocean, sea, river, lake, pond- of different kinds, and the gender is not determined by the meaning of the words.

The morphological indicator of the genus is the endings.
If the word ends:

a, y or a, ohm, e in the singular and s, ov, am, s or ow, ami, ah in plural , then it is a masculine noun

a, s, e, y, oh, e singular and s, am or s, ami, ah in the plural, it is a noun female

oh, a, y, oh, ohm, e in the singular and a, am, a, ami, ah in the plural, it is a neuter noun.

Do all nouns belong to one of the three genders?

No. There is a small group of amazing nouns. They are interesting because they can refer to both male and female persons. These are the words: smart girl glutton, sleepyhead, greedy, crybaby, ignorant, ignorant, mean, bully, slob, mean, bungler, scoundrel, daredevil and so on. The form of such words coincides with the form of feminine words: they have the same set of endings. But the syntactic compatibility is different.
In Russian you can say:
She's so smart! AND: He's so smart! The meaning of the gender of an animate person can be determined by the form of the pronoun (as in our example) or adjective or verb in the past tense: Sonya woke up. AND: Sonya woke up. Such nouns are called common nouns.

Common nouns do not include words that name professions. You may already know that many of them are masculine nouns: doctor, driver, engineer, economist, geologist, philologist and so on. But they can designate both male and female persons. My mother is a good doctor. My father is a good doctor. Even if the word names a female person, then adjectives and verbs in the past tense can be used in both the masculine and feminine gender: The doctor has arrived. AND: The doctor has arrived.

How to determine the gender of unchangeable words?

There are unchangeable nouns in the language. All of them are borrowed from other languages. In Russian they have a gender. How to determine the genus? It's not difficult if you understand what the word means. Let's look at examples:

Monsieur - Madame- for words denoting an animate person, gender corresponds to gender.

Kangaroo, chimpanzee- words naming animals, male.

Tbilisi, Sukhumi- words - names of cities - male.

Congo, Zimbabwe- words - names of states - neuter.

Mississippi, Yangtze- words - names of rivers - female.

Coat, muffler- words denoting inanimate objects are more common neuter.

Are there any exceptions? Eat. Therefore, it is recommended to be careful about unchangeable words and remember how they are used. Gender is expressed not by the ending (indeclinable words do not have endings), but by the form of other words that are related to the unchangeable noun in meaning and grammatically. These can be adjectives, pronouns or verbs in the past tense. For example:

Mississippi wide and deep.

Short adjectives in the form of zh.r. indicate that the word Mississippi w.r.

§6. Declension

Declension is a type of word change. Nouns change according to number and case. Number and case are variable morphological features. Depending on what forms a word has in different numbers and cases, based on the totality of all possible forms, nouns belong to one of the declensions.

Nouns have three declensions: 1st, 2nd and 3rd. The vast majority of Russian nouns are nouns of the 1st, 2nd or 3rd declension. The type of declension is a constant, unchangeable morphological feature of nouns.

The 1st declension includes feminine and masculine words with endings A, I in its initial form.
Examples: mom, dad, grandpa, water, earth, Anna, Anya, lecture - ending [a].

The 2nd declension includes masculine words with zero endings and neuter words with endings O, e in its initial form.
Examples: father, brother, house, Alexander, sea, lake, building - ending [e] , genius, Alexey.

The 3rd declension includes feminine words ending in zero in its initial form.
Examples: mother, mouse, night, news, rye, lie.

Initial form- this is the form of the word in which it is usually recorded in dictionaries. For nouns, this is the nominative singular form.

Pay attention to the words traditionally called nouns on yeah, yeah, th : lecture, building, genius.

How to correctly mark the endings in such words?

Do you remember that the letters I And e, which are written at the end of such feminine and neuter nouns after vowels, and the letter And - does a vowel represent two sounds? Lecture- [iya’a], building- [iy’e], and the sound [y’] is the last consonant of the base. So, in words like lecture ending [a], in words like building- [e], and in words like genius- zero ending.

Therefore, feminine nouns: lecture, station, demonstration belong to the 1st declension, and masculine: genius and average: building- to the 2nd.

One more group of words requires comment. These are the so-called neuter nouns me , words way and child. These are indeclinable nouns.

Indeclinable nouns- these are words that have endings characteristic of forms of different declensions.
There are few such words. They are all very ancient. Some of them are common in today's speech.

List of nouns on My name: stirrup, tribe, seed, burden, udder, crown, time, name, flame, banner.

For their spelling, see All spelling. Spelling nouns

§7. Number

Number- this is a morphological feature, changeable for some nouns and unchangeable, constant for others.
The overwhelming number of Russian nouns vary in number. For example: house - houses, girl - girls, elephant - elephants, night - nights. Nouns that vary in number have both singular and plural forms and endings corresponding to these forms. For a number of nouns, the singular and plural forms differ not only in endings, but also in the stem. For example: person - people, child - children, kitten - kittens.

The minority of Russian nouns do not change in number, but have the form of only one number: either singular or plural.

Singular nouns:

• collective: nobility, children
• real: gold, milk, curdled milk
• abstract (or abstract): greed, anger, goodness
• some of our own, namely: geographical names: Russia, Suzdal, St. Petersburg

Nouns that have a plural form:

• collective: shoots
• real: cream, cabbage soup
• abstract (or abstract): chores, elections, twilight
• some proper, namely geographical names: Carpathians, Himalayas
• some specific (object) watches, sleds, as well as a group of nouns denoting objects that consist of two parts: skis, skates, glasses, gates

Remember:

Most objects denoted by nouns that have only singular or plural forms cannot be counted.
For such nouns, number is an unchangeable morphological feature.

§8. Case

Case- this is a non-constant, changeable morphological feature of nouns. There are six cases in Russian:

1. Nominative
2. Genitive
3. Dative
4. Accusative
5. Instrumental
6. Prepositional

You need to know for sure case questions, with the help of which it is determined which case form the noun is in. Since, as you know, nouns can be animate and inanimate, there are two questions for each case:

• I.p. - who what?
• R.p. - who?, what?
• D.p. - to whom; to what?
• V.p. - who?, what?
• etc. - by whom?, what?
• P.p. - (About who about what?

You see that for animate nouns the questions vin.p are the same. and family etc., and for the inanimate - them. p. and wine P.
To avoid mistakes and correctly determine the case, always use both questions.

For example: I see an old park, a shady alley and a girl and a young man walking along it.
I see (who?, what?) a park(vin. p.), alley(vin. p.), girl(vin. p.), person(vin. p.).

Do all nouns change by case?

No, not all. Nouns, which are called unchangeable, do not change.

Cockatoo (1) sits in a cage in a store. I approach the cockatoo (2). This is a big beautiful parrot. I look at the cockatoo (3) with interest and think: -What do I know about the cockatoo (4)? I don't have a cockatoo (5). It's interesting with a cockatoo (6).

Word cockatoo occurred in this context 6 times:

• (1) who?, what? - cockatoo- I.p.
• (2) approaching (to) whom?, what? - (to) cockatoo- D.p.
• (3) looking (at) who?, what? - (on) a cockatoo- V.p.
• (4) know (about) whom?, what? - ( o) cockatoo- P.p.
• (5) no who?, what? - cockatoo- R.p.
• (6) interesting (with) who?, what? - (from cockatoo)- etc.

In different cases, the form of unchangeable nouns is the same. But the case is determined easily. Case questions help with this, as well as other parts of the sentence. If such a noun has a definition, expressed as an adjective, pronoun, numeral or participle, i.e. a word that changes according to cases, then it will be in the form of the same case as the unchangeable noun itself.

Example: How long can you talk about this cockatoo?- (about) whom?. how? - P.p.

§9. Syntactic role of nouns in a sentence

Mother sits by the window. She leafs through a magazine, looking at photographs of people and nature. My mother is a geography teacher. “Mom,” I call her.

Mother - subject

Near the window - circumstance

Magazine- addition

Photos- addition

Of people- definition

Nature- definition

Mother- subject

Teacher- predicate

Geographies- definition

Mother- appeals, as well as introductory words, prepositions, conjunctions, particles are not members of the sentence.

Test of strength

Check your understanding of this chapter.

Final test

1. What nouns denote individual specific objects, rather than groups of homogeneous objects?

   • Proper names
   • Common nouns

2. Which group of nouns has the most variety in meaning?

   • Proper names
   • Common nouns

3. Is animate-inanimateness expressed grammatically: by a set of endings?

4. How can you find out the gender of a noun?

   • By value
   • By compatibility with other words (adjectives, pronouns, past tense verbs) and by endings

5. What are the names of nouns that have endings characteristic of different declensions?

   • Unbowed
   • Divergent

6. What is the sign of number in nouns? good, evil, envy?

   • Permanent (unchangeable)
   • Impermanent (changeable)

7. Each person uses several hundred nouns in his speech every day. However, not everyone will be able to answer the question of which category this or that word belongs to: proper names or common nouns, and whether there is a difference between them. Meanwhile, not only written literacy depends on this simple knowledge, but also the ability to correctly understand what is read, because often, only by reading a word, you can understand whether it is a name or just the name of a thing.

   What is this

   Before you figure out which nouns are called proper nouns and which are common nouns, it’s worth remembering what they are.

   Nouns are words that answer the questions “What?”, “Who?” and denoting the name of things or persons (“table”, “person”), they change according to declensions, genders, numbers and cases. In addition, words related to this part of speech are proper/common nouns.

   Concept about and own

   Apart from rare exceptions, all nouns belong to the category of either proper or common nouns.

   

   Common nouns include the summarized names of homogeneous things or phenomena that may differ from each other in some ways, but will still be called one word. For example, the noun "toy" is a common noun, although it generalizes the names various items: cars, dolls, bears and other things from this group. In Russian, as in most other languages, common nouns are always written with a small letter.

   

   
   nouns are names of individuals, prominent things, places or persons. For example, the word “doll” is a common noun that names a whole category of toys, but the name of the popular doll brand “Barbie” is a proper noun. All proper names are written with capital letters.
   It is worth noting that common nouns, unlike proper nouns, carry a certain lexical meaning. For example, when it says “doll”, it becomes clear that we're talking about about a toy, but when they simply call the name “Masha” outside the context of a common noun, it is not clear who or what it is - a girl, a doll, the name of a brand, a hair salon or a chocolate bar.

   Ethnonyms

   As mentioned above, nouns can be proper and common nouns. So far, linguists have not yet come to a consensus on the issue of the connection between these two categories. There are two common views on this issue: according to one, there is a clear dividing line between common and proper nouns; according to another, the dividing line between these categories is not absolute due to the frequent transition of nouns from one category to another. Therefore, there are so-called “intermediate” words that do not relate to either proper or common nouns, although they have characteristics of both categories. Such nouns include ethnonyms - words meaning the names of peoples, nationalities, tribes and other similar concepts.

   Common nouns: examples and types

   The vocabulary of the Russian language contains the most common nouns. All of them are usually divided into four types.

   

   1. Specific - denote objects or phenomena that can be counted (people, birds and animals, flowers). For example: “adult”, “child”, “thrush”, “shark”, “ash”, “violet”. Specific common nouns almost always have a plural and singular form and are combined with quantitative numerals: “an adult - two adults”, “one violet - five violets”.

   

   2. Abstract - denote concepts, feelings, objects that cannot be counted: “love”, “health”, “intelligence”. Most often, this type of common noun is used only in the singular. If, for one reason or another, a noun of this type acquires a plural form (“fear - fears”), it loses its abstract meaning.

   

   3. Real - denote substances that are homogeneous in composition and do not have separate objects: chemical elements(mercury), food (pasta), medicines (citramon) and other similar concepts. Real nouns cannot be counted, but they can be measured (a kilogram of pasta). Words of this type of common noun have only one form of number: either plural or singular: “oxygen” is singular, “cream” is plural.

   

   4. Collective nouns mean a collection of similar objects or persons, as a single, indivisible whole: “brotherhood”, “humanity”. Nouns of this type cannot be counted and are used only in the singular form. However, with them you can use the words “a little”, “several”, “few” and similar ones: a lot of children, a lot of infantry and others.

   Proper nouns: examples and types

   Depending on the lexical meaning, the following types of proper nouns are distinguished:

   

   1. Anthroponyms - first names, surnames, pseudonyms, nicknames and nicknames of people: Vasilyeva Anastasia,
   2. Theonyms - names and titles of deities: Zeus, Buddha.
   3. Zoonyms - nicknames and nicknames of animals: the dog Barbos, the cat Marie.
   4. All types of toponyms - geographical names, cities (Volgograd), reservoirs (Baikal), streets (Pushkin) and so on.
   5. Aeronautonims - the name of various space and aircraft: spaceship"Vostok", interorbital station "Mir".
   6. Names of works of art, literature, cinema, television programs: “Mona Lisa”, “Crime and Punishment”, “Vertical”, “Jumble”.
   7. Names of organizations, websites, brands: “Oxford”, “Vkontakte”, “Milavitsa”.
   8. Names of holidays and others social events: Christmas, Independence Day.
   9. Names of unique natural phenomena: Hurricane Isabel.
   10. Names of unique buildings and objects: Rodina cinema, Olimpiysky sports complex.

   Transition of proper into common nouns and vice versa

   Since language is not something abstract and is constantly influenced by both external and internal factors, words often change their category: proper nouns become common nouns, and common nouns become proper nouns. Examples of this occur quite often. So the natural phenomenon “frost” - from a common noun turned into a proper noun, the surname Moroz. The process of turning common nouns into proper ones is called onymization.

   At the same time, the name of the famous German physicist who was the first to discover X-ray radiation, in colloquial speech Russian language has long ago become the name for the study of something using the “X-ray” radiation he discovered. This process is called appeal, and such words are called eponyms.

   How to distinguish

   In addition to semantic differences, there are also grammatical ones that allow one to clearly distinguish between proper and common nouns. The Russian language is quite practical in this regard. The category of common nouns, unlike proper nouns, as a rule, has both plural and singular forms: “artist - artists.”

   

   At the same time, another category is almost always used only in the singular: Picasso is the artist’s surname, singular. However, there are exceptions when proper nouns can be used in the plural. Examples of this are names originally used in the plural: the village of Bolshiye Kabany. In this case, these proper nouns are often deprived of the singular: Carpathian mountains.
   Sometimes proper names can be used in the plural if they denote different persons or phenomena, but with identical names. For example: There are three Xenias in our class.

   How do you spell

   If with the writing of common nouns everything is quite simple: they are all written with a small letter, and otherwise you should adhere to the usual rules of the Russian language, then the other category has some nuances that you need to know in order to correctly write proper nouns. Examples of incorrect spelling can often be found not only in the notebooks of careless schoolchildren, but also in the documents of adults and respectable people.

   

   To avoid such mistakes, you should learn a few simple rules:

   1. All proper names, without exception, are written with capital letters, especially when it comes to the nicknames of legendary heroes: Richard Lion Heart. If a given name, surname or place name consists of two or more nouns, regardless of whether they are written separately or hyphenated, each of these words must begin with capital letters. An interesting example may serve as a nickname for the main villain of the Harry Potter epic - the Dark Lord. Afraid to call him by name, the heroes called the evil wizard “He Who Must Not Be Named.” In this case, all 4 words are written in capital letters, since this is the character's nickname.

   2. If the name or title contains articles, particles and other auxiliary particles of speech, they are written with a small letter: Albrecht von Graefe, Leonardo da Vinci, but Leonardo DiCaprio. In the second example, the particle “di” is written with a capital letter, since in the original language it is written together with the surname Leonardo DiCaprio. This principle applies to many proper names. foreign origin. In eastern names, the particles “bey”, “zul”, “zade”, “pasha”, and the like indicating social status, regardless of whether they appear in the middle of the word or are written at the end with a small letter. The same principle applies to writing proper names with particles in other languages. German “von”, “zu”, “auf”; Spanish "de" Dutch “van”, “ter”; French “deux”, “du”, “de la”.

   3. The particles “San-”, “Saint-”, “Saint-”, “Ben-” located at the beginning of a surname of foreign origin are written with a capital letter and a hyphen (Saint-Gemain); after O, there is always an apostrophe and the next letter is capital (O’Henry). The part “Mc-” should be written as a hyphen, but it is often written together because the spelling is closer to the original: McKinley, but McLain.

   Once you understand this rather simple topic (what a noun is, types of nouns and examples), you can once and for all rid yourself of stupid, but rather unpleasant spelling errors and the need to constantly look in the dictionary to check yourself.

   In any language, a proper name occupies important place. It appeared in ancient times, when people began to understand and differentiate objects, which required assigning them separate names. The designation of objects occurred based on its distinctive features or functions so that the name contained data about the object in a symbolic or factual form. Over time, proper names have become a subject of interest in various fields: geography, literature, psychology, history and, of course, linguistics.

   The originality and meaningfulness of the phenomenon being studied led to the emergence of the science of proper names - onomastics.

   A proper name is a noun that names an object or phenomenon in a specific sense, distinguishing it from other similar objects or phenomena, distinguishing them from a group of homogeneous concepts.

   An important feature of this name is that it is associated with the named object and carries information about it without affecting the concept. They are written with a capital letter, and sometimes the names are put in quotation marks (Mariinsky Theater, Peugeot car, play Romeo and Juliet).

   Proper names, or onyms, are used in the singular or plural. The plural appears in cases where several objects have similar designations. For example, the Sidorov family, the namesake Ivanovs.

   

   Functions of proper names

   Proper names, as units of language, perform various functions:

   1. Nominative- assigning names to objects or phenomena.
   2. Identifying- selecting a specific item from a variety.
   3. Differentiating- the difference between an object and similar objects within the same class.
   4. Expressive-emotional function- expression of a positive or negative attitude towards the object of the nomination.
   5. Communicative- nomination of a person, object or phenomenon during communication.
   6. Deictic- an indication of an object at the moment of pronouncing its name.

   

   Classification of onyms

   Proper names in all their originality are divided into many types:

   1. Anthroponyms - names of people:
   • name (Ivan, Alexey, Olga);
   • surname (Sidorov, Ivanov, Brezhnev);
   • patronymic (Viktorovich, Aleksandrovna);
   • nickname (Gray - for the name Sergei, Lame - based on external characteristics);
   • pseudonym (Vladimir Ilyich Ulyanov - Lenin, Joseph Vissarionovich Dzhugashvili - Stalin).

   2. Toponyms - geographical names:

   • oikonyms - settlements(Moscow, Berlin, Tokyo);
   • hydronyms - rivers (Danube, Seine, Amazon);
   • oronyms - mountains (Alps, Andes, Carpathians);
   • horonyms - large spaces, countries, regions (Japan, Siberia).

   3. Zoonyms - animal names (Murka, Sharik, Kesha).

   4. Documentonyms - acts, laws (Archimedes' law, Peace Pact).

   5. Other names:

   • television and radio programs (“ Blue bird", "Time");
   • vehicles (“Titanic”, “Volga”);
   • periodicals (Cosmopolitan magazine, Times newspaper);
   • literary works (“War and Peace”, “Dowry”);
   • names of holidays (Easter, Christmas);
   • trade marks(“Pepsi”, “McDonald’s”);
   • organizations, enterprises, groups (Abba group, Bolshoi Theater);
   • natural disasters (Hurricane Jose).

   

   Relationship between common nouns and proper nouns

   When talking about a proper name, one cannot fail to mention the common noun. They are distinguished by object nominations.

   Thus, a common noun, or appellative, names objects, persons or phenomena that have one or more common features and represent a separate category.

   • cat, river, country - a common noun;
   • cat Murka, Ob River, country Colombia - proper name.

   

   The differences between proper names and common nouns are also of great interest in scientific circles. This issue was studied by such linguists as N.V. Podolskaya, A.V. Superanskaya, L.V. Shcherba, A.A. Ufimtseva, A.A. Reformatsky and many others. Researchers examine these phenomena from different angles, sometimes arriving at contradictory results. Despite this, specific features of onyms are identified:

   1. Onims name objects within a class, whereas common nouns- the class itself.
   2. A proper name is assigned to an individual object, and not to the set to which it belongs, despite common features, characteristic of this set.
   3. The object of the nomination is always specifically defined.
   4. Although both proper names and common nouns are connected by the framework of the nominative function, the former only name objects, while the latter also highlight the concept of them.
   5. Onims are derived from appellatives.

   Sometimes proper names can be converted into common nouns. The process of converting an onym into a common noun is called appellation, and the reverse action is called onymization.

   Thanks to this, words are filled with new shades of meaning and expand the boundaries of their meaning. For example, given name the creator of the pistol, S. Colt, has become a household name and is often used in speech to nominate this type of firearm.

   As an example of appeal, one can cite the transition of the common noun “earth” in the meaning of “soil”, “land”, into the onym “Earth” - “planet”. Thus, using a common noun as the name of something, it can become an onym (revolution - Revolution Square).

   In addition, the names of literary heroes often become household names. Thus, in honor of the hero of the work of the same name by I. A. Goncharov, Oblomov, the term “Oblomovism” arose, which denotes inactive behavior.

   

   Translation Features

   Particularly difficult is the translation of proper names, both into Russian and from Russian into foreign languages.

   It is impossible to translate onyms based on semantic meaning. It is carried out using:

   • transcriptions (recording the translated Cyrillic alphabet while retaining the original sound series);
   • transliteration (correlating letters of the Russian language with foreign ones using a special table);
   • transpositions (when onyms differing in form have the same origin, for example, the name Mikhail in Russian, and Mikhailo in Ukrainian).

   Transliteration is considered the least used method of translating onyms. They resort to it in case of registration international documents, international passports.

   Incorrect translation can lead to misinformation and misinterpretation of the meaning of what was said or written. When translating, you should adhere to several principles:

   1. Use reference materials (encyclopedias, atlases, reference books) to clarify words;
   2. Try to make a translation based on the most accurate possible pronunciation or meaning of the name;
   3. Use the rules of transliteration and transcription to translate onyms from the source language.

   To summarize, we can say that onyms are distinguished by their richness and diversity. The originality of types and an extensive system of functions characterize them, and therefore onomastics, as the most important branch of linguistic knowledge. Proper names enrich, fill, develop the Russian language, and support interest in learning it.

   A proper name is Name a noun expressed by the word or, naming a specific object or phenomenon. Unlike a common noun, which immediately denotes a whole object or phenomenon, Name own is intended for one, very specific object of this class. For example, "" is a common noun Name is a noun, while “War and Peace” is a proper noun. The word "river" represents Name a common noun, but “Cupid” is Name proper. Proper names can be names of people, patronymics, titles of books, songs, films, geographical names. Proper names are written with a capital letter. Some types of proper names require quotation marks. This applies to literary works (“Eugene Onegin”), paintings (“Mona Lisa”), films (“Only Old Men Go to Battle”), theaters (“Variety”), and other types of nouns. When translating proper names into other languages, transcription methods are used: Gogolya-street (Gogol Street), radio Mayak (Radio “Mayak”). Proper names are not specially distinguished. Proper names and common nouns are not separated from each other by an impenetrable wall. Proper names can turn into common nouns, and vice versa. For example, “avatar” was just a common noun until Avatar was made. Now this word, depending on the context, plays the role of a common noun or a proper noun. “Schumacher” is the surname of a certain racing driver, but gradually all fans began to be called “Schumachers” drive fast.Trademarks that are unique producers of a certain type of product or simply monopolists can become common nouns from proper names. A striking example is the company Xerox, which produces electrophotographic copiers. This company still exists today, but “copiers” are now called all copiers in general.

   Sources:

   • how to write proper names

   Tip 2: How to determine whether a proper name or a common noun

   Nouns name objects, phenomena or concepts. These meanings are expressed using the categories of gender, number and case. All nouns belong to the groups of proper and common nouns. Proper nouns, which serve as names of individual objects, are contrasted with common nouns, which denote generalized names of homogeneous objects.

   Instructions

   To determine proper nouns, determine whether the name is an individual designation of an object, i.e. does it make it stand out? Name» an object from a number of similar ones (Moscow, Russia, Sidorov). Proper nouns name first and last names of persons and names of animals (Nekrasov, Pushok, Fru-fru); geographical and astronomical objects (America, Stockholm, Venus); , organizations, print media (Pravda newspaper, Spartak team, Eldorado store).

   Proper names, as a rule, do not change in number and are used only in the singular (Voronezh) or only in the plural (Sokolniki). Please note that there are exceptions to this rule. Proper nouns are used in the plural form if they denote different persons and objects that have the same name (both Americas, namesake Petrovs); persons who are related (the Fedorov family). Also, proper nouns can be used in the plural form if they name a certain type of people, “selected” by quality characteristics famous literary character. Please note that in this meaning, nouns lose the attribute of belonging to a group of individual objects, therefore it is acceptable to use both capital and lowercase letters (Chichikovs, Famusovs, Pechorins).

   A spelling feature that distinguishes proper nouns is the use capital letter And . Moreover, all proper names are always letters, and the names of institutions, organizations, works, objects are used as appendices and are enclosed in quotation marks (the motor ship “Fedor Shalyapin”, Turgenev’s novel “Fathers and Sons”). The application may include any part of speech, but the first word is always capitalized (Daniel Defoe’s novel “The Life and Amazing Adventures of Robinson Crusoe”).

   A noun in Russian has different distinctive features. To show the peculiarities of the occurrence and use of certain linguistic units, they are divided into common and proper nouns.

   

   Instructions

   Common nouns are nouns that denote the name of certain objects and phenomena that have general set signs. These objects or phenomena belong to any class, but in themselves do not carry any special indications of this

8. a word or phrase intended to name a specific, well-defined object or phenomenon, distinguishing this object or phenomenon from a number of similar objects or phenomena
   it can be a geographical name, names celestial bodies, periodicals, person's name, surname, etc.
9. Proper (proper name) - names, names, nicknames of animals - are written with a capital letter: Moscow, Russia, Volga, planet Earth, Sharik and Matroskin, Dobrynya Nikitich. Common noun - something that is named to define an object or action, written with a small letter - rain, city, Railway, ps, river, girl, dad.
10. A proper name is a noun expressed in a word or phrase that names a specific object or phenomenon. Unlike a common noun, which immediately denotes a whole class of objects or phenomena, a proper name is intended for one, very specific object of this class. For example, book is a common noun, while War and Peace is a proper noun. The word river is a common noun, but Amur is a proper name. Proper names can be people's names, surnames, patronymics, titles of books, songs, films, and geographical names. Proper names are written with a capital letter. Some types of proper names require quotation marks. This applies to literary works (Eugene Onegin), paintings (Mona Lisa), films (Only Old Men Go to Battle), theaters (Variety), and other types of nouns. When translating proper names into other languages, transcription and transliteration methods are used: Gogolya-street (Gogol Street), radio Mayak (Radio Mayak). IN English language proper names are not specially marked with quotation marks. Proper names and common nouns are not separated from each other by an impenetrable wall. Proper names can turn into common nouns, and vice versa. For example, the word avatar was just a common noun until the movie Avatar was made. Now this word, depending on the context, plays the role of a common noun or a proper noun. Schumacher is the surname of a certain racing driver, but gradually all lovers of fast driving began to be called Schumachers. Trademarks that are unique producers of a certain type of product or simply monopolists can become common nouns from proper names. A striking example is the company Xerox, which produces electrophotographic copiers. This company still exists today, but all copiers in general are now called copiers.