“Every sound of speech is a small magical gnome.” (K. Balmont)
Lesson-research in 7th grade " Phonetic means expressiveness. Sound recording."
The purpose of the lesson
consider the features of the phonetic organization of sounding speech, identify the semantic function of sound writing in literary texts.
Lesson objectives:
1) training: to update the concepts of alliteration, assonance, to develop the ability to determine the phonetic and intonation features of the text, the methods of its sound instrumentation.
2) development: to develop research skills, the reconstructive and creative imagination of students, emotional-figurative speech;
3) education: cultivate love for native language, interest in folklore, Russian poetry, and research work.
During the classes
1. Goal setting
Guys, today I invite you to solve a “very difficult” riddle:
I don't buzz when I sit
I don't buzz when I walk
I don't buzz when I'm working,
And I buzz when I'm spinning.
Students. It's a beetle.
Teacher. I would like to note that this “very difficult” riddle can be easily solved by children 4-5 years old. Why do you think kids do this easily?
Students. This is due to the fact that the sound F is repeated in the riddle; by selecting this sound, the sounds that beetles make are reproduced, so both we and the kids easily imagined who it was talking about.
Teacher. What is this technique called in linguistics?
Students. This is a sound recording.
Teacher. It is this brightest means of expressiveness that will be discussed in our lesson. Please formulate its topic.
Students. Phonetic means of expression. Sound recording.
Teacher. The epigraph of our lesson will be the words of the wonderful Russian poet of the late 19th century. 20th century K. Balmont: “Every sound of speech is a small magical gnome.” (Write it down in a notebook). How do you understand the poet's words?
Students. With the help of sounds you can create various miracles.
Teacher. I invite you to a research lesson. We will explore the expressive possibilities of sound writing in order to verify the truth of the poet’s words, to see how, through a masterly combination of sounds or repetition of the same sound, masters of words help us get vivid auditory impressions, imagine the depicted phenomena, understand the thoughts and feelings of the author, as well as the nature of the lyric hero.
2. Updating knowledge
Teacher. Any research involves defining the concept of research. Let's remember what sound recording is? (advance task)
Students.
1) Alliteration - repetition of the same or similar consonant sounds. This means of expression will help me illustrate the poem by children's poetess A.I. Tokmakova:
Hush, hush, hush, hush
Mice rustling on the roof.
Under the mouse gray flag
They march step by step.
The elders go ahead
They sing the mouse anthem:
“Hush, hush, hush, hush!”
The tables are set for mice.
The rustle of the tires fades away,
At night let the mice feast
Hush, hush, hush, hush!
The repetition [w] depicts the rustling of mice, the rustling noise they can make.
2) Assonance - repetition of vowel sounds. I will illustrate this linguistic phenomenon by referring to A.S. Pushkin’s poem “Poltava”:
Quiet Ukrainian night.
The sky is transparent. The stars are shining.
Overcome your drowsiness
Doesn't want air.
Repeat [a] depicts the splendor, great space, depth, height, calm, peaceful breath of the Ukrainian night.
3) Onomatopoeia - the use of words whose sound resembles the auditory impressions of the depicted phenomenon. I looked for examples in many dictionaries and reference books, and in each of them the lines of A. Sumarokov were given as an example, where the croaking of frogs is depicted like this:
Oh, how, oh, how can we not talk to you, God!
3. Student messages
Teacher. Sound recording as a means of expression has attracted the attention of wordsmiths for a long time. The historical information prepared by the guys convinces us of this:
1) Already in the 18th century, M.V. Lomonosov in “Rhetoric” proves that the poet, when composing his poems, selects words not only by meaning, but also by sound: “In the Russian language, it seems, the frequent repetition of the letter A can contribute to the depiction of splendor, the great space of depth and height; the frequency of written E, I - to the depiction of tenderness, caressing; through I you can show pleasantness, amusement, tenderness, through O, U, Y - terrible and strong things: anger, envy, pain and sadness."
2) Characterizing each sound of speech, K. Balmont also tries to endow it with a semantic load, to assign certain images to it: “O is the sound of delight, triumphant space is O: field, sea, space. Everything huge is defined through O, even if it is dark ": groan, grief, sleep, midnight. Big as valleys and mountains, island, lake, cloud."
3) Speaking about the sound instrumentation of spoken phrases, the Russian writer Yevgeny Zamyatin wrote: “Every sound of the human voice, every letter, in itself evokes certain ideas in a person, creates sound images. I am far from attributing to each sound a strictly defined semantic or color meaning, however
The sound [r] clearly tells me about something loud, bright, red, hot, fast.
[l] - about something pale, blue, cold, smooth, light.
The sound [n] is about something tender, about snow, sky, night:
The sounds [d] and [t] are about something stuffy, heavy, about fog, about darkness, about something musty.
The sound [m] is about sweet, soft, about mother, about the sea.
[a]- is associated with latitude, distance, ocean, haze, scope.
C [o] - high, blue, womb:
S [i] - close, low, squeezing."
4. Associative warm-up No. 1
Teacher. Are poets and writers right? Can you trust their phonetic and aesthetic taste? The study involves experimental work. We will experimentally prove or disprove the idea expressed about the connection between sound and meaning. If such a connection exists, then different people the same sounds should evoke the same associations.
(First I show the sounds, the guys give characteristics, then I open the answers, i.e. those characteristics that are given to sounds by poets and writers. We draw a conclusion about the connection between sound and meaning)
Teacher. Characterize the sounds (1-2 definitions) by size, strength, beauty.
[p"], [x"] - weak, frail, small, bad;
Teacher. Convey the mood and character that is created using the following sounds:
[x"] [s"] - cowardly;
[S], [k], [t] - sad;
[D], [n], [l], [m] - kind;
[F], [z], [s], [f] - evil;
[i], [l"] [m"] - gentle.
5. Research work
Teacher. Now that the connection between sound and meaning is beyond doubt, let’s take a closer look at it. Let's conduct our own linguistic research. Let's try to determine the type of sound recording and its connection with meaning in works of the small folklore genre - in riddles. It is not by chance that we turn to folklore. The Russian people have always been very attentive to words, sensitively capturing the slightest nuances of both sound and meaning. We must know this and be proud of the glorious heritage of our great people. We work in groups. Each group must complete the following tasks:
Card 1
Read and guess the riddle. Emphasize sounds that convey a specific meaning. Determine the type of sound recording. Establish a correspondence between sound and meaning.
Students. This is a braid. The riddle combines assonance and alliteration. The repetition of the hissing consonant sound [ш] and vowel sound [у] conveys the sounds of mowing.
Card 2
Read and guess the riddle. Emphasize sounds that convey a specific meaning. Determine the type of sound recording. Establish a correspondence between sound and meaning.
Students. This is a boat. The riddle uses assonance. The repetition of the vowel sound [u] helps convey her movement.
Card 3
Read and guess the riddle. Emphasize sounds that convey a specific meaning. Determine the type of sound recording. Establish a correspondence between sound and meaning.
Students. It's the wind. The riddle uses assonance. The repetition of the vowel sound [у] helps to imagine the sound of the wind, its howling.
Card 4
Read and guess the riddle. Emphasize sounds that convey a specific meaning. Determine the type of sound recording. Establish a correspondence between sound and meaning.
Students. It's a blizzard. The riddle uses alliteration. The repetition of the sounds [r, h] helps to describe her breathing, the whirling of snow, and gusts of wind.
Teacher. What did the conducted research?
Students. With the help of sound recording, you can convey a variety of sounds of nature, understand them, and get a variety of auditory impressions.
6. Associative warm-up No. 2
Teacher. We continue our research. Let's talk about the role of sound writing in poetic tesques, because poetry is the most vivid expression of all means of speech expressiveness, including sound writing. I offer you associative warm-up No. 2: you close your eyes and listen to the poems, and then talk about the images that you imagined, about the feelings that arose. What sounds helped you? Draw a conclusion about the role of sound recording. (Reading by heart).
Dry leaves, dry leaves,
Dry leaves, dry leaves,
They circle and rustle under the dull wind,
Dry leaves, dry leaves,
Dry leaves under the dull wind,
Whirling around, what are they whispering, what are they saying?
Students. I listen to a poem, and images of twilight and evening appear in my imagination, it seems that you hear rustling sounds, a feeling of anxiety and confusion arises. The repetition of the word dry hints at the obsolete, the dead; this gives rise to uncertainty and fear in the soul. Sound recording helps the poet to depict and the reader to imagine various images, paintings, evokes certain feelings.
M. Tsvetaeva
Elderberry has flooded the entire garden!
Elderberry is green, green!
Greener than mold on a vat.
Green means summer is at the beginning!
Blue - until the end of days!
The elderberry of my eyes is greener!
Students. The poem uses ringing, life-affirming sounds. One can hear a polyphonic roll call of sounds that reflect the exuberant triumph of colors, bright, contrasting sounds. Sound recording gives rise to specific auditory impressions.
K. Balmont
And a blue outlook.
I came to this world to see the Sun
And the heights of the mountains.
I came to this world to see the Sea
And the lush color of the valleys.
I have concluded the worlds in a single gaze,
I am the ruler.
I defeated cold oblivion
Having created my dream.
I fulfilled revelations every moment,
I always sing.
Suffering awakened my dream,
But I'm loved because
Who is equal to me in my singing power?
Nobody, nobody.
I came to this world to see the Sun,
And if the day goes out,
I will sing. I will sing about the Sun
At the hour of death!
Students. This poem is dominated by vowels [a, o, y] - strong, open, joyful. It is their abundance that creates a joyful, solemn, loud sound. Behind them is the image of a lyrical hero, confident in life, striving for life’s victories and discoveries, affirming the power of man. Sound recording helps to paint the image of the lyrical hero.
7. Reasoning on a linguistic topic
Teacher. And once again we were convinced that “every sound of our speech is a small magical gnome”, capable of conveying the thoughts and feelings of poets, drawing a variety of pictures in our imagination, understanding the mood and character of the lyrical hero.
Not only poets and writers, but also many linguists have pointed out these abilities of sounds and studied them, and research in recent decades has been carried out using the most advanced computer technology, only confirmed those associative connections that were written about a hundred or more years ago. Linguists L. Krysin, A. Zhuravlev and others presented in their works many interesting observations about the connection between sound and meaning. Let's get to know some of them. Let's turn to the textbook. We work in pairs (exercise 400, we study the poetic texts of exercise 33). The result of our research should be a discussion on a linguistic topic. (See Attachment).
Students. Modern linguist G. Lidman-Orlova believes that “our feelings are influenced not only by the words and the meaning of the statement, but also by the sound of speech itself. To enhance the impression, poets often select a sound range for their poems that emphasizes poetic images.” The poetic lines of Maximilian Voloshin will help us verify the truth of these words:
My fire burned out on the desert shore,
The rustling rustles of flowing sand
And the bitter soul of yearning wormwood
In the languid darkness it swayed and flowed.
In the first line, the author uses assonance: the repetition of [a] conveys the image of space, splendor, height, and in it the alliteration on [p] conveys the crackling sound that can be heard near a fire. In the second line, the alliteration on [ш] conveys the sound of sand moving in the wind. The assonance in the third and fourth lines [o, a, a, a], [o, a, e, a, a, a, a] conveys melodiousness and melody. The poet's skill lies in the fact that he was able to find words with such a sound composition that we vividly imagined a dying fire in the vast desert (probably the name of the steppe), a lonely blade of wormwood grass, perhaps a lyrical hero suffering from bitter loneliness.
Students. Many researchers of Russian phonetics pointed out that speech sounds are endowed with semantic load. In particular, G. Lidman-Orlova believes that “our feelings are influenced not only by the words and the meaning of the statement, but also by the very sound of the speech. To enhance the impression, poets often select a sound range for their poems that emphasizes poetic images.” The poetic lines of K. Balmont will help illustrate this function of sounds:
Midnight in the swamp wilderness
The reeds rustle barely audibly, silently.
What are they whispering about? What are they talking about?
Why are the lights burning between them?
In the first two lines, the alliteration on [h, s, w] conveys the rustling and whispering of the coastal reeds. Reeds not only whisper, they also make other sounds, so the author used alliteration on [p]. The poet created such poetic lines that will not leave anyone indifferent. We read them, and our imagination pictures a night on the shore of a forest lake, close-ups of reeds and other coastal grasses. Let us listen, and we will hear the quiet splash of water, the gentle rustling of reeds, the whispering of sedge, the crackling of dried blades of grass.
Teacher. As you can see, with the help of assonance and alliteration, masters of the poetic word can tell their readers a lot.
8. Miniature essay
Teacher. Any research in linguistics presupposes having your say on the research question. In our case, this could be writing a miniature essay using sound recording. Read the task in exercise 404 (Think about what the leaves are whispering about on a cloudy autumn day). Paint a miniature using painting. We work in pairs.
Keywords: dry leaves, spinning, rustling, whispering, laughing, crackling.
9. Lesson reflection
Was Balmont right when he believed that every sound of our speech is a “small magical gnome”?
Students. Of course, every sound of our speech is a “small magical gnome.” And today in the lesson we saw how, by skillfully combining sounds or repeating the same sound, masters of words help us get vivid auditory impressions, imagine the phenomena depicted, and paint magnificent pictures of our native nature in our imagination.
Teacher. I sincerely hope, guys, that after doing your research, you saw that the sound fabric of a poetic work helps readers understand the poet’s thoughts, feelings and mood of the lyrical hero. The poetic word seems to have its own taste, color, smell, volume. And to feel this word, and not just understand its lexical meaning, to feel its taste, smell, its other meaning, often hidden, helps its SOUND. It is important to be able to hear, and when hearing, to understand the hidden meaning, which is not always on the surface. Hearing and understanding, enjoy the sound of the word. I wish that you are surrounded only by pleasant-sounding words, so that you want to utter only pleasant-sounding words. Be healthy and happy!
References
Golub I.B. Exercises on the stylistics of the Russian language. M.: Iris Press, 2006.
Gorshkov A.I. Russian literature. M.: Education, 1995.
Doronina T.V. and others. Analysis of the poem. Textbook. - M.: Publishing House "Exam", 2004.
Lozinskaya T.P. Linguistic analysis in Russian language lessons. 5-6 grade. -M.: “Moscow Lyceum”.
Lvova S.I. Literature lessons. 5-9 grades: A manual for teachers. - M.: Bustard, 1996.
Lvova S.I. Language and speech. Textbook for grades 8-9. - 2nd ed. - M.: LLC "TID "Russkoe Slovo-RS", 2000.
Merkin G.S. and others. Speech development. Expressive means artistic speech: A manual for teachers. - M.: LLC TID "Russkoe Slovo-RS", 2005.
Novikov V.I. Literary criticism and stylistics. M.: Pedagogy - Press, 1997.
Appendix to the lesson “Phonetic means of expression. Sound recording"
Sounds and meaning
| splendor, great space, depth, |
|
| tall, blue, |
|
| close, low, squeezing |
|
| sadness, tenderness, melodiousness |
|
| loud, bright, red, hot, fast, shaking |
|
| pale, blue, cold, smooth, light |
|
| tenderness, snow, sky, night |
|
| stuffy, heavy, fog, oh darkness |
|
| cute, soft, mother, sea |
|
| [w, f, s, h, f, x] | rustling, noise, whispering, rustling |
Characteristics of sounds by size, strength, beauty
[v], [a], [p] - strong, active;
yu, [p"], [x"] - weak, frail, small, bad;
[a] - wide, strong, good;
[k], [w], [f], [s], [f], [sch] - rough;
[o], [i], [m], [l], [y] - smooth.
Characteristics of sounds by mood, character
[a], [p] - brave, cheerful, joyful;
[s], [x"] - cowardly;
[S], [k], [t] - sad;
[D], [n], [l], [m] - kind;
[F], [z], [s], [f] - evil;
[i] [m"] [l"] - tender
Card 1
Read and guess the riddle. Emphasize sounds that convey a specific meaning. Determine the type of sound recording. Establish a correspondence between sound and meaning.
A pike walks around the creek, looking for the warmth of a nest, where the grass is thick for the pike.
Model your answer as follows:
Card 2
Read and guess the riddle. Emphasize sounds that convey a specific meaning. Determine the type of sound recording. Establish a correspondence between sound and meaning.
I go, I go, there is no trace; I cut and cut, there is no blood.
Model your answer as follows:
This (….). The riddle uses (assonance, alliteration, assonance and alliteration combined). Repetition (what sounds?) conveys (what? what sounds?), helps to imagine (what?).
Card 3
Read and guess the riddle. Emphasize sounds that convey a specific meaning. Determine the type of sound recording. Establish a correspondence between sound and meaning.
Without arms, without legs he fights. Without arms, without legs, he knocks under the window, asking to come into the hut.
Model your answer as follows:
This (….). The riddle uses (assonance, alliteration, assonance and alliteration combined). Repetition (what sounds?) conveys (what? what sounds?), helps to imagine (what?).
Card 4
Read and guess the riddle. Emphasize sounds that convey a specific meaning. Determine the type of sound recording. Establish a correspondence between sound and meaning.
I twist, I mutter, I don’t want to know anyone.
Model your answer as follows:
This (….). The riddle uses (assonance, alliteration, assonance and alliteration combined). Repetition (what sounds?) conveys (what? what sounds?), helps to imagine (what?).
Modern linguist G. Lidman-Orlova believes that “our feelings are influenced not only by the words and the meaning of the statement, but also by the sound of speech itself. To enhance the impression, poets often select a sound range for their poems that emphasizes poetic images.” The poetic lines of Maximilian Voloshin will help us verify the truth of these words (read expressively).
In the first line, the author uses (assonance, alliteration?): repetition conveys (what?)_______________________________________________________________. In the second line (assonance, alliteration?) he vividly draws to the imagination (what?)________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________. (Assonance, alliteration?) in the third and fourth lines allows us to see (what?)__________________________________________________________________________. The poet's skill lies in the fact that he was able to find words with such a sound composition that we vividly imagined (what picture? imbued with what feelings?)________________________________________________________________________ How did you see the lyrical hero?)_____________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________.
As we see, the researcher of Russian phonetics G. Lidman-Orlova was right, who believed that “poets often select a sound range for their poems that emphasizes poetic images.”
Many researchers of Russian phonetics pointed out that speech sounds are endowed with semantic load. In particular, G. Lidman-Orlova believes that “our feelings are influenced not only by the words and the meaning of the statement, but also by the very sound of the speech. To enhance the impression, poets often select a sound range for their poems that emphasizes poetic images.” The poetic lines of K. Balmont will help illustrate this function of sounds (read expressively).
In the first two lines (assonance, alliteration?) does not convey (what?)_________________________________________________________________________. Reeds not only whisper, they also make other sounds, so the author used (assonance, alliteration?) on. The poet created such poetic lines that will not leave anyone indifferent. We read them, and our imagination draws (what?) ________ _________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________. Let us listen, and we will hear (what?)_________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________. The poetic lines are imbued with (what mood?)_______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________, and in this, of course, the role of sound repetitions and skillful selection of sounds is great.
As we see, the researcher of Russian phonetics G. Lidman-Orlova was right, who believed that “our feelings are influenced not only by the words and the meaning of the statement, but also by the sound of speech itself.”
The created project product is addressed primarily to high school students (15-17 years old) and students who like to play intellectual team games.
Phonetic means………………………………………………………2
Lexical means………………………………………………………...5
Phraseological means…………………………………26
Syntactic means…………………………………37
Application. Practical tasks……………………….46
FIGURATIVE MEANS OF THE RUSSIAN LANGUAGE
1. PHONETIC MEANS
Fine and expressive means are present on different levels language system. At the phonetics level, figurative and expressive means such as speech sounds, word stress, rhythm and rhyme are used. Phonics studies the stylistic function of these means. Phonics is also called the sound organization of speech.
^ Euphony of speech. Speech should be euphonious, that is, easy to pronounce and pleasant to the ear, which is achieved mainly by the perfect combination of vowels and consonants in the text, as well as the predominance of musical (“beautiful”) sounds.
Vowels, sonorants and most voiced consonants are considered musical sounds. Non-musical sounds are noisy voiceless sounds, especially hissing [w], [ch] and whistling [s], [s"], as well as voiced hissing and whistling [zh], [z], [z"].
The use of musical sounds, which in relation to non-musical noisy deaf sounds makes up 74.5%, gives speech melodiousness and beauty of sound. So, in Yesenin’s line Snowy Plain, White moon, our side is covered with a shroud, combinations of sounds are easy to pronounce, short words alternate with long ones, the intonation is melodic and smooth. All this creates euphony, or euphony.
Euphony can also be achieved by combining several consonants. In Russian, such combinations often consist of two, sometimes three consonants, for example: ford, fight, adult, line. This combination of consonants does not contradict the laws of euphony. But the combination of four or more consonants at the junction of two words disrupts the euphony of speech, for example: The Minister met with the students; cordiality of meetings.
Typically, combinations of two consonants are found at the beginning or in the middle of a word, for example: snapshot, glass, cheerful. This arrangement of sounds does not disturb the euphony. But the accumulation of consonant sounds at the end of a word makes articulation difficult. It occurs in short adjectives and in the genitive plural form of nouns, for example: kind, musty, round, callous; fraternities Euphony is restored if a fluent vowel appears between the consonants, for example: blesn - blesny, beautiful - beautiful (cf.: blesn, beautiful).
In the Russian language, combinations of consonants predominate, built according to the law of ascending sonority - noisy + sonorant: gr, dr, cl, pl, cm, zn, zl, tl. Such combinations are more often found at the beginning and in the middle of a word, for example: thunder, pogrom, friend, girlfriend, treasure, pledge, fruit, produce, know, know, anger, goats, broom. All this creates euphony. Such combinations appear rarely at the end of a word, for example: rod, look, view.
For the Russian language, combinations like nd, mb are uncharacteristic, since in them sonorants precede noisy ones, for example: pretzel, ice cream.
In Russian speech, euphony is supported in other ways. Yes, for the sake of euphony
One of the consonant sounds is not pronounced, for example: honestly, late, hello;
Prepositions with the sound o are used, for example: to me, in all, above me, about me, under me, with me;
Syllabic sonorants are pronounced, for example: minister, cry, illness;
Phonetic changes are used in foreign words, for example: bivouac - bivouac (troop parking under open air for an overnight stay or rest), Ioan - Ivan, Feodor - Feodor.
So, euphony is supported by the legitimate relationship of vowels and consonants in the text.
Cacophony of speech may appear:
When vowels meet on the edge of words (the so-called external gap), for example: ^ And in Ni and in her John (I. Selvinsky.) 1;
When identical (or similar) consonants are accumulated in a sentence, as well as when the same consonants are obsessively repeated, for example: Scilla is a forest plant that forms a background in the herbaceous layer of the forest in summer; Zina knew the local bays from childhood;
When using only short or only long words in speech, for example: ^ Grandfather was old, gray-haired, weak, decrepit; At the end of the investigation, an indictment is drawn up - in the first case, the sentence gives the impression of some blows, and in the second case, the sentence represents monotonous, sluggish speech;
When repeating the same or the same root words, for example: the following disadvantages should be noted... (tautology);
When using the same grammatical forms, for example: ^ Treatment of influenza patients with a new drug;
When using dissonant abbreviations, for example: LIPKH - Leningrad Institute for Advanced Training of Business Executives;
When using unsuccessful neologisms, for example: marriage, etiquette.
Sound recording. In artistic speech, sound writing is used, that is, the correspondence of the phonetic composition of the phrase to the depicted phenomenon.
Such types of sound writing as sound repetitions and onomatopoeia are used.
Among the sound repetitions, the following stands out:
Alliteration, i.e., repetition of the same or similar consonants, for example: ^ At midnight sometimes in the swamp wilderness you can barely hear the reeds rustling silently (K. Balmont.) - [w] creates the sound impression of the rustling of reeds;
Assonance is the repetition of the same vowels, for example: ^ I while away my life. My crazy, deaf one: today I triumph soberly, and tomorrow I cry and sing (A. Blok.) - the repetition of the vowel [u] creates a depressing, depressing impression; Quiet Ukrainian night. The sky is transparent. The stars are shining. The air does not want to overcome its drowsiness (A. Pushkin.) - [a], [o] sound openly and joyfully;
Anaphora - repetition of the same initial combinations of sounds, for example: ^ Bridges demolished by a thunderstorm, coffins from a washed-out cemetery float through the streets! (A. Pushkin.); The golden stars dozed off, the mirror of the backwater trembled (S. Yesenin);
Epiphora - repetition of final sounds in words, for example: ^ On a blue evening, on a moonlit evening, I was once beautiful and young (S. Yesenin.);
A junction is a repetition of the final and initial sounds of adjacent words, for example: A cloak flaunting a hole (M. Tsvetaeva).
Onomatopoeia is the use of words of a certain sound to create auditory impressions - rustling, clicking, strumming, rattling, chirping, etc., for example: In intervals of perfect silence, the rustling of last year's leaves was heard, moving from the melting of the earth and from the growth of grass (L. Tolstoy .) - the sound [w] conveys quiet muffled sounds; The stalls and the chairs, everything is boiling. In the paradise they splash impatiently, and, having risen, the curtain makes a noise (A. Pushkin) - the repetition of sounds [р], [п] conveys the increasing noise in the theater before the start of the performance, and the repetition of sounds [з], [ш], [с] creates the auditory impression of the noise of a rising curtain.
Among onomatopoeias, onomatopoeias stand out, i.e. words whose sound resembles the processes they denote. They call sounds made by humans, animals, inanimate nature, for example: gasp, giggle, groan; chirp, meow, hiss, cackle, crow, creak, rustle, clatter, tick, strum, rattle; strum (on a balalaika), crunch (twigs).
Sound-like words are also used that do not imitate sounds, but with their expressiveness in sound help to convey phenomena figuratively, for example: fight, roughly, scream, tear - are pronounced sharply; maiden, cling, dear, bliss - pronounced softly; quieter, you hear - the pronunciation resembles a rustle.
The selection of vocabulary that is consonant with the leading word of the text creates sound images. So, in the poem by S. A. Yesenin “Birch” artistic image birch is enhanced by means of sound writing - the repetition of sounds [b] - [r] in words of close sound.
The sound expressiveness of speech is helped by word stress and intonation. Stress, i.e. emphasizing with greater force and longer duration the voice of one of the syllables of a non-monosyllabic word, is a very important element sounding speech. Means of expression syntactic meanings and emotional-expressive coloring are melody (raising and lowering the voice), rhythm (alternation of stressed and unstressed, long and short syllables), intensity (strength and weakness of pronunciation), tempo (speed or slowness), timbre (sound coloring) of speech, phrasing and logical stress (emphasizing speech segments or individual words in a phrase), for example: Do not wander, do not crush quinoa in the crimson bushes and do not look for a trace, with a sheaf of your oat hair you will be with me forever (S. Yesenin.).
Phonetic expressiveness poetic speech contributes to rhyme - the repetition of individual sounds or sound complexes connecting the endings of two or more lines, for example: And I began to dream of my youth, and you, as if alive, and you... And I began to dream of being carried away from the wind, rain, darkness (A. Block.).
^ 2. LEXICAL MEANS
A trope is a word, phrase or sentence used figuratively to create an image.
The trope is based on a combination of two names: direct (traditional) and figurative (situational). These two semantic plans are linked into a single whole, creating an image, while the function of figurative characteristics prevails over the function of the name.
So, the word eagle names a bird, but it is also used to characterize a person who has the qualities of an eagle - courage, vigilance, etc. In the sentence The audience is making noise, the name of the room is transferred to the listeners in this room.
Tropes are used in various functional styles. But their main area of application is fiction and journalism. Using tropes in everyday life colloquial speech depends on the individuality of the interlocutors, the topic of conversation and the communication situation. Trails in scientific style usually terminated, for example: corona of the sun, metal fatigue, heart valve, pendulum pitch. The use of figurative means is allowed in some genres of business style (in diplomatic documents, in communiques), for example: The White house- meaning “US government”.
The tropes include: comparison, epithet (simple tropes), metaphor, metonymy, synecdoche, hyperbole, litotes, irony, allegory, personification, periphrasis (complex tropes).
A comparison is a type of trope in which one object is explained by comparing it with another object. For example: ^ Like a huge dung beetle, the black tank was crawling buzzing (A. Surkov.). All three components of comparison are named here: what is being compared (tank); what it is compared to (dung beetle); the characteristic by which they compare (creeped).
Comparison is expressed in various ways, namely:
A comparative phrase or subordinate clause introduced by conjunctions as, as if, as if, as if, exactly, exactly, like, as if, similar to, etc., for example: The moon rose very crimson and gloomy, as if sick (A. Chekhov.); We opened Marx every volume as
in our own house we open the shutters (V. Mayakovsky);
Shape comparative degree adjective or adverb, for example: ^ Under it is a stream of lighter azure (M. Lermontov.);
The form of the instrumental case, for example: ... And Autumn, a quiet widow, enters her motley mansion (I. Bunin.);
By lexical means - with the help of words like, similar, reminds, etc., for example: Maple leaves, like paws, stood out sharply on the yellow sand of the alleys (A. Chekhov.); The pine trees rustled importantly overhead, and their noise was like water falling in the distance (A. Tolstoy); The shape of the mountain partly resembles the cap used to cover household teapots (I. Andronikov.);
Application, for example: ^ Dear hands - a pair of swans - dive into the gold of my hair (S. Yesenin.);
Nominal predicate, for example: Lovely abyss: abyss - delight (V. Mayakovsky); People are boats, albeit on land (V. Mayakovsky);
An adverbial adverb, for example: ^ Oleinik stood up, listened, like a cat, and cautiously looked around the forest thicket (M. Bubennov.);
A connecting construction introduced by a conjunction like this (usually an extended comparison), for example: I live sad, lonely and waiting for my end to come: so struck by the late cold, like a storm the winter whistle is heard, alone on a naked branch a belated leaf trembles (A. Pushkin.) .
The so-called negative comparisons characteristic of works of folklore (and for stylization as folk poetry) are highlighted, for example: Not a flock of ravens flew onto piles of smoldering bones, - beyond the Volga, at night, a gang of daring people gathered around the lights (A. Pushkin.).
An epithet is a type of trope that figuratively defines an object or action.
An epithet is usually based on a comparison, metaphor or metonymy. Thus, the epithets sugar (snow), swan (snow) give a figurative characteristic of an object in the form of a hidden comparison. In the sentence And we, poet, did not understand you, did not understand the infantile sadness in your seemingly forged poems (V. Bryusov), the epithet forged emphasizes in the concept not only its inherent attribute, but also transfers a new quality to it from another concept. This is a metaphorical epithet.
According to their origin, epithets can be general linguistic (deaf vaults, cherished thoughts, lightning-fast decision), or individually authorial (skinny radiance, vain decay - in A. S. Pushkin; ruddy exclamation, lively radiance, curly trace - in A. A. Fet) and folk-poetic (good fellow, wild little head, beautiful maiden, white hands, blue sea).
Epithets perform a stylistic function of strengthening, clarifying or contrasting, for example: black melancholy, mirror surface; motley anxiety, cheerful songs; inseparable enemies, a living corpse.
Epithets are most often expressed by adjectives, for example: ^ The joyful ray of a young day has not yet penetrated into the gorge (M. Lermontov.); Yes! Now it's decided. Without returning, I left my native fields, the poplars will no longer ring with winged leaves above me (S. Yesenin.).
Epithets, expressed by adjectives, can be substantivized, for example: ^ Ineffable, blue, tender... My land is quiet after storms, after thunderstorms, and my soul - a boundless field - breathes the smell of honey and roses (S. Yesenin.).
An epithet can also be a qualitative adverb in -o and a gerund (adverbial), a noun in the genitive case ( inconsistent definition), a noun in the function of an application or predicate, a pronoun, for example: From under a bush, a silver lily of the valley nods its head in a friendly manner (M. Lermontov); The waves rush, thundering and sparkling (F. Tyutchev); Magic land! There, in the old days, the brave ruler of satire, Fonvizin, the friend of freedom, shone (A. Pushkin); But our northern summer, a caricature of southern winters, flashes and disappears (A. Pushkin.); And such a month in the sky - even if you pick up needles (M. Isakovsky.).
There is a distinction between a figurative definition (epithet) and a logical one, i.e. objective, indicating features concepts and not containing figurative characteristics, for example: white snow.
But in the sentence Black Evening. White snow (A. Blok.) The adjective white can be considered both as a logical definition and as an epithet, since in this context it performs a figurative and expressive function (along with the epithet black evening). The logical definition has an expressive meaning in combination with metaphor words, for example: revolver barking (cf.: shooting from a revolver), shackled neighing (cf.: ringing of shackles).
In a number of cases, epithets are not tropes, since the words expressing them retain their direct meaning in the text, for example: Assault nights of Spassk (P. Parfenov.) - the epithet assault in meaning should refer to the word Spassk (cf. assault of Spassk).
A metaphor is a type of trope in which a word or figure of speech is used in a figurative meaning based on analogy, similarity in some respect between two objects or phenomena.
The convergence of objects or phenomena occurs according to various signs, namely:
By color: Golden autumn- cf.: gold coin; silver poplar - cf.: silver glass holder;
Shape: smoke ring - cf.: ring in the door; crane well - cf.: the crane is flying; knight in chess - cf.: black horse;
By function: janitor - windshield wiper of a car - cf.: janitor - worker at the house; airplane wing - cf.: bird wing; fountain pen nib - cf.: quill pen;
By location to something: the sole of a mountain - cf.: the sole of a boot; tail of a comet - cf.: tail of an animal; river branch - cf.: coat sleeve;
According to impression or feeling: black envy - cf.: black shawl; warm welcome - cf.: warm suit; speech flows - cf.: water flows;
By overall assessment: clear thought - cf.: clear star, etc.
The basis of a metaphor is an unnamed comparison of an object with some other object on the basis common feature, for example: the sun is rising, a heavy character, a cheerful wind.
In a metaphor, there is only that with which the object is compared. However, the missing components of comparison (the object that is being compared and the attribute by which they are comparing) are easily implied, for example: And dully, as if from a handout, when they throw a stone at her laughter, the dog’s eyes rolled like golden stars into the snow (S. Yesenin.).
Various parts of speech can act as metaphors: verbs, nouns, adjectives; for example: winter sings, spring has come; heart fire, poster language; golden time, apt word.
In addition to a simple metaphor (abbreviated comparison), there are so-called expanded metaphors, for example: ^ The golden grove dissuaded with a cheerful birch language (S. Yesenin.).
There are different types of metaphors: poetic, fresh, permanent and linguistic.
Poetic metaphors are figurative names for phenomena of reality that arose on the basis of some unusual and elusive similarity. Novelty, freshness are one of the main signs of such metaphors, for example: You, my spring (i.e., youth) have humbled the pompous dreams (A. Pushkin); Darling, let's sit next to each other and look into each other's eyes. I want to listen to a sensual blizzard under a gentle gaze (S. Yesenin.); the dawn of freedom; the heart plays, a silvery voice.
Fresh are metaphors of widespread use with pre-prepared imagery, for example: golden autumn, hot season, gray hair, warmth of meetings, metal in the voice. They are accompanied by the so-called constant (folk-poetic) metaphors, for example: darling, swan, falcon, thunderstorm (something threatening).
Linguistic (erased, fossilized) metaphors are direct names of phenomena of reality and do not belong to the means of verbal imagery, for example: the back of a sofa, the hand of a clock, the arm of a river, a clear thought, a clock is running.
From frequent use, metaphors are “erased” and turned into cliches, standards or terms, for example: high boundaries, green street - patterns that have lost their former imagery; blue screen, white gold, black gold- terminological metaphors; pendulum step, official, contracting parties - terms.
Metonymy is a type of trope that consists of transferring the name of one phenomenon of reality to another based on their contiguity.
Metonymy is based on a comparison not of similar ones (as in metaphor), but of real related phenomena. This connection could be:
Between content and containing, for example: ^ Well, eat another plate, my dear! (I. Krylov.) - cf.: porcelain plate; The audience is attentive - cf.: bright audience; The dish is delicious - cf: the dish is beautiful;
Between a material and a product made from this material, for example: ^ Maxim Petrovich: he ate not only on silver, but on gold (A. Griboedov.) - cf.: the cost of gold, silver;
Between an object and the owner of this object, for example: ^ A cadet runs in: “It’s stupid to fight!” Thirteen squeals: - Surrender! Give up! - And at the door there are pea coats, overcoats, sheepskin coats (V. Mayakovsky), that is, sailors, soldiers, workers; famous bass - Wed: thick bass;
Between the author and his work, for example: ^ And in the travel bag - matches and tobacco, Tikhonov, Selvinsky, Pasternak (E. Bagritsky), i.e. works of Tikhonov, Selvinsky, Pasternak; I’m reading Sholokhov - Wed: I’m reading Sholokhov’s works; Although we know that Eugene stopped loving reading a long time ago, he excluded several works from disgrace; The singer Giaour and Juan, [Byron] and two or three more novels with him (A. Pushkin);
Between an action or its result and the instrument of this action, for example: ^ And the boyar writes all night long; his pen breathes revenge (A.K. Tolstoy); The feather feeds him - cf.: steel feather; treatise- Wed: physical labor;
Between the scene of action and the people who are in this place, for example: ^ The whole village laughed at him - cf.: the village of Slavyanka; Factory and village, meet the delegates (V. Mayakovsky.);
Between an action and the place or producers of this action, for example: border crossing - cf.: underground passage; defense of a dissertation - cf.: play in defense;
Between the object of knowledge and the branch of knowledge, for example: vocabulary - vocabulary and vocabulary - the science of vocabulary.
Like metaphor, metonymy can be linguistic and poetic, for example: dietary table, department of linguistics - linguistic metonymies; a cheerful novel, the steppe (i.e., birds in the steppe) sings - poetic metonymies.
Metonymy should be distinguished from metaphor: metaphor can easily be paraphrased into comparison, for example: ^ A silver sickle hung in the sky - cf.: In the sky the moon hung like a silver sickle, but this cannot be done with metonymy; the compared objects in a metaphor must necessarily be similar (cf.: the moon is a sickle), but with metonymy there is no such similarity.
Synecdoche is one of the tropes, a type of metonymy, based on the transfer of meaning from one phenomenon to another based on the quantitative relationship between them. In synecdoche it is possible to use:
Singular instead of plural and vice versa, for example: ^ I don’t know another country like this, where a person breathes so freely (V. Lebedev-Kumach.) - instead of people;
A definite number instead of an indefinite number, for example: Donkeys! Should I tell you a hundred times? Receive him, call him, ask him, say that he is at home, that he is very glad (A. Griboyedov.) - instead of many times;
A generic concept instead of a specific one and vice versa, for example: ^ On the entire planet, comrades people, declare: there will be no war! (V. Mayakovsky.) - instead of land; They didn’t even save me a ruble (V. Mayakovsky) - instead of money;
A part instead of a whole, for example: Do you need anything? - In the roof for my family (A. Herzen) - instead of in the house.
Synecdoche is used in different styles- in colloquial, journalistic, business, artistic, for example: ^ Crucian carp is not found here; The red warrior must win (N. Tikhonov.); The plant needs a new model of milling cutter; A discerning buyer; The defense demands the acquittal of the defendant; Well, sit down, luminary (V. Mayakovsky).
Hyperbole is a trope, a figurative expression that exaggerates any action, object, phenomenon - their size, strength, beauty, meaning, for example: The sunset burned with one hundred and forty suns (V. Mayakovsky).
There are hyperboles-epithets, hyperboles-comparisons, hyperboles-metaphors, for example: ^ Steamboat in tier lights (V. Lugovskoy.); See how calm he is! Like the pulse of a dead man (V. Mayakovsky); It will pass - as if the sun will shine! If she looks, she’ll give her a ruble!.. I saw how she mows: with just a wave, the mop is ready! (N. Nekrasov.).
Litotes, or reverse hyperbole, is a trope, a figurative expression that understates the size, strength, or significance of what is being described, for example:
^ How tiny cows are, there are, indeed, smaller than the head of a pin (I. Krylov.); The sky seemed like a sheepskin (Proverb.).
Litota most often appears in the form of an epithet, for example: a small man; Tom Thumb; a hut on chicken legs.
Irony is a trope that consists of using a word or expression in the opposite sense to its literal meaning, for the purpose of ridicule, for example: Look what Samson is like! (about a weak, frail person).
Evil irony is called sarcasm, for example: ^ What an honor for us, for all of Rus'! Yesterday's slave, Tatar, son-in-law of Malyuta, son-in-law of the executioner and himself an executioner at heart, will take the crown and barmas of Monomakh... (A. Pushkin.).
Less evil and good-natured irony is called humor, for example: ^ Ay, Moska! know that she is strong, that she barks at the Elephant! (I. Krylov.).
Allegory is a trope that allegorically expresses abstract concepts in specific artistic images.
Thus, in folk art, animals, objects, and phenomena act as carriers of human properties, for example: ^ The lion is the embodiment of power; Fox - tricks; Hare - cowardice; Bear - brute force; Snake - deceit; Donkey - stupidity, stubbornness; Wolf - greed.
Expressions like autumn has come - “old age has arrived”, the road is covered with snow - “there is no return to the past” are also allegorical. These are common language allegories.
Allegory is used in fiction. Many writers have created such generalizing images that they have become allegorical and allegorical, for example: Gogol's Plyushkin is the embodiment of greed; Moliere's Tartuffe is the embodiment of hypocrisy; Don Quixote by Cervantes is the embodiment of nobility, selflessness and courage; Mayakovsky's "Bathhouse" is the embodiment of the concept of useful criticism; “Bedbug” is the embodiment of philistinism. These are individual author's allegories.
Allegory is sometimes used in journalism. IN business style allegory does not apply.
Personification is a type of trope in which inanimate objects and abstract concepts are endowed with human properties - human feelings, actions, thoughts, speech. For example: Without a person, a tree is bored; Her nurse lay down next to her in the bedchamber - silence (A. Blok.); Rumors crawled on their haunches, judged, decided, whispering (S. Yesenin.); What are you howling about, night wind? What are you complaining about so madly? (F. Tyutchev.); The desert listens to God, and star speaks to star (M. Lermontov).
The complete likening of an inanimate object to a person is called personification, for example: ^ Spring cried over us with its bitter tears (A. Blok.); Lightning raised its antlers like a deer, and they got up from the hay and ate from their hands (B. Pasternak) - spring and lightning are endowed with real human characteristics.
Personification is used in artistic speech, in journalism and scientific style, for example: ^ The bird cherry tree is sleeping in a white cape (S. Yesenin.); The Five Year Plan is sweeping across the country; Air heals.
Periphrasis (or periphrase) is one of the tropes consisting of replacing the name of a phenomenon of reality with a description of its essential features or an indication of its character traits. For example: a camel is a ship of the desert; Lion is the king of the animals; Leningrad is a city on the Neva; M. Gorky - the first proletarian writer, author of the novel “Mother”, petrel of the revolution; autumn - sad time! The charm of the eyes (A. Pushkin.).
^ Use of polysemantic words in speech,
homonyms and antonyms
Polysemy is the presence of several meanings for a word that are interconnected.
So, the word run away has the following meanings:
Run away: My first movement was to run away (I. Turgenev.);
Moving quickly, moving away: The waves from the steamer silently ran into the distance, shaking pieces of pine bark (K. Paustovsky.);
To flee, to hide from someone or something: All of them [the French] abandoned each other, abandoned all their burdens, artillery, half the people and ran away (L. Tolstoy);
To quickly disappear, disappear: The day has breathed coolness, the shadows of the night are running away (A. Kuprin.);
To get rid of, to evade, to get rid of: But how glad he would be to free himself and run away from other worries (F. Dostoevsky);
Stop life together with someone, to leave someone: “My wife ran away,” answered Mikhailo Yegorych (A. Pisemsky.);
Having boiled, fermented, overflowed, run over the edge: - ^ Oh, this is milk for me! - the cook complained every time. - Just before you finish watching, it will run away (D. Mamin-Sibiryak.).
The first three meanings are direct, the fourth and fifth are figurative, the sixth and seventh are stylistically colored (colloquial).
Opposite meanings may appear in a word, for example: [Aleksashka] was torn out without mercy... Aleksashka lay for a day in a hot place near the chimney and walked away and started talking (A.N. Tolstoy); walked away - “came to his senses”; “Kolya died: ...Thank God, he passed away,” said the grandmother (M. Gorky); walked away - “died”.
The presence of several meanings for words (about 80% of such words in the Russian language) enriches the language, and the existence of not only direct but also figurative meanings allows them to be used as an expressive and figurative means (metaphors, metonymies, synecdoche).
For stylistic purposes, the direct meanings of polysemantic words are also used, for example: ^ The poet starts talking from afar. The poet takes his speech far (M. Tsvetaeva.). The word starts in the first sentence means “starts to talk,” and in the second it means “takes you to the wrong place.”
Some words can be used with different meanings in different styles of speech, for example: ^ Meanwhile, Luzgin took a shift from a tall, big-nosed blacksmith (B. Polevoy.); accepted - received into his jurisdiction from the one who passed (neutral); The owner called and ordered to accept the remains of dinner (I. Turgenev.); accept - remove, take away (colloquial).
Different meanings of the same word appear in context, in combination with other words. So, in a sentence ^ Read, envy, I am a citizen Soviet Union(V. Mayakovsky.) The word citizen has the meaning: “a person belonging to the permanent population of a given state”; in the sentence In the compartment, two middle-aged citizens were talking, the same word is used in the meaning: “an adult, a man”; in a sentence Be a citizen! Serving art, live for the good of your neighbor (N. Nekrasov.) This word means: “a person who subordinates his personal interests to public ones, serving his homeland, the people”; in a sentence On the street... quite a lot of people gathered: the good citizens of the city of L. did not want to miss the opportunity to look at the visiting guests (I. Turgenev.) The word citizens has the meaning: “residents of the city, townspeople.”
In the first two examples, the word citizen is used as neutral, in the third - as high, in the fourth - as obsolete.
Polysemy is the basis of a pun, in which the literal and figurative meanings of the word are closely intertwined. A pun is a play on words based on their sound similarity, for example: Tell me, what mark will you leave? A mark to wipe the parquet and look askance after, or an invisible lasting mark in someone else's soul for many years? (L. Martynov.). The word footprint in the first sentence is ambiguous, in the second sentence it means “a footprint on any surface,” and in the third it means “the consequences of someone’s activity.”
A play on words can lead to a paradox, that is, to a position that contradicts (sometimes only externally) common sense, for example: One is nonsense, one is zero; one - even if very important - will not lift a simple five-inch log, especially a five-story house (V. Mayakovsky); one is an individual person, zero is about an insignificant person of no importance.
Homonyms are words that are identical in sound and spelling, but completely different in meaning.
Unlike polysemantic words, homonyms have no connection with each other in meaning. For example, in sentences ^ Suddenly there is noise. They came, they called. They! There is no hope! Keys, locks, constipations sound (A. Pushkin.); The keys were jumping over the stones, the keys were making noise like cold water (M. Lermontov). The words keys - “a tool for locking and unlocking locks” and keys - “source, spring” are homonyms.
Homonyms are words of one part of speech that coincide in sound and spelling in all or only part of their inherent forms, for example: a bird's nest - a nest of words; onion - “weapon” and onion - “plant”.
Homonyms are accompanied by homoforms, homophones and homographs.
Homoforms are different sounding forms of words of the same or different parts speeches, for example: new technology- invited a technician; three houses - three back. Homophones are words with the same sound, but different meanings and spellings, for example: hammer - young, inert - bony. Homographs are words with the same spelling, different meaning and sound, for example: castle - castle, squirrel - squirrel. Some of them have different stylistic colors, for example: dobycha - neutral; mining - professional.
Close to the phenomena of homonymy are the facts of sound coincidence of a word and part of a word or several words, for example: ^ We can grow up to a hundred years without getting old (V. Mayakovsky).
Homonymy and related phenomena are often used to create puns and homonymous rhymes, for example: ^ Whatever he eats, he wants to eat (Proverb.); Narrow chrome presses on your feet. One day you will callus and become lame (V. Mayakovsky); ...I must stand, I stand for everyone, I will pay for everyone, I will pay for everyone (V. Mayakovsky.); Who shot the head of the bow with an arrow? I don’t say a word, I’m dumb, as if the shot wasn’t mine (Ya. Kozlovsky).
The erroneous use of polysemantic words and homonyms leads to ambiguity, absurdity of the statement, to unwanted play on words, to inappropriate comedy, for example: Teachers’ meetings took place in the bushes of the Pavlograd region - cf.: bushes - “plants” and bushes - “group associations of organizations, enterprises and etc.”; The workshop does not accept orders for belts: the lower back is sick (Crocodile magazine) - cf.: lower back - “part of the back slightly below the belt” and lower back - “master of making belts”.
Antonyms are words with opposite meanings. Such words have special linguistic indicators.
Firstly, they express logically opposite but correlative concepts, for example: work - rest, deep - shallow, love - hate, fun - sad.
Secondly, they are regularly opposed to each other. This means that the name of one member of an antonymous pair evokes in our minds the idea of another, opposite member. For example, the words truth, strong, joy, long ago, come, up are associated with the contrasting words lie, weak, grief, recently, leave, down.
Thirdly, antonym words are characterized by the same or similar lexical compatibility, i.e., the ability to be associated with the same words. Thus, the antonyms high - low are freely combined with nouns that name objects of a certain size: house, pillar, oak, table, closet, haystack, etc.
Antonyms can be many qualitative adjectives, nouns of most categories, verbs, adverbs, some pronouns and prepositions, for example: white - black, warm - cold, dawn - dark, dry - wet, everyone - no one, under - above.
A polysemantic word can have several antonyms, for example: fresh - stale (bread), fresh - salty (cucumber), fresh - stale (air), fresh - dirty (collar), fresh - warm (wind), fresh - old ( track).
In addition to linguistic antonyms, that is, regularly reproduced and enshrined in the dictionary, there are also speech antonyms that arise in a certain context or in a specific speech situation, for example: You may not be a poet, but you must be a citizen (N. Nekrasov.); They got along. Wave and stone, poetry and prose, ice and fire are not so different from each other (A. Pushkin).
The use of antonyms gives expressiveness to speech and contributes to a comprehensive clarification of the concept. Antonyms are a bright stylistic device that underlies such techniques as antithesis and oxymoron.
Antithesis is a stylistic turn in which sharply contrasting concepts are contrasted, for example: ^ You are wretched, you are abundant, you are powerful, you are powerless, Mother Russia! (N. Nekrasov.).
An oxymoron is a stylistic device consisting of combining two antonymic concepts that logically exclude one another, for example: ringing silence, sweet sorrow, bitter joy, eloquent silence, optimistic tragedy, distant close; at A.A. Bloka: He looks into your eyes with impudent modesty.
Antonyms lie at the core
The Russian language is one of the most diverse and rich in the world, its expressive potential is truly enormous. The various means of verbal expression used in the process of writing the work give special emotionality and uniqueness to the text. The list of them is quite extensive.
Means of speech expression in various areas of life
It's no secret that the same idea can be presented in different ways. For example, a television announcer will say: “Today, heavy precipitation in the form of snow was observed in the region, accompanied by heavy winds.” And two old women drinking tea in the kitchen may use the following phrase in a conversation: “Yes, it’s piled up like snow!” And the wind just knocks you off your feet!” In fiction, this phenomenon can be presented as follows: “Snow flakes fell from the sky, like fluff from a torn pillow, scattered strong wind, and huge white snowdrifts covered the frozen earth that yearned for them...” The picture described different ways, is practically the same, however, each of the options is different from each other and has a different effect on the human subconscious. All means of verbal expressiveness of the language are to one degree or another based on the associative perception of the text. By looking through the statements presented, the reader imagines people who can express themselves in this way. Therefore, to characterize characters and create a certain flavor, authors of literary texts use different styles.
Phonetic means of expression
For the greatest impact on the imagination of the interlocutor or reader, viewer or listener, the most various ways. Means of speech expression literally permeate all language levels. They can be observed both in phonetics and in syntax, which makes the understanding of the author’s intention deeper and more comprehensive. Phonetic means of speech expression are one of the most powerful ways of speech influence. The sensation of the sound image of a word occurs at the subconscious level, regardless of the person’s desire. That is why most poetic texts are based on the use of sound means of expression. An example is the following sentence: “The leaves rustled, their rustling seemed to come from everywhere.” Here, the repeated use of the sound “sh” in the phrase seems to create an accompaniment to a picture drawn by the imagination.
Alliteration
Phonetic speech expressiveness has some variability. Opposite means such as alliteration and assonance are widespread. They are based on the repetition in the text of the same or similar sounds according to some phonetic feature - consonants in alliteration and vowels in assonance. The phrase “The thunderstorm is thundering, the thunder is roaring” can be a vivid one, when reading it, a person subconsciously evokes a vivid image of crackling lightning.
Assonance
Writers and poets use vowel repetition a little less often. For example, assonance is presented in the sentence “There was a flat field all around” - the repeated sound “o” creates a feeling of length, breadth of space.
Anaphora, epiphora in literary texts
There are also other figures of speech that serve to give greater expressiveness to the text. For example, anaphora and epiphora are unusual techniques. They are variants of repetitions of similar sounds, words or groups of words at the beginning (anaphora) or at the end (epiphora) of each parallel independent segment of speech. “This is the act of a man! This is the act of a real person!” - pressure and intensification with each repetition are observed with anaphora. Epiphora can most often be found at the end of poetic segments in the form of repetition of individual phrases or entire sentences. But you can also consider it using the example of a separate prose sentence: “Everything in this room was black: the walls were black, it was also black, the lamps were black, and even the bed linen was black. Only the bed was pure white, creating a striking contrast in the design.”
verbal expressiveness: allegory
In the style of the Russian language it is presented great amount various tropes, or figures of speech. The main source of expressiveness is vocabulary. It is with its help that most of the author’s intentions in the text are realized. For example, an allegory is a kind of transfer of the meaning or characteristics of an object to another object, an image of an abstract concept through a concrete image. To explain what an allegory is, we can resort to considering traditional examples: the sun is a symbol of warmth, kindness; wind is a symbol of freedom, freethinking, inconstancy. Therefore, this principle is often used in speech to characterize people. “Oh, you sly fox!” - they say about someone as a joke. Or they can even say about a fickle personality like this: “His character is flighty, eccentric.” Thus, answering the question of what an allegory is, one should refer to symbolism, a comparison of objects by quality.
Allegory in parables, fairy tales, fables
The wonderful fabulist Krylov gives a colorful picture of the use of this technique. Although in fact he is the successor of Aesop. It was from his works that many of the plots of the Russian classic’s fables were taken. After all, everyone understands that when talking about a monkey trying on glasses on its tail, the author means an ignoramus, a person who is accustomed to treating everything superficially, judging hastily, without thinking about the meaning. Fairy tales in which animals are the heroes are best suited for children's perception. From their example, the child learns the basic laws of life: good returns a hundredfold, the dirty, the deceiver and the lazy will be punished, you cannot laugh at the pain of others, etc. Short fables or allegorical tales resemble table toasts in the Caucasian style, at the end of which the moral is deduced after the sentence drink "For...".
Allegory in poetry and lyrical songs
And what about Lermontov’s wonderful poems about a lonely sail running on the waves? After all, here the thoughtful reader imagines state of mind a restless personality that no one understands in his contemporary world. To this day, adults love many folk songs that allegorically describe human relationships using examples of plants - flowers, trees. “Why are you standing there, swaying, you thin rowan tree?” - the girl sings sadly, who herself experiences loneliness, dreams of joining her destiny with a reliable person, but for some reason cannot do this...
Litotes, hyperbole
Linguistic means of speech expression are also represented by other tropes. For example, there are also such opposite figures as hyperbole and litotes. The Russian language has a wide range of possibilities for gradual expression of qualities. These techniques denote artistic understatement (litotes) and exaggeration (hyperbole). The Russian language becomes brighter and more imaginative thanks to them. For example, such a property as the volume of the human body can be expressed both from an artificially understated side (“a waist the width of a bottle neck” - litotes) and from an exaggeration (“shoulders the size of doorway" - hyperbole). The Russian language even boasts stable expressions of this type: wasp waist, as high as the Kolomna verst.
Synonyms and antonyms in works of art
The use of synonyms and antonyms in the text increases its emotionality and expressiveness. Words, semantically similar or different, diversify the work and reveal the author's intention from different sides. In addition, synonyms and antonyms simplify the perception of the text, as they clarify the meaning of individual semantic objects. But to their use orally and writing should be approached with some caution, since some dictionary synonyms lose the proximity of their meanings in a specific context, and contextual antonyms are not always antonymous in their main dictionary meaning. For example, the adjectives “fresh” and “stale”, when used with the noun “bread,” are antonyms. But, if we are talking about wind, then the antonym to the adjective “fresh” will be the word “warm”.
Irony in works of art
A very important expression is irony. Examples from the literature prove the high imagery of this technique. Pushkin, Lermontov, Dostoevsky - these Russian classics are true masters of using irony in literature. Zoshchenko's stories are still in demand among modern satirists. Some phrases of the classics that have become catchphrases are also used in everyday speech. For example, Zoshchenko’s expression: “Take back your cake!” or “Maybe I should also give you the keys to the apartment where the money is?” Absolutely everyone knows Ilf and Petrov. And the appeal to the gentlemen of the jury, which talks about breaking the ice, is still perceived with a great deal of irony. And the phrase “Who’s so big here?”, addressed to Everyday life to a child, has an ironic character, built on the use of antonymy. Irony is often present in the form of self-mocking by one of the characters or the main character on whose behalf the story is told. These are the detective stories of Daria Dontsova and other authors who also write in this style.
Various layers of vocabulary in fiction
Unstandardized vocabulary - jargon, neologisms, dialectisms, professionalisms, vernacular - has a high expressive potential in fiction. The use of words from these sections in the text, especially in direct speech, gives a figurative and evaluative description of the character. Each hero of a literary work is individual, and these lexical elements, carefully and appropriately used, reveal the character’s image from a variety of sides. For example, the richness of Sholokhov’s novel “Quiet Don” with dialect vocabulary creates an atmosphere characteristic of a specific territory and a specific historical period. And the use of colloquial words and expressions in the characters’ speeches reveals their characters in the best possible way. It is also impossible to do without a special description of life on the ship. And in works where the heroes, albeit secondary ones, are former repressed people or people from the category of homeless people, it is simply impossible to avoid jargon and even argot.
Polyunion as a means of expression
Another stylistic figure of speech is polysyndeton. In another way, this technique is called polyunion and consists in using homogeneous members or phrases in the text, connected by identical repeating conjunctions. This increases expressiveness by creating unplanned pauses in the sentence where parts of it join. service units speech while increasing the importance of each element of the enumeration. Therefore, writers and poets often use polyunion in their works. Examples:
Thus, linguistic means of speech expressiveness - necessary element artistic speech. Without them, a literary text looks dry and uninteresting. But do not forget that the material should be reader-oriented. Therefore, the selection of linguistic means used in the work must be carried out in the most careful manner, otherwise the author risks being misunderstood and underestimated.
What does phonetics study? Sound is the smallest unit that can be spoken or heard. The sound does not have an independent meaning, but with the help of sounds you can distinguish the words: lamp-ramp, house - catfish, ox - led. What was this role of sounds called in the Russian language? What groups are speech sounds divided into? Vowel sounds are formed by a stream of air that passes through the mouth and does not encounter any obstacles. They are made up of tone. In the Russian language there are 6 vowel sounds that occur under stress, these are [a o and ы у e]. Consonant sounds are formed when there is no free passage for the air stream in the oral cavity. The tongue may touch the teeth or palate, and the lips may close. The air stream has to overcome these obstacles, and then consonant sounds are formed. There are quite a lot of them in the Russian language: they are hard and soft, voiced and voiceless, some of them form pairs. Is it possible to give it expressiveness by using sounds in a phrase? Words are created using sounds. Sounds, if they are not words (conjunctions, prepositions, particles, interjections), mean nothing, have no meaning. However, sometimes the meaning of a word is assigned to a separate sound included in this word. Let's give an example with the sound [p], which is included in the words “thunder, thunder, thunderstorm, peals, roar.” Listed words For a long time, artists have used words to convey natural phenomena corresponding to them. Thus, the poet Tyutchev deliberately includes words containing this sound in the poem “Spring Thunderstorm”: I love a thunderstorm in early May, When the first thunder of spring, As if frolicking and playing, Rumbles in the blue sky. Thunder rolls... Our feelings are affected not only by the words and the meaning of the statement, but also by the very sound of the speech. To enhance the impression, poets often select a sound range for their poems that emphasizes poetic images. G. Lindman-Orlova What is the name of the technique of using repeated sounds in speech? In artistic speech, sound writing is used, that is, the correspondence of the phonetic composition of the phrase to the depicted phenomenon. Such types of sound writing as sound repetitions and onomatopoeia are used. alliteration, i.e. repetition of the same or similar consonants, for example: At midnight, in the wilderness of the swamp, the reeds rustle barely audibly, silently (K. Balmont.) [w] creates the sound impression of the rustling of reeds; assonance - repetition of the same vowels, for example: I while away my life. My crazy, deaf one: today I triumph soberly, and tomorrow I cry and sing (A. Blok.) - the repetition of the vowel [u] creates a depressing, depressing impression; Quiet Ukrainian night. The sky is transparent. The stars are shining. The air does not want to overcome its drowsiness (A. Pushkin.) - [a], [o] sound openly and joyfully; anaphora - repetition of the same initial combinations of sounds, for example: Bridges demolished by a thunderstorm, coffins from a washed-out cemetery floating through the streets! (A. Pushkin.); The golden stars dozed off, the mirror of the backwater trembled. (S. Yesenin.); epiphora - repetition of final sounds in words, for example: On a blue evening, on a moonlit evening, I was once beautiful and young (S. Yesenin.); junction - repetition of the final and initial sounds of adjacent words, for example: A cloak flaunting a hole (M. Tsvetaeva). is the use of words of a certain sound to create auditory impressions - rustling, clicking, strumming, rattling, chirping, etc., for example: In intervals of complete silence, the rustling of last year’s leaves was heard, moving from the melting of the earth and from the growth of grass. (L. Tolstoy.) - the sound [w] conveys quiet muffled sounds; The stalls and the chairs, everything is boiling. In the paradise they splash impatiently, and, having risen, the curtain makes a noise (A. Pushkin) - the repetition of sounds [р], [п] conveys the increasing noise in the theater before the start of the performance, and the repetition of sounds [з], [ш], [с] creates the auditory impression of the noise of a rising curtain. Among onomatopoeias, onomatopoeias stand out, i.e. words whose sound resembles the processes they denote. They call sounds made by humans, animals, inanimate nature, for example: gasp, giggle, groan; chirp, meow, hiss, cackle, crow, creak, rustle, clatter, tick, strum, rattle; strum (on a balalaika), crunch (twigs). Sound-like words are also used that do not imitate sounds, but with their expressiveness in sound help in the figurative transmission of phenomena, for example: fight, roughly, scream, tear - are pronounced sharply; maiden, cling, dear, bliss - pronounced softly; quieter, you hear - the pronunciation resembles a rustle. Read excerpts from poems. Find them different types sound repetitions and onomatopoeia. The realm of rhymes is my element And I write poetry easily. Without hesitation without delay I run to line from line Even to the Finnish brown rocks I use a pun. (D. Minaev.) It seems the ears are whispering to each other. It’s boring for us to listen to the autumn blizzard. It’s boring to bend down to the very ground. Fat grains bathing in dust! (N. Nekrasov.) The city was plundered, rowed, grabbed... ...Where is it, a bronze ringing or a granite edge?.. (V. Mayakovsky.) Theory 309 (ch.1) or 309 (ch.2 ) – everything on A4 with illustration or design http://do.gendocs.ru/ http://images.yandex.ru/
Phonetic means of the Russian language with a delimiting function include sounds, stress (verbal and phrasal) and intonation, which often appear together or in combination.
Speech sounds have different qualities and therefore serve as a means in language to distinguish words.
Often words differ in just one sound, the presence of an extra sound compared to another word, the order of sounds (cf.: jackdaw - pebble, fight - howl, mouth - mole, nose - sleep).
Verbal stress distinguishes words and word forms that are identical in sound composition (cf.: clubs - clubs, holes - holes, hands - hands).
Phrase stress distinguishes sentences by meaning with the same composition and word order (cf.: It's snowing and It's snowing).
Intonation distinguishes sentences with the same composition of words (with the same place of phrasal stress) (cf.: Is the snow melting and Is the snow melting?).
Sounds and word stress as delimiters of significant elements of speech (words and their forms) are associated with vocabulary and morphology, and phrase stress and intonation are associated with syntax.
1. The concept of language norm. Types of language norms.
Linguistic norms are the rules for the use of linguistic means in a certain period of development literary language, i.e. rules of pronunciation, spelling, word usage, grammar. A norm is a pattern of uniform, generally accepted use of language elements (words, phrases, sentences).
A linguistic phenomenon is considered normative if it is characterized by such features as:
Compliance with the structure of the language;
Massive and regular reproducibility in the process of speech activity of the majority of speakers;
Public approval and recognition.
Linguistic norms were not invented by philologists; they reflect a certain stage in the development of the literary language of the entire people. Language norms cannot be introduced or abolished by decree; they cannot be reformed administratively. The activity of linguists who study language norms is different - they identify, describe and codify language norms, as well as explain and promote them.
The main sources of language norms include: works of classical writers; works of modern writers who continue classical traditions; media publications; common modern usage; linguistic research data.
The characteristic features of language norms are: relative stability; prevalence; common use;
universal obligatory; correspondence to the use, custom and capabilities of the language system.
Types of norms
In literary language, the following types of norms are distinguished:
1) norms of written and oral forms of speech;
2) norms of written speech;
3) norms of oral speech.
The norms common to oral and written speech include:
Lexical norms;
Grammar rules;
Stylistic norms.
Special norms of written speech are:
Spelling standards;
Punctuation standards.
Applicable only to oral speech:
Pronunciation standards;
Stress norms;
Intonation norms.
Norms common to oral and written speech relate to linguistic content and text construction. Lexical norms, or norms of word use, are norms that determine the correct choice of a word from a number of units that are close to it in meaning or form, as well as its use in the meanings that it has in the literary language.
Lexical norms are reflected in explanatory dictionaries, dictionaries of foreign words, terminological dictionaries and reference books.
Compliance lexical norms- the most important condition for the accuracy of speech and its correctness.
Their violation leads to lexical errors of various types (examples of errors from the essays of applicants):
Incorrect choice of a word from a number of units, including confusion of paronyms, inaccurate choice of synonym, incorrect choice units of the semantic field (bone type of thinking, analyze the life activity of writers, Nikolaev aggression, Russia experienced many incidents in domestic and foreign policy in those years);
Violation of norms of lexical compatibility (a herd of hares, under the yoke of humanity, a secret curtain, ingrained foundations, has gone through all stages of human development);
The contradiction between the speaker’s intention and the emotional and evaluative connotations of the word (Pushkin correctly chose the path of life and followed it, leaving indelible traces; He made an enormous contribution to the development of Russia);
Misuse phraseological units(Youth was flowing out of him; We need to get him out into fresh water).
Grammatical norms are divided into word-formation, morphological and syntactic. Word formation norms determine the order of combining parts of a word and forming new words.
Morphological norms require the correct formation of grammatical forms of words of different parts of speech (forms of gender, number, short forms and degrees of comparison of adjectives, etc.). A typical violation of morphological norms is the use of a word in a non-existent or inflectional form that does not correspond to the context (analyzed image, reigning order, victory over fascism, called Plyushkin a hole). Sometimes you can hear such phrases: railway rail, imported shampoo, registered parcel post, patent leather shoes. There is a morphological error in these phrases - the gender of the nouns is incorrectly formed.
Syntactic norms prescribe the correct construction of the main syntactic units- phrases and sentences. These norms include rules for word agreement and syntactic control, relating parts of a sentence to each other using the grammatical forms of words so that the sentence is a literate and meaningful statement. There is a violation of syntactic norms in following examples: reading it, a question arises; The poem is characterized by a synthesis of lyrical and epic principles; Married to his brother, none of the children were born alive.
Stylistic norms determine the use of linguistic means in accordance with the laws of the genre, the features of the functional style and, more broadly, the purpose and conditions of communication.
Punctuation norms determine the use of punctuation marks.
Orthoepic norms include norms of pronunciation, stress and intonation. Compliance with spelling norms is an important part of speech culture, because their violation creates in listeners an unpleasant impression of the speech and the speaker himself, and distracts from the perception of the content of the speech. Orthoepic norms are recorded in orthoepic dictionaries of the Russian language and dictionaries of accents. Intonation norms are described in “Russian Grammar” (Moscow, 1980) and Russian language textbooks.
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