Theodor Herzl (1860-1904) - writer and journalist, founder of Zionism. A native of Austria-Hungary. He developed a plan for the revival of the Jewish state and the settlement of Palestine by the Jewish people. On his initiative, the 1st Zionist Congress was convened, at which the creation of the World Zionist Organization was announced.
Theodor Herzl was born on May 2, 1860, in Budapest into an assimilated family that observed Jewish traditions. He studied in a real gymnasium. In 1878 he entered the Faculty of Law at the University of Vienna. In 1884 Theodore received his doctorate legal sciences and worked for some time in the courts of Vienna and Salzburg. His mother, Jeanette Herzl, introduced her son to German culture and language. Since childhood, the future writer had a penchant for literature and wrote poetry. While studying at the gymnasium, he published reviews of books and plays in one of the Budapest newspapers. Offended by the anti-Semitic explanations of the teacher, he dropped out of the real gymnasium.
A nation is a historical community of people, united by the presence of a common enemy.
Herzl Theodor
In 1878, after the death of his nineteen-year-old sister from typhoid fever, the Herzlei family moved from Budapest to Vienna, where Theodor entered the law faculty of the University of Vienna. Not far from them lived the great short story writer Arthur Schnitzler and Gustav Mahler, the future conductor and one of the most outstanding composers of the century.
During his student years, Herzl was almost not interested in the Jewish question (like Freud, Schnitzler and Mahler, he initially took active pro-German positions), but he was deeply impressed by the anti-Semitic book of the German philosopher Eugen Dühring “On the Jewish Question” (1881). He was also greatly influenced by the election of Karl Luger as mayor of Vienna. This charismatic anti-Semite inspired the young painter Adolf Hitler, whose miserable existence in Vienna a few years later shaped his lust for power and hatred of Jews (the Austrian psychiatrist and psychologist, the founder of psychoanalysis, Sigmund Freud recognized the power of such dark forces in the human subconscious, and his discoveries led to the creation of modern psychoanalytic therapy.)
In 1881, he became a member of the German student society Albia, but already in 1883 he left it in protest against the anti-Semitic statements of its members. In 1884 he received the degree of Doctor of Law and worked for some time in the courts of Vienna and Salzburg. In 1898, in his autobiographical notes, he noted: “Being a Jew, I could never take the post of judge. Therefore, I parted ways with Salzburg and with jurisprudence at the same time.”
Since 1885, Theodor Herzl devoted himself exclusively to literary activities. He wrote a number of plays, feuilletons and philosophical stories. Some of his plays had stunning success on the stages of Austrian theaters, and for some time the writer was considered one of the leading Austrian playwrights. The plays took place on the stages of Vienna, Berlin, Prague and other theater capitals of Europe.
In 1889, Herzl married Julie Naschauer (1868-1907), but family life didn’t work out, because the wife did not understand and did not share her husband’s views. The fate of Herzl's children was tragic. The eldest daughter Paulina (1890-1930) committed suicide, as did her son Hans (1891-1930), who converted to Christianity in 1906, and after the death of his sister, he shot himself at her grave in Bordeaux (France). Youngest daughter Margaret (known as Trude; 1893-1943) died in the Nazi concentration camp Terezin.
From October 1891 to July 1895, Herzl worked in Paris as a correspondent for the influential liberal Viennese newspaper Neue Freie Presse, in which he published, among other things, notes on parliamentary life in France. Theodore published his views on politics in a small book, “The Bourbon Palace” (the building where the French Chamber of Deputies was located). In political circles in Paris, Herzl repeatedly heard anti-Semitic speeches and statements. His views on the solution to the Jewish question gradually changed, which is noticeable already in his play “Ghetto” (1894), later renamed “New Ghetto”.
At that time, as they said, the future leader of Zionism was a dude, a dandy from the boulevard, who loved listening to the operas of Richard Wagner, dressing fashionably, gossiping in cafes and strolling along the avenue. He was what a gentleman at the end of the century should have been - sported a neatly trimmed beard, wrote fashionable plays, dull advertisements for tourists and feuilletons, and enjoyed idle pleasures young man in peacetime Vienna.
Herzel's worldview in views and in life took place in 1894, under the influence of the Dreyfus affair (this coincided with the wonderful time of famous people: Toulouse-Lautrec, Claude Debussy, Charles Baudelaire and Sarah Bernhardt). Shouts of “Death to the Jews!” were heard on the streets of Paris. finally and irrevocably convinced him that the only solution to the Jewish question was the creation of an independent Jewish state. Therefore, in June 1895, Herzl turned to Baron Maurice de Hirsch for support. However, the meeting did not bring results. In those days, Theodore began writing a diary and making the first drafts for the book “The Jewish State.” In his diary he wrote: “Ideas in my soul were chasing one after another. Whole human life there won’t be enough to accomplish all this...”
Theodor Herzl outlined his program in the book “The Jewish State. Experience modern solution The Jewish Question" (Der Judenstaat), which was published in Vienna on February 14, 1896. In the same year, its translations from German into Hebrew, English, French, Russian and Romanian were published. In this book, Herzl emphasized that the Jewish question should not be resolved by emigration from one Diaspora country to another or by assimilation, but by the creation of an independent Jewish state. The political solution to the Jewish question, in his opinion, must be agreed upon with the great powers. The mass relocation of Jews to the Jewish State will be carried out in accordance with a charter openly recognizing their right to settlement and international guarantees. This will be an organized exodus of the Jewish masses of Europe into an independent Jewish state.
Herzl believed that the formation of such a state should be carried out according to a pre-thought-out plan. The Jewish state must be imbued with the spirit social progress(for example, the establishment of a seven-hour working day), freedom (everyone can practice their faith or remain an unbeliever) and equality (other nationalities have equal rights with Jews). To implement this plan, T. Herzl was convinced that it was necessary to create two bodies - political and economic: the “Jewish Society” as the official representative of the Jewish people and the “Jewish Company” to manage finances and concrete construction. The necessary funds were supposed to be obtained with the assistance of Jewish bankers, and only in case of their refusal was there to be an appeal to the broad Jewish masses.”
Theodor Herzl in 1901 on the balcony of the hotel "Les Trois Rois" (Basel) during the next Zionist Congress, together with Oscar Marmorek and Max Nordau, organized the World Zionist Congress (from August 26 to 29, 1897) in Basel and was elected president of the World Zionist Organization " The Basel Program adopted there was the basis for numerous negotiations (including with the German Emperor Wilhelm II and the Turkish Sultan Abdul Hamid II) with the goal of creating a “home for the Jewish people” in Palestine. Although Herzl's efforts were unsuccessful at that time, his work created the preconditions for the creation of the State of Israel in 1948. In 1897, Herzl published the play "The New Ghetto" and created "Die Welt", a monthly journal of the Zionist movement, in Vienna.
In 1899, Theodor Herzl created the Jewish Colonization Society with the goal of purchasing land in Palestine, which was then part of the Ottoman Empire. Great Britain offered Herzl, as a representative of the World Zionist Organization, land in British East Africa (part of the territory of modern Kenya called Uganda; not to be confused with the modern state of Uganda) for the organization of a Jewish state there (the so-called Uganda Plan). Herzl himself was ready to accept this proposal, but other activists of the movement, including those very close to Herzl, opposed this. The Ugandan plans failed because most Zionists saw only Palestine as possible territory for a Jewish state; in addition, representatives of Congress considered the territory proposed by the British Secretary of the Colonies Joseph Chamberlain as unsuitable for settlement.
In 1900, Herzl published Philosophical Stories. In the utopian novel he wrote in German, Altneuland (Old New Land, 1902, later translated into Hebrew by Nachum Sokolov), Theodor Herzl created an idealistic picture of the future Jewish state. Here he formulated a sketch of the political and social system of the Jewish state in Palestine. He did not foresee Arab-Jewish conflicts and took the view that the Arabs living in Palestine would happily welcome new Jewish settlers. Translated into Hebrew, the novel was called Tel Aviv (that is, “spring hill,” the name of the biblical settlement); the name of the future city of Tel Aviv was inspired by Herzl's novel.
Fierce battles with opponents, in addition to the intense struggle for the Zionist cause, led to an exacerbation of the heart disease from which Herzl suffered. His illness was complicated by pneumonia. To his friend who came to visit him, Herzl said: “Why are we fooling ourselves? The bell is tolling for me. I am not a coward, and I can calmly face death, especially since I did not lose in vain last years own life. I think I served my people well.” These were his last words. His condition soon worsened, and on July 3, 1904, Herzl died in Edlach, Austria.
In his will, Herzl asked to be buried in Vienna next to his father until the Jewish people transferred his remains to the Land of Israel. Thousands upon thousands of supporters from all over Europe came to Vienna for his funeral. The Viennese were shocked by the emotional responsiveness of the Jews to his death, for they remembered him only as a writer with bizarre nationalist ideals. The remains of the Zionist leader were brought from Austria to Jerusalem on August 14, 1949, shortly after the creation of the State of Israel. Nowadays, the ashes of the herald of the Jewish state rest on Mount Herzl in Jerusalem, and the Herzl Museum was built not far from his grave.
The day of Herzl's death according to the Jewish calendar, the 20th day of the month of Tammuz is celebrated in Israel as a national day of his memory.
The State of Israel was proclaimed on May 14, 1948, slightly later than the date predicted by Theodor Herzl after the 1st Zionist Congress.
Theodor Herzl - quotes
A nation is a historical community of people, united by the presence of a common enemy. 
Rich people can make you famous; but only the poor can make you a hero.
Money is a good and pleasant thing, but people spoil it.
Theodor Herzl
Founder of Zionism THEODOR HERZL ( 1860-1904) The founder of modern Zionism, Theodor Herzl was the only son of parents who deeply loved him. Herzl was born in Budapest on May 2, 1860.Photo of Theodor Herzl at the age of 5
at my parents' house in Budapest.
From WIKIPEDIA
His Jewish education ended with his bar mitzvah; essentially, he didn't know much about Hebrew or Judaism. He became a lawyer in Vienna, but then decided to fulfill his childhood dream and become a writer. However, gaining fame was not easy, and at the age of 22 he wrote in despair: “There is not the slightest success in my life, not the slightest achievement of which I could be proud.”
Nine years later, Herzl got a serious job - he became a correspondent for the leading Viennese newspaper Neue Freie Presse. New job brought him to Paris, where he felt the rise of anti-Semitism.
Herzl began to be haunted by thoughts of anti-Jewish prejudice. He almost convinced himself that the solution to the problem lay in the complete disappearance of the Jews through a change of religion and mixed marriages. But then, realizing how dear the Jewish heritage really was to him, Herzl wrote the play “The New Ghetto,” in which he reaffirmed with renewed vigor his Jewishness and attachment to it.
As a newspaper reporter, Theodor Herzl was present at the first Dreyfus trial. What he saw deeply shocked him. From the very beginning he believed in Dreyfus's innocence, but this was not what particularly tormented him. Herzl wrote in his diary:
“The Dreyfus case is more than a miscarriage of justice; it embodies the desire of the overwhelming majority of the French to condemn one Jew, and through him, all Jews. “Death to the Jews!” the crowd screamed when the captain’s stripes were torn from his uniform. From then on, “Down with Jews!" became a battle cry. And where? In France, in republican, modern, civilized France, a hundred years after the Declaration of the Rights of Man...
Until this moment, most of us believed that the solution to the Jewish question could be expected in the gradual advancement of humanity towards greater tolerance. But if an otherwise progressive, undeniably highly civilized people can reach such a state, what can we expect from other peoples?
Demotion of Dreyfus
And Herzl began searching for ways to protect his people from anti-Semites. Ultimately, he came to a simple idea, but at that time revolutionary: Jews should have their own state and their own government. In 1896, he published a call for the creation of an independent state in a small book, which he called: “The Jewish State.” In it, Herzl wrote:
"I believe that a wonderful generation of Jews will come. The Maccabees will rise again. Let me repeat the opening words again: Jews who want it will have their own state.
Finally we will live as free people on our own land and die peacefully in our own homes. The world will be freer with our freedom, richer with our wealth, more magnificent with our greatness.”
Herzl's book sounded like a thunderclap. They talked about her everywhere. The German press, Jewish and non-Jewish, called Herzl's ideas the ideas of a crazy dreamer. Russian Zionists, sharing his dreams, were afraid to believe Herzl. They had never heard of him and did not understand why he did not mention the importance of Hebrew in his book, nor did they mention those who had earlier called for rational independence for the Jews.
T. Herzl. Basel.
Fifth World Zionist Congress. 1901
The fact was that Herzl had never heard of the Zionists in Russia before. More specifically, he said that he would not have written his book if he had known about them. He was driven to pour out his thoughts by the conviction that they were original; and it was the strength and freshness of imagination in his work that inspired others. There were calls from everywhere for Herzl to lead the Zionist movement.
Now Herzl turned all his energy to solving one problem - the creation of a Jewish state. This was supposed to be - according to Herzl's idea - a political solution to the Jewish question, agreed upon with the great powers. Jews will be resettled en masse into the Jewish state in accordance with the Charter, which openly recognizes their right to settle, and with international guarantees. Thus political Zionism was born.
At first, Herzl sought support from the rich - Jews and non-Jews. But he could not convince even Baron Edmond de Rothschild of the idea of the state, although he was main support Yishuv. This led Herzl to the decision that he had nothing to do with the rich. “We must immediately organize our masses,” he said.
Herzl's first major project was the convening of a Jewish Congress. Using his own funds, he created a weekly magazine, through which the idea was disseminated and worked out. The first Zionist Congress opened in Basel on August 29, 1897. It was the first ever formal gathering of Jews from all over the world—and it was the work of one man.
About 200 Jewish leaders attended the meeting. They came from Eastern and Western Europe, from England, America, Algeria - old and young, orthodox and reformists, capitalists and socialists. The Congress founded the World Zionist Organization, whose purpose was to create a safe haven for the Jewish people in Palestine, guaranteed by public law. The Jewish flag and national anthem were approved, which later became the flag and national anthem of the State of Israel. In his diary, Herzl prophetically wrote:
"In Basel I founded the Jewish state. Maybe in five years, but in fifty years for sure, everyone will see it."
The United Nations approved the creation of the State of Israel exactly 50 years after these words were written.
David Ben-Gurion proclaims Israeli independence
under the portrait of Theodor Herzl.
Photo from WIKIPEDIA
Before his death on July 3, 1904, Herzl expressed his desire to be buried next to his father in Vienna, where his remains would remain until the Jewish people could transport them to Eretz Israel for reburial. On August 14, 1949, this wish was fulfilled: today his grave on Mount Herzl in Jerusalem attracts thousands of people.
Theodor Herzl and his family paid dearly for their passion for Zionism. His wife Julia had mentally ill people in her family, and the fate of Herzl’s children became tragic. His eldest daughter Paulina died due to drug addiction, and his son Hans committed suicide on the day of her funeral. Trude's youngest daughter spent most of her life in hospitals and ended it in the Nazi concentration camp Theresienstadt. Herzl's only grandson (Truda's child) committed suicide in 1946, leaving Herzl with no direct heirs.
Life is full of surprises. It happens that someone’s most seemingly impossible idea unexpectedly finds its embodiment in some incredible way. It was this idea that once radically changed the life of the Austrian journalist Theodor Herzl.
To find your purpose, you need to decide on your goals.
This happened in December 1894. Theodor Herzl covered the Dreyfus trial in Paris in his newspaper. Observing the growing wave on this basis, he came to the conclusion that the only true path leading to solving the endless problems of the Jewish people was the creation of their own state. And this idea took hold of him so much that it literally turned his entire future fate upside down.
Within a year, he developed the program, and its goals found response and support among many Jews scattered around the world. This was especially evident in Russia, where their rights were most limited and they experienced great oppression. This was the beginning of a movement that later became known as Zionism. At the two congresses that followed, political and economic decisions were made that gave this movement official status. Methods for implementing these decisions were also developed there.
Next, there was intense, never-ending work: negotiations with political leaders and, the opening of an international bank and the formation of the structures of the World Zionist Organization, the purchase of lands in Palestine and Jewish emigrants on them, the search for allies and endless disputes with opponents.
Half a century later, after these events, an independent Jewish state was created in Palestine.
So how did Theodor Herzl change the world?
Indeed, at first glance, he was trying to decide purely national problem. But look - today in all media it is mentioned much more often than any other. Since its founding, regardless of the relationship to Israel and the Jews, the events taking place on this land have aroused the keenest interest of everyone. And, in the end, the issue of creating this state was decided by the entire world community.
We are not able to understand what is hidden beyond the boundaries of our reality, but even from the perspective of this world it is obvious that the very existence of the Jewish state influences a variety of events and processes that we observe in the modern world.
The impossible becomes possible when you start living for your neighbors
It is not surprising that unrealistic ideas sometimes find their place in life - this happens if such an idea affects the interests of many. Therefore, the wider the circle of those interested, the greater the likelihood of its implementation, and if this concerns all of humanity, then Nature itself begins to contribute to this.
Of course, the person who brings this idea to life matters. If he is passionate about this idea and gives himself completely to it, there are always people nearby who are also passionate about it and bring it to the intended goal.
Theodor Herzl died on July 3, 1904 – his heart gave out. He was 44 years old. The last words he spoke were “The bell is tolling for me. I am not a coward, and I can calmly face death, especially since I have not wasted my last years.”
Demosthenes is an ancient Greek orator and rhetorician, whose skill and acuity of thought are still cited as an example modern politicians and lawyers. This man proved with his own biography that determination and patience can overcome any obstacles: Demosthenes coped not only with shyness, but also with stuttering. Even such things, seemingly incompatible with oratory, did not prevent this man from achieving success.
Childhood and youth
The future speaker was born, presumably, in 384 BC, in Upper Paeania, near Athens. Demosthenes' father, after whom his son was named, owned his own weapons factory. Demosthenes' family did not live in poverty and even had a number of slaves. The mother of the future rhetorician was named Kleovula.
Unfortunately, as a child, Demosthenes had to face human greed and the injustice of life. It was these events that later influenced the choice of Demosthenes’ life path. The fact is that the boy lost his father early. However, Demosthenes the elder took care of the children (Demosthenes had a sister) and his wife. The man left a large sum money to friends whom he asked to take care of his family.
But the guardians turned out to be unprincipled people: having pocketed the money and dowry, they turned their backs on Demosthenes Sr.’s wife and children. Despite such unpleasant events, Demosthenes attended school and received a good education. And the main motivation for the young man was the idea of fair punishment for dishonest guardians.
Rhetoric
It is noteworthy that the insult inflicted on Demosthenes by his guardians did not harden the heart of the young man, but instilled in the future speaker a keen sense of “legitimacy” - this is what Demosthenes called justice, which he considered the most important virtue. To achieve this legitimacy in relation to the offenders, the young man gradually began to practice oratory.
In addition, barely reaching his 18th birthday, the young man hired the then famous orator Isaeus to teach him the intricacies of Attic law and eloquence, so necessary in court cases.
Thus, the process of litigation with failed guardians turned out to be for Demosthenes the best school rhetoric. The young man's life, unlike the days of his peers, was filled with hard work. Demosthenes developed speech, the gift of persuasion and strengthened faith in own strength.
An additional difficulty for the young man was a congenital speech defect: Demosthenes stuttered (according to other sources, he burbled). But he managed to overcome this obstacle: every day the young man practiced making speeches with pebbles in his mouth and thus got rid of the deficiency.
Soon Demosthenes became so skilled in oratory and knowledge of the laws that people began to turn to him with requests to act as a lawyer. Demosthenes began to help others solve certain problems, using his own eloquence.
After some time, Demosthenes began to be revered as the best rhetorician. The speaker himself will later write that the main weapon of a skilled speaker is not clear pronunciation, grammatically correct speech and convincing arguments. Each speaker, according to Demosthenes, must first of all have nobility and morality, only then his power will be comparable in strength to the power of an armed army.
Demosthenes followed his own principles unswervingly: the speaker did not strive for personal gain, and also was not afraid of condemnation or displeasure from those in power. Demosthenes expressed what he considered fair, striving for “legality” in every detail.
The speaker’s life was not without its ill-wishers. A certain Midias, a wealthy man and a friend of Demosthenes’ dishonest guardians, constantly tried to interfere with the speaker, plotting small and large dirty tricks. Media insulted the speaker, denigrated Demosthenes in the eyes of the people, and even bribed the judges. It got to the point that Demosthenes’ opponent ruined the orator’s festive clothes, prepared for a solemn speech.
But even such insults and attacks did not force Demosthenes to abandon his own principles: the speaker did not answer the offender himself, but demanded a legal trial in court.
Personal life
ABOUT personal life Little information has been preserved about the orator Demosthenes. It is known that the rhetorician was married to an Athenian. Demosthenes' first child, a girl, died in infancy. Later, the wife gave the speaker two sons.
Death
Demosthenes' life came at a difficult time for Greece: the country suffered from the attacks of Macedonia and was constantly attacked. Demosthenes, using the gift of persuasion, tried to persuade people to the idea that the scattered Greek city-states should unite in the fight against the enemy.
Partly, the speaker managed to achieve what he wanted: some of the poleis actually united against Macedonia. However, there were too few of them, and the Greek army fell in another battle. Power passed into the hands of the Macedonians, who established their own order. Despite this, Demosthenes continued to give speeches against the invaders.
Of course, the Macedonians did not like the rebellious freethinker speaker. Demosthenes was sentenced to death. The great rhetorician tried to avoid his sad fate and leave the capital, however, he did not have time. Demosthenes was captured, but the man at one point managed to momentarily escape from the hands of the guards and take deadly poison.
A monument to the courageous orator was erected near the Temple of Poseidon. In addition, Demosthenes' eldest son was granted the privilege of not paying taxes. In this way, the Athenians honored the memory of a man who was not broken even by mortal danger.
Demosthenes is often compared to another ancient orator -. In his Comparative Lives, he emphasized that Demosthenes was distinguished by straightforwardness and honesty, while Cicero tried to be more flexible and less categorical in his judgments.
Now the surviving speeches of Demosthenes remain visual material, by which one can judge the morality and culture of Greece at that time, as well as the oratory and laws adopted in those early years.
- "Olynthian First"
- "Olynthian Second"
- "First speech against Philip"
- "Second Speech Against Philip"
- “About affairs in Chersonesos”
- “On the distribution of funds”
- "About symmoriae"
- "On the freedom of the Rhodians"
- "For the Megalopolitans"
- "About the agreement with Alexander"
- "For Ctesiphon about the wreath"
- "About the criminal embassy"
Oratory has been highly valued by the Greeks since ancient times. The establishment of democratic forms of life contributed to its development. Therefore, eloquence reached its highest flowering in Athens and in the cities of Sicily. Following the principles of rhetoric, Greek speakers spoke in a singsong manner, their speech was close to rhythmic, accompanied by facial expressions and actorly movements.
The most prominent figure in the development of Greek oratorical prose was the Sicily-born sophist Gorgias, a contemporary of Euripides and Herodotus. He said that the speaker's task is to make his listeners believe him. To do this, he must charm the audience with special oratorical techniques, which are now commonly called “Gorgian figures.” This includes metaphors, sound repetitions and antithetically constructed phrases, when one half of the phrase is contrasted with the other; At the same time, a special symmetry is observed: the number of words and. their placement in both parts of the phrase should be the same.
The influence of Gorgias' theory extended to all types of Greek oratorical prose: judicial, ceremonial and political eloquence.
Orator Lysis
The most famous judicial orator in Greece at the end of the 5th - beginning of the 4th centuries. BC e. was Fox.
Based on the evidence of the ancients, it can be concluded that he was born in 459 and died after 380 BC. e.
Only once did Lysias directly speak out in court against one of the former oligarchs, Eratosthenes, whom he considered to be responsible for the death of his brother. All the rest - accusatory and defensive - speeches were recorded by this Greek speaker in the first person for other people, who themselves had to speak in court to justify their case. People of the most diverse social status and education, etc., approached him with orders, and Lysias had to adapt his speeches to the cultural level and position of the customer in order for these speeches to sound natural in the mouth of this or that person.
From huge amount 34 speeches attributed to the orator Lysias have reached us. They were written in simple language, approaching the living colloquial speech. They feel a desire for truth in life. Lisiy – speaker-artist; in his speeches we find vivid and vivid pictures of everyday life, prominent and psychologically correct characteristics of people.
The best thing about the speeches of the orator Lysias is their narrative parts, recreating the situation. In these parts, he not only knew how to arouse sympathy for the defendant (if the speech was defensive), but also weave into it a significant part of the argument, preventing possible objections. At the same time, Lysias has neither anger nor pathos, characteristic of the speeches of some other Greek speakers: his tone is surprisingly calm, his arguments are clear, his expressions are precise and specific. Already the ancients noted the purity of his language, the absence in it of both neologisms and outdated words, as well as constructions alien to the language of contemporaries.
As extensive as the narrative parts of Lysias's speeches are, their epilogues are so brief - sometimes they consist of a few words.
Lysias's speeches are significant not only as an example of Greek oratory of that era; they introduce us to the everyday life of the Greeks, introduce us to the customs, everyday life, moral concepts, and legal regulations of their time. Valuable information about this can be gleaned from any speech of Lysias. An example is the “Speech delivered at the Areopagus in defense of an unknown person accused of destroying the sacred olive tree.” The olive culture in Greece was one of the main sources of the state's prosperity. In addition to trees belonging to private individuals, olive trees were scattered throughout Attica, supposedly grown from the blow of the spear of Athena; they were considered sacred, and cutting down such a tree meant committing a crime against religion, which was punishable by confiscation of property and exile of the perpetrator. During the Peloponnesian War, many trees died or were damaged.
If we did not know these facts, we could glean them from the aforementioned speech of the orator Lysias. He compiled it for a man accused by sycophants (blackmailers) of destroying the sacred olive tree. This man claims that he bought his plot of land after the war, and there were no olives on it. As witnesses, he brings to trial the persons to whom he leased the purchased plot of land. Lysias puts into the mouth of the defendant numerous logical proofs of his innocence. The defendant says that destroying the tree would only bring him a loss, not a benefit, and that by destroying the olive tree, he would end up in the hands of his own slaves: “...Wouldn’t I be the most unfortunate person in the world if my servants were witnesses? such a crime have you become my masters, not my slaves, for the rest of my life? Thus, no matter how much they were guilty of me, I could not punish them, fully understanding that it was up to them to take revenge on me and themselves to gain freedom for denunciation” (translated by S.I. Sobolevsky).
The defendant says that for him, a man who diligently fulfilled all state duties, fought for his fatherland, and spared no expense in building ships and organizing choirs, it would be the greatest misfortune to be deprived of his civil rights.
Thus, we learn from this speech of the orator Lysias that matters related to religion were dealt with in the Areopagus, and not in Heliaeus, and about the law that freed slaves for denunciation, and about who sycophants are, and about the obligation of wealthy citizens to subsidize the construction of the fleet and theatrical performances, and about many other features of ancient Greek life. The testimony of an eyewitness is of great value to us even in relation to those facts that we know from other sources.
Orator Isocrates
Most bright representative solemn (or epideictic) eloquence of ancient Greece - orator (436–338 BC), student of Gorgias, founder of the rhetorical school in Athens. But rhetoric was taught at this school not as a formal discipline teaching only the art of oratory, but as a means of knowledge and dissemination of truth.
Isocrates himself did not make speeches, but only taught eloquence and wrote speeches that were distributed throughout Greece. His most famous speech, the Panegyric, is a glorification of Athens; the speaker calls on the Greek communities to unite under the hegemony of Athens and Sparta.
Orator Isocrates
A characteristic feature of Isocrates’ oratorical style is pomp. He is the creator of the so-called period - complex sentence, which is a set of subordinate and subordinating sentences with a rhythmic beginning and rhythmic ending and which later became the norm for artistic prose. This Greek orator also introduced a rule according to which one should avoid gaps - combinations of vowels in a word or at the junction of words.
The smooth, beautiful, symmetrically constructed periods of Isocrates gave his speeches a certain monotony and coldness; form in them prevails over content, and they do not have that animation that is so characteristic of the most outstanding political speaker Ancient Greece- Demosthenes.
Orator Demosthenes
(384–322 BC) was the son of an armory owner, but was orphaned as a child. His father left him a large fortune, but his guardians plundered it. Having barely reached adulthood, Demosthenes sued his guardians, but although he won the case, he managed to regain only an insignificant part of the inheritance - a house and some money. This trial was the first impetus for the oratorical activity of Demosthenes, the most famous of the representatives of Greek eloquence. His name became common noun an inspirational speaker and fighter. The time of his life is the 4th century. BC BC represented an era of crisis in the Greek democratic polis. The defeat of Athens in the Peloponnesian War led not only to the deep decline of Athenian democracy, but also to the weakening of the connection between the policies, thanks to which Greece was able to resist expansion from the outside. Now the city-states, torn apart by internal contradictions, are having difficulty resisting the new forces that have appeared on the political horizon, primarily Macedonia.
Demosthenes, long before the conquest of Greece by Macedonia, realized the danger threatening Greek independence and fought all his life as an orator and statesman against Macedonian expansion.
In Athens there was a fairly large party that adhered to the Macedonian orientation, that is, it believed that the struggle against Macedonia was useless and it was necessary to submit to it.
Orator Demosthenes
The most prominent of Demosthenes' political opponents was the orator Aeschines. In his speech “On the Unfair Embassy,” Demosthenes accuses Aeschines of betraying the interests of Hellas and of conspiring with the Macedonian king Philip. Aeschines managed to justify himself, but the oratorical struggle between him and Demosthenes continued for several years, and after Demosthenes’ brilliant speech “On the Crown,” which ended this struggle, Aeschines was forced to go into exile.
The name of Demosthenes is associated with the idea of a man of great determination and iron will. Plutarch and other ancient authors say that he had physical disabilities that were unacceptable for a Greek orator: he had poor diction, a weak voice and “short breathing” that forced him to interrupt a period, which prevented him from understanding the meaning of a phrase; During the recitation, he jerked his shoulder - this distracted the attention of the listeners.
Thanks to continuous and hard work, Demosthenes got rid of all these shortcomings. While practicing recitation, he spoke with small pebbles in his mouth to develop clear diction; the future great Greek orator read aloud passages from the poets while running, not stopping on steep climbs to learn how to pronounce long phrases without taking a breath; while practicing eloquence, he fixed a sword on the roof, pointing the tip towards his shoulder: the fear of being stabbed forced him by an effort of will to refrain from twitching his shoulder, etc.
Demosthenes' speeches as a political speaker were designed for large crowds of people, and this affected their structure: the style of speeches is compressed and harsh; In order not to discourage the audience, the speaker, after making a short introduction, quickly moved on to the essence of the matter. His story is full of expression and dynamics, it is interrupted by rhetorical questions, it contains many metaphors, antitheses, personifications, and comparisons. Demosthenes makes extensive use of prosaic rhythm and the “figure of silence,” which consists in the fact that the speaker is emphatically silent about what must necessarily be heard in his speech and what the listeners expect.
Demosthenes saw the shortcomings of the Athenian democracy of his time and fought against abuses and prejudices. In one of his speeches (IX, 36) he complains that the Greeks have lost their love of freedom, which at one time allowed them to defeat the Persians. Previously, they hated bribe-takers and considered bribery the greatest disgrace; the perpetrator was severely punished, without allowing either intercession for him or leniency, and now bribery of generals and speakers is in the order of things, and anyone who admits to having accepted a bribe is only ridiculed.
The most famous oratorical speeches of Demosthenes are speeches against Philip of Macedon (the so-called “Philippics”), who conquered Greece in 338 BC. e. Like other speeches of Demosthenes, the Philippics are remarkable for the strength of their argumentation and are imbued with the passionate and courageous pathos of struggle.
In the third speech against Philip, he says that in popular assemblies there is flattery and servility that harm the policy of any Greek state: “Freedom of speech in all other cases you consider such a common property of all living in the state that you extended it to both foreigners and slaves, and often among us one can see slaves who express what they want with greater freedom than citizens in some other states, but you have completely expelled her from deliberations” (Demosthenes, IX, 3; trans. S.I. Radzig ).
Already from these words it is clear that the orator Demosthenes was an unconditional supporter of democracy, which he considered the only acceptable government system. Any autocracy seemed to him unnatural, hostile to freedom and laws. In his speech “On the Criminal Embassy” he says: “No, there is nothing in the world that one should fear more than such a situation when they allow someone to become higher than the majority” (Demosthenes, XIX, 296; trans. S. I Radzig).
After Philip's death, Demosthenes fought against his son Alexander the Great. At the end of his life, in 324–322. BC e., Demosthenes was in exile. In 322 he took part in the revolt of Athens against Macedonia, and when the Athenians were defeated, he took poison to avoid falling into the hands of enemies who wanted to take the famous orator alive.
In 280 BC. e., 40 years after the death of Demosthenes, the Greeks honored his memory with a bronze statue with the inscription:
“If you had such power, Demosthenes, as reason,
The Macedonian Ares could not have taken power in Hellas.”
(translated by M. E. Grabar-Passek).