In the fall of 1814, representatives of all European powers gathered in Vienna for an international congress to resolve a complex set of issues inherited from the era of the French Revolution and the Napoleonic Wars. At the same time, each of the great powers sought to ensure only their own interests, and together they imposed their will on weaker states. The main issues were resolved by agreement between representatives of the great powers - Great Britain, Austria, Prussia and Russia. They quickly agreed on the new borders of France, but for a long time they could not overcome differences over Poland and Saxony.
Endless discussions at the Congress of Vienna were interrupted by Napoleon's return to power. Having fled from the Elbe in the spring of 1815 and landed in France with a small detachment, he soon victoriously entered Paris at the head of an army dissatisfied with the return of the Bourbons. These were Napoleon's famous "Hundred Days". The emperor waited for some time, hoping to conclude a favorable agreement with the powers, and then launched an offensive in Belgium. The short-term war ended on June 18, 1815 near the Belgian village Waterloo, where Prussian and English troops, with the participation of local militia, defeated Napoleon's army.
Meanwhile Congress of Vienna Almost completed my work. The powers managed to reach a compromise on the very complex issue, which in reality meant another division of Poland. On June 8, 1815, a constitution was proclaimed German Confederation, which replaced the Holy Roman Empire of the German nation, and the next day the solemn signing of the General Act of the Congress of Vienna took place.
- Article 1 stipulated that the Kingdom of Poland “shall forever join the Russian Empire.” Austria and Prussia also received their share of the Polish inheritance.
- Prussian possessions in western Germany were united into a vast province called Rhine Prussia. Material from the site
- Holland and Belgium formed the single kingdom of the Netherlands.
- Most of the territories of Northern Italy were united into the Lombardo-Venetian kingdom, which was transferred under the control of the Austrian emperor.
- Austria established its control over other Italian states and acquired predominant influence in Italy.
- The British secured Malta and many colonies captured during many years of war.
- France was returning to the borders of 1790, and its territory was subject to occupation by the Allied forces.
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Long and bloody wars French Revolution and Napoleon ended with the defeat of the First Empire in France. The winners set about dividing up the vast Napoleonic empire and restructuring international relations in post-revolutionary Europe. The new international order they created went down in history under the name of the “Vienna system” (according to the Congress of Vienna, where new borders in Europe were mainly determined). Three main tasks:
1 - return France to pre-revolutionary borders, restore the “legitimate” (legitimate) Bourbon dynasty to its throne, create guarantees to prevent new revolutions in France and restore the Bonapartist regime with its wars of conquest in Europe;
2 - to carry out such a territorial reorganization of Europe and the colonial possessions that would provide the main participants in this division - England, Russia, Austria and Prussia - with a “balance of power” favorable for each of them
3 - take military, political and diplomatic measures to protect not only France, but all of Europe from new social and national conflicts and revolutions. For this purpose it was created the whole system alliances and agreements (peace treaties with France, the Quadruple Alliance of England, Russia, Austria, Prussia against France, the Holy Alliance), known as common name"Treats of 1815" This entire system of treaties and alliances was created in stages, from May 1814 to November 1818. This period included four major international meetings: negotiations on the conclusion of the first Peace of Paris with France (May 1814), the Congress of Vienna (September
1814 - June 1815), negotiations for the conclusion of the second Peace of Paris (July - November 1815); finally, some aspects created in 1814 - 1815. international system were reviewed at international congress in Aachen (September - November 1818).
Congress of Vienna and its decisions.
WITH October 1814 By June 1815 A congress of representatives of European powers met in Vienna. Main Participants : Russian Emperor Alexander I, Chancellor of the Austrian Empire Metternich, English Minister of Foreign Affairs Castlereagh (then Wellington), Minister of Foreign Affairs of Prussia Hardenberg, French Minister of Foreign Affairs Talleyrand, a total of 216 delegates.
The main question: territorial (everyone wants to get as much as possible). Disagreements within the winners (Fr played on this and received a place as a participant, along with the winners) - Austria and Pruss are interested in weakening Fr, SK and Ros are not (there is no need to explain why, I think). Russia (as the most powerful power) wanted almost all the Polish lands (Duchy of Warsaw), and these were mainly Prussian lands. Prussia agrees, but on the condition that Saxony is transferred to it, which causes confrontation between the UK, Austria and France (in January 1815 they even signed a secret agreement to prevent the transfer of Saxony to Prussia, even to the point of military action - and after 3 months this agreement was revealed) (+ no one wants to strengthen Ros). The situation is stormy. Bilateral treaties + secret diplomacy are signed.
Second question: Germanic. It is impossible to simply dissolve the Confederation of the Rhine, but no one wanted to create a strong unification of German states. The German Confederation (confederation) was created at the suggestion of Mitternich (included Prussia, Austria and 36 German states). There was a Diet, but its decisions had to be approved by the heads of state.
/ (somehow this is based on Soviet textbooks or something =>) Goal: liquidation political changes and the transformations that took place in Europe as a result of the French bourgeois revolution and the Napoleonic wars. They defended the principle of legitimism, i.e. restoration of the rights of former monarchs who had lost their possessions. Regardless of national interests peoples, V/k redrew the map of Europe in his own way ./ The principle of legitimacy existed (put forward by Tyler), but in a situation of complete tension, when they could not decide anything and decided that “we are restoring the order that existed before 1792”
Belgium was annexed to Goll, which became the Kingdom of the Netherlands. Norway was given to Sweden. Poland was again divided between Ross, Prussia and Austria, with most of the Grand Duchy of Warsaw going to Ross (it was satisfied, but Prussia got only 2/5 of Saxony). Prussia acquired part of Saxony and Westphalia, + the Rhineland. Austria was returned to the lands taken from it during the Napoleonic wars. Lombardy and the possessions of the former Venetian Republic, + Salzburg and some other territories were annexed to the Austrian Empire (the so-called Italian question, since they were torn away from Italy). Italy was again fragmented into a number of states, given over to the power of the old dynasties. In the Sardinian kingdom (Piedmont), Genoa was annexed, and the Savoy dynasty was restored. The Kingdom of Tuscany, the Duchies of Modena and Parma came into the possession of various representatives of the Austrian House of Habsburg. In Rome, the temporal power of the pope was restored, and his former possessions were returned to him. In the Neapolitan court, the Bourbon dynasty established itself on the throne. The small German states liquidated by Nap were not restored the number of German states decreased by almost 10 times, but the political fragmentation of the German states remained. The Military Commission legitimized the colonial seizures made by the British during the war from Spain and France; England took the island of Ceylon, Cape Good Above, and Guiana from Goll. + England retained Malta, which was of great strategic importance, and the Ionian Islands. That. England consolidated its dominance on the seas and in the colonies. The borders of Switzerland were somewhat expanded and the military declared it an eternally neutral state. The Bourbon monarchy was restored in Spain. "Conclude an act" The w/c was signed June 9, 1815 . Article 6 of this act declared the readiness of the powers to maintain peace and maintain the immutability of territorial borders.
VC. is still the main source of international law. It defines the basics of the diplomatic service (three unified classes of diplomatic agents: 1. ambassadors and papal legates, 2. envoys, 3. chargé d’affaires; a unified procedure for the reception of diplomats - the “Vienna Regulations”)
As a result of the Napoleonic wars, a classic five-power system emerged. In Europe there were five great powers, whose forces were practically equivalent and the agreement between which ensured peace in Europe for 40 years: England, dominating the seas; France, significantly weakened, but thanks to the art of diplomats (Talleyrand), retains the status of a great power, an indemnity was imposed on it, but the princes were preserved; Prus is seriously strengthening; Austria is relatively weaker; Ros is at the peak of his power.
/ September 1815 in Paris A1, Franz1 (Austria), Friedrich Wilhelm3 (Pruss) sign an agreement on the Holy Alliance, England will participate informally. A1 is the initiator of the CC. The goal of the SS (according to A1) is to preserve the international order established by the Congress of Vienna. (very general in nature, written in a high style and did not offer any conditions, obligations or mechanisms) The SS is based on the principle of legitimism: support for legitimate dynasties and the restoration of the “legitimate” rights of former monarchs who have lost their possessions. Because legitimate dynasties were threatened by revolutions, then the SS was against revolutions in individual countries. According to proposal A1, the principle of intervention: the SS sent troops into any country engulfed in revolution.
The SS was not a supranational body. This was watered by the agreement of countries that have common intentions and want to act together. The specific form of implementation of the SS were pan-European meetings at the level of monarchs, less important ones at the level of Ministries of Foreign Affairs, at the level of ambassadors (the main idea was policy coherence and not bringing conflicts to direct conflict).
The main results of the activities of the SS: in the 20s they suppressed the revolution in Spain, Italy, Portugal and other countries. Russia suppressed the revolution in Hungary (49). For about 40 years there were no big wars in Europe => transition to a new technological, economic level. Because acted in accordance with the principle of balance and non-interference.
With the formation of the Holy Alliance (or rather, the Congress of Vienna), the period of operation of the “Concert of Europe” system began, which is characterized high degree consistency of actions of great states (not a balance of power, but a balance of interests).
The main congresses of the Holy Alliance and their decisions.
18 Sep. 1825 - signing of the Holy Alliance (SS): Ross, Austria, Pruss (later almost all European states joined it, except for the UK, Turkey and the Vatican). Main congresses:
1818 – Aachen Congress . (1817 - France fulfilled its initial obligations (indemnity), and there is no longer a reason to keep troops there) Subject: French affairs, English conclusion. troops, situation in Spain, the problem of bargaining. seafarers, slave trade. England and Austria tried to limit the influence of Ross, they wanted only 4 large ones. powers: England, Austria, Pruss and Ross. 47 meetings were held. Bottom line: withdraw troops from France, France pays an indemnity of 260 million francs. In fact: France returned to the rank of great powers, joined the SS (however, these four played it safe by signing a document confirming the validity of the Chamon Treaty of 1814 - an alliance in case of a new threat from France). The Aachen Congress means. event, preserved the Vienna system.
Oct. 1820 – Congress in Troppau (Czech Republic). Participants: Alex, Franz and Friedrich Wilhelm + chancellors Austria and Pruss. Subject: revolution in the Kingdom of Naples + later in Spain and Piedmont. Nov. 1820 – Ross, Aust, Pruss sign a protocol on the principles of intervention + an addition on the suppression of the Naples revolution + foreign law. state about interfering in internal affairs in order to suppress the revolution. Ang and Fr did not sign, but silently agreed.
Jan 11 1821 – Congress in Laibach (continuation of the Congress in Troppau) . Subject: revolution in IT. Participants: all the same + Italian. king. It wanted non-interference and approved Austria's proposal to begin the occupation. The other principalities were silent. Feb 2 - the revolution is suppressed. Alex did not dare to intervene. We partially considered the provision on ISP without ending. resolutions. Austrian troops were sent to Naples, and French troops to Spain.
Oct-Nov 1822 – Congress in Verona . Participants: Austria, Ross, Pruss, England (new min in del Canning), Fr. Ross's position on the issue of resolving international problems has become tougher due to Kapadistria's resignation. Main problem: preparation for intervention to suppress the uprising in Spain. Wanted Fr. Everyone supported 19 Nov. - a secret protocol was signed on the overthrow of the revolutionary government in Spain, England abstained. Bottom line: the revolution is suppressed. Dr. question: recognition of Spanish independence. Colonies in America: Simon Bolivar. England wanted to overthrow Isp there for new markets for its goods + to gain a foothold there economically at this stage, England was more restrained. The UK turned to the USA (Monroe => its doctrine)
The Congress of Vienna and its significance for the development of international relations.
Congress of Vienna 1814-1815 - a pan-European conference, during which a system of treaties was developed aimed at restoring the feudal-absolutist monarchies destroyed by the French Revolution of 1789 and the Napoleonic Wars, and new borders of European states were determined. The congress, held in Vienna from September 1814 to June 1815, chaired by the Austrian diplomat Count Metternich, was attended by representatives of all European countries (except the Ottoman Empire). The negotiations took place in conditions of secret and overt rivalry, intrigue and behind-the-scenes conspiracies.
On March 30, 1814, the Allies entered Paris. A few days later, Napoleon abdicated the throne and went into exile on the island of Elba. The Bourbon dynasty, overthrown by the revolution, returned to the French throne in the person of Louis XVIII, brother of the executed King Louis XVI. The period of almost continuous bloody European wars is over.
Restoration, if possible, of the old absolutist-noble regime: in some places - serfdom, in others - semi-serfdom; such was the social fundamental basis of the policy of the powers that united after the end of the war. In this regard, the achievements of the powers that defeated France in 1814 could not be called durable. The complete restoration of the pre-revolutionary regime both in the economy and in politics after the crushing blows inflicted by the French Revolution and Napoleon turned out to be not only difficult, but also hopeless.
Russia was represented at the congress by Alexander I, K.V. Nesselrode and A.K. Razumovsky (Johann von Anstett took part in the work of the special commissions);
Great Britain - R. S. Castlereagh and A. W. Wellington;
Austria - Franz I, K. Metternich,
Prussia - K. A. Hardenberg, W. Humboldt,
France - Charles Maurice de Talleyrand-Périgord
Portugal - Pedro de Sousa Holstein de Palmela
All decisions of the Congress of Vienna were collected in the Final Act of the Congress of Vienna. Congress authorized the inclusion of the territory of the Austrian Netherlands (modern Belgium) into the new Kingdom of the Netherlands, but all other Austrian possessions returned to Habsburg control, including Lombardy, the Venetian region, Tuscany, Parma and the Tyrol. Prussia received part of Saxony, a significant territory of Westphalia and the Rhineland. Denmark, a former ally of France, lost Norway to Sweden. In Italy, the power of the Pope over the Vatican and the Papal States was restored, and the Bourbons returned the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies. The German Confederation was also formed. Part of the Duchy of Warsaw created by Napoleon became part of Russian Empire called the Kingdom of Poland, and the Russian Emperor Alexander I became the Polish king. Austria received southern part Lesser Poland and most of Red Rus'. The western lands of Greater Poland with the city of Poznan and Polish Pomerania returned to Prussia. This division of Poland between powers is sometimes referred to in historical scholarship as the “Fourth Partition of Poland.”
International recognition of Switzerland's neutrality took place. The proclamation of the policy of neutrality had a decisive influence on the subsequent development of Switzerland. Thanks to neutrality, she managed not only to protect her territory from the devastating military conflicts of the 19th and 20th centuries, but also to stimulate economic development by maintaining mutually beneficial cooperation with the warring parties.
Organizational issues of the Vienna Congress
The organization and holding of the Vienna Congress became a significant event both for European states and for the entire world practice in general. Let's consider some issues of its implementation in more detail.
Objectives: The Congress of Vienna was originally declared to be convened to determine the fate of the French Emperor Napoleon Bonaparte, and to develop and implement measures to prevent similar situations in the future. However, the adviser to the Austrian Chancellor Metternich Friedrich Gentz, who was Secretary General Congress of Vienna, in February 1815, wrote: “Loud phrases about “restructuring social order, renewal of the political system of Europe”, “Permanent peace based on a fair distribution of power”, etc. and so on. were pronounced to calm the crowd and to impart to this solemn assembly some appearance of dignity and grandeur, but the real purpose of the Congress was to divide the inheritance of the vanquished among the victors.” And, indeed, all participants in the Congress sought to grab as much as possible for themselves at any cost, regardless of their contribution to the defeat of Napoleon.
Time of the Congress of Vienna: from September 1814 to June 1815.
Composition and number of participants: there were 216 delegates from the European winning countries at the Congress. The Russian delegation was headed by Emperor Alexander I, Great Britain - Keslreagh, and a little later - Wellington, Austria - Francis I, Prussia - Hardenberg, France - Charles-Maurice Talleyrand. The leading role in resolving the most important issues at the Congress was played by Alexander I and the Austrian Chancellor Metternich. In addition, despite the fact that Talleyrand represented defeated France, he managed to successfully defend its interests on a number of issues.
Plans of the participants of the Vienna Congress: All delegations came to the Congress in Vienna with certain plans.
1. Alexander I, whose troops were in the center of Europe, was not going to give up what he had conquered. He wanted to create the Duchy of Warsaw under his own auspices, giving it its own constitution. In exchange for this, in order not to offend his ally Frederick William III, Alexander hoped to transfer Saxony to Prussia.
2. Austria planned to regain the lands conquered from it by Napoleon, and to prevent a significant strengthening of Russia and Prussia.
3. Prussia really wanted to annex Saxony and retain Polish lands.
5. France, not counting on any territorial acquisitions, did not want the predominance of some European countries over others.
During the negotiations during the Congress of Vienna, a number of important scandalous events occurred:
· Firstly, England, France and Prussia entered into a secret agreement on January 3, 1815, which contained the obligation of the three powers to jointly prevent Saxony from joining Prussia on any terms. In addition, they agreed not to allow any redistribution of existing borders, that is, annexation of territories to a particular country or separation from them.
· Secondly, almost immediately after its conclusion, the above-mentioned secret agreement received scandalous publicity, which, naturally, influenced the work of the Vienna Congress. This happened in Paris during the historical period known as the "100 days". Having landed in France with a small group of soldiers and officers loyal to him, Napoleon entered Paris on March 19, 1815. One of three copies of the secret treaty was discovered in the office of the escaped Louis XVIII. At the direction of Napoleon, it was urgently transported to Alexander I, who handed it over to Metternich. Thus, all other delegations became aware of the “secret” conspiracy of some participants in the Vienna Congress.
· Thirdly, the very fact of the short-term restoration of Napoleon's empire was unexpected and unforeseen.
· Fourthly, important event was the final defeat of Napoleon at Waterloo and the return of the royal Bourbon dynasty to Paris.
Results of the Congress of Vienna: The Congress of Vienna was unique in its significance historical event. Its results can be summarized as follows:
1. A few days before Waterloo, namely on June 9, 1815, representatives of Russia, Austria, Spain, France, Great Britain, Portugal, Prussia and Sweden signed the Final General Act of the Congress of Vienna. According to its provisions, the inclusion of the territory of the Austrian Netherlands (modern Belgium) into the new Kingdom of the Netherlands was authorized, but all other Austrian possessions returned to Habsburg control, including Lombardy, the Venetian region, Tuscany, Parma and the Tyrol. Prussia received part of Saxony, a significant territory of Westphalia and the Rhineland. Denmark, a former ally of France, lost Norway to Sweden. In Italy, the power of the Pope over the Vatican and the Papal States was restored, and the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies was returned to the Bourbons. The German Confederation was also formed. Part of the Duchy of Warsaw created by Napoleon became part of the Russian Empire under the name the Kingdom of Poland, and the Russian emperor also became the Polish king.
In addition, the General Act contained special articles that related to relations between European countries. For example, rules were established for the collection of duties and navigation on the border and international rivers Mozyl, Meuse, Rhine and Scheldt; the principles of free navigation were determined; the annex to the General Act spoke of the prohibition of trade in blacks; In all countries, censorship was tightened and police regimes were strengthened.
2. After the Congress of Vienna, the so-called “Vienna system of international relations” emerged.
It was at the Congress of Vienna that three classes of diplomatic agents were established, which are still used today1; a unified procedure for the reception of diplomats was determined, and four types of consular offices were formulated. Within the framework of this system, the concept of great powers was formulated for the first time (then primarily Russia, Austria, Great Britain), and multichannel diplomacy finally took shape.
3. The decision was made to create the Holy Alliance.
The formation of the Holy Alliance is the main result of the Congress of Vienna in 1815
Alexander I came up with the idea of creating the Holy Union of European States, as he understood that the decisions of the Congress should be formalized organizationally.
The founding document of the Holy Alliance was the Act of the Holy Alliance, developed by Alexander I himself and signed in Paris on September 26, 1815 by the Russian and Austrian emperors and the Prussian king.
The purpose of creating the Holy Alliance was: on the one hand, to play the role of a deterrent against national liberation and revolutionary movements, and on the other, to unite, if necessary, all its participants in defense of the inviolability of borders and existing orders. This was reflected in the Act of the Holy Alliance, which declared that due to the great changes in European countries over the course of three recent years The members of the sacred Union decided that “in any case and in every place they will begin to give each other benefits, reinforcements and assistance for the preservation of faith, peace and truth”1.
However, according to many historians, the content of this act was highly uncertain and flexible and practical implications it was possible to make a wide variety of things out of it, but its general spirit did not contradict, but rather favored, the reactionary mood of the governments of that time. Not to mention the confusion of ideas belonging to completely different categories, in it religion and morality completely displace law and politics from the areas that undoubtedly belong to the latter. Built on the legitimate basis of the divine origin of monarchical power, it establishes a patriarchal relationship between sovereigns and peoples, and the former are charged with the obligation to rule in the spirit of “love, truth and peace,” and the latter must only obey: the document does not at all talk about the rights of the people in relation to power mentions.
The purpose of the Union was mutual assistance in suppressing revolutionary anti-monarchist protests in Europe - echoes of the anti-Christian French Revolution - and strengthening the foundations of Christian statehood. Alexander I intended, through such a Union, to also eliminate the possibility of military clashes between monarchical Christian states. The monarchs who entered into an alliance vowed to maintain the inviolability of borders in Europe and to subordinate the entire order of mutual relations to “the lofty truths inspired by the eternal law of God the Savior”, “to be guided by no other rules than the commandments of the holy faith” and “to regard ourselves as members of a single people” Christian."
The Act of the Holy Alliance was symbolically signed in Orthodox holiday Exaltation of the Holy Cross. High spiritual meaning The Holy Union is also reflected in an unusual edition union treaty, which is not similar either in its form or in its content to international treatises: “In the name of the Most Holy and Indivisible Trinity! Their Majesties, the Emperor of Austria, the King of Prussia and the Emperor of All Russia, as a result of the great events that have marked the last three years in Europe, especially as a result of the blessings that God's Providence has been pleased to pour out on the states, whose government has placed its hope and respect in the One God, having felt inner conviction of how necessary it is for the present powers to subordinate the image of mutual relations to the higher truths inspired by the eternal law of God the Savior, they solemnly declare that the subject of this act is to reveal to the face of the universe their unshakable determination, both in the management of the states entrusted to them, and in political relations to all other governments, to be guided by no other rules than the commandments of this holy faith, the commandments of love, truth and peace, which were not limited to their application solely to private life, must, on the contrary, directly govern the will of the kings and guide all their actions , as a single means of affirming human decisions and rewarding their imperfections. On this basis, Their Majesties have agreed in the following articles...”
In the first years after the creation of the Holy Alliance, despite the existing differences in the views of its participants, European states acted in concert on many foreign policy issues, especially in the fight against free thought and the democratization of the masses. At the same time, they closely watched each other and hatched their own plans.
In general, during the existence of the Holy Alliance, several of its congresses took place:
1. Aachen Congress (September 20 - November 20, 1818).
2. Congresses in Troppau and Laibach (1820-1821).
3. Congress in Verona (October 20 - November 14, 1822).
Then the work of the Holy Alliance began to gradually fade away and, in the end, it ceased to exist. Congress of Vienna and its decisions
From October 1814 to June 1815, a congress of representatives of European powers met in Vienna. Main role Russian Emperor Alexander I, Chancellor of the Austrian Empire Metternich, English Foreign Minister Castlereagh, Prussian Foreign Minister Hardenberg, and French Foreign Minister Talleyrand played at the congress. quarreling and bargaining with each other, they determined the main decisions of the Congress.
The goal that the leaders of the congress set for themselves was the elimination of the political changes and transformations that took place in Europe as a result of the French bourgeois revolution and the Napoleonic wars. They defended in every possible way the principle of “legitimism,” that is, the restoration of the “legitimate” rights of former monarchs who had lost their possessions. In reality, the principle of “legitimism” was only a cover for the arbitrariness of reaction.
Disregarding the national interests of peoples, the Congress of Vienna redrew the map of Europe at its own discretion. Belgium was annexed to Holland, which became the Kingdom of the Netherlands. Norway was given to Sweden. Poland was again divided between Russia, Prussia and Austria, with most of the former Grand Duchy of Warsaw going to Russia. Prussia acquired parts of Saxony and Westphalia, as well as the Rhineland. Austria was returned to the lands seized from it during the Napoleonic wars. Lombardy and the possessions of the former Venetian Republic, as well as Salzburg and some other territories were annexed to the Austrian Empire.
Italy, about which Metternich contemptuously said that it “is nothing more than geographical concept”, again fragmented into a number of states, given over to the power of the old dynasties. In the Kingdom of Sardinia (Piedmont), to which Genoa was annexed, the Savoy dynasty was restored. The Grand Duchy of Tuscany and the duchies of Modena and Parma came into the possession of various representatives of the Austrian House of Habsburg. In Rome, the temporal power of the pope was restored, to whom his former possessions were returned. In the Kingdom of Naples, the Bourbon dynasty established itself on the throne.
The small German states liquidated by Napoleon were not restored, and the number of German states was reduced by almost 10 times. Nevertheless, Germany's political fragmentation remained. There were 38 states left in Germany, which, together with Austria, only formally united into the German Confederation.
The Congress of Vienna legalized the colonial seizures made by the British during the war from Spain and France; England took the island of Ceylon, the Cape of Good Hope, and Guiana from Holland. In addition, England retained the island of Malta, which was of great strategic importance, and the Ionian Islands. Thus, England consolidated its dominance on the seas and in the colonies.
The borders of Switzerland were somewhat expanded, and Congress declared it a permanently neutral state.
In Spain, back in April 1814, the Spanish Bourbon monarchy was restored.
The “Final Act” of the Congress of Vienna, developed as a result of a long struggle in an atmosphere of secret agreements and intrigues, was signed on June 9, 1815. Article 6 of this act declared the readiness of the powers that signed it to maintain peace and maintain the immutability of territorial borders.