a special and most perfect form of communication, characteristic only of man. Speech communication involves two parties - the speaker and the listener. The speaker selects the words necessary to express a thought, connects them according to the rules of grammar and pronounces them thanks to the articulation of the speech organs; the listener perceives the speech, one way or another understands the thought expressed in it. Both - the speaker and the listener - have a common means - a national language developed in the process verbal communication.
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SPEECH
form of communication (communication). people through language. Speech communication is organized jointly. human activity contributes to people’s knowledge of each other and is an essential factor in the formation and development of interpersonal relationships. Thanks to P., the continuity of people’s experience is achieved, a person masters the knowledge of P. and language are closely interconnected. Speech is formatted in accordance with the norms of the language. Language, being the basis of speech activity, develops itself, summarizing the speech experience of people. A child acquires language in the process of communicating with adults and learns to use it in P.
Speech communication can be in the nature of a message about certain events, phenomena, in the form of a judgment or instruction. Often P. is aimed at eliciting responses from the interlocutor: empathy, sympathy, indignation, and action. However, P. not only provides the opportunity for people to communicate with each other, but also, being a means of expressing thoughts, becomes the main mechanism of human thinking, a means of carrying out mental operations (analysis, synthesis, comparison, etc.). She has great importance for the development of visual-effective, visual-figurative, abstract-conceptual thinking. P. is closely connected with other mental. processes of perception, memorization and reproduction, the role of P in the imagination, awareness of one’s emotions, and regulation of one’s behavior is significant.
Human P is articulate; sounds, phonemes, syllables, words, and sentences are distinguished in it.
Depending on the type of speech activity, P is divided into external and internal, oral and written. Ext. P serves as ch. arr. communication purposes, therefore it is structured in such a way as to be understandable to the listener Int. P - unpronounceable, she plays important role in the processes of consciousness, self-awareness, thinking Written P is functionally closely related to internal. P (saying to yourself what needs to be written, reading to yourself).
Speech communication involves at least 2 people: the speaker, the one pronouncing P, and the listener (perceiving and understanding P). Such communication can be viewed in terms of the utterance, perception and understanding of P.
Speech production involves a transition from internal. P to external In the case of statements familiar to a given person, this transition occurs without voluntary effort. However, the more complex the thought and the more compressed it is formulated by internal means. P, the more difficult the transition to external becomes. P. It is necessary to remember and select the necessary words, formulate statements in accordance with the rules of grammar and style.
Perception P is usually used to designate the first level of analysis and synthesis of language means, ensuring the distinction of words. Second level (understanding P). involves the analysis and synthesis of statements from the point of view of their content and meaning. At the same time, the perception and understanding of P is a single interconnected process, in which the understanding of P is determined by its perception and vice versa.
A person listening to P usually identifies the semantic support points of the utterance - the so-called. keywords. When P is perceived, there is an interaction between the auditory, speech motor and visual analyzers. Auditory perceptions of speech sounds are combined with tactile-kinesthetic sensations arising from the tension of one’s own. speech organs when listening to someone else's P, as well as with the visual perception of facial expressions, especially lip movements, and pantomimes of the speaker.
External, or oral, P can be dialogical and monological Dialogical, or conversational, P is usually incompletely developed, because it is situational, much of it is not expressed, but is implied due to the context understandable to those speaking Usually involuntary, it becomes arbitrary if the conversation, exchange of opinions is planned in advance. In this case, it takes on the features of a monologue. P In dialogic P there is close interaction between the participants in the conversation
Monologue P - a statement by one person, uninterrupted for a long time by replicas (for example, P of a lecturer, speaker, etc.). Monologue P, as a rule, has a more complex syntactic structure than a dialogic one; it usually requires the preliminary preparation of a correctly constructed monologue. P distinguishes logical. coherence of expressed thoughts and systematic presentation, subordinate to a specific plan Designed for a specific audience, monologue. P, however, is not always accompanied by a response from the listeners (for radio and television speakers, the reaction of the listeners at the moment P is unknown). However, a skilled speaker and lecturer takes into account the real or intended audience and accordingly constructs the presentation of the material. Its structure is monologue. P is approaching written There are also specials. constructions characteristic only of oral P (repetitions or paraphrases of certain statements, questions addressed to the audience, changes in the sequence of words in a phrase to give certain words special significance).
One of the properties of both types of oral P is its smoothness (at average speed, a word of 5 syllables is pronounced in 1 s).
Oral is contrasted with written P - a historically later emerging method of speech communication. Unlike oral P, which children master in the process of verbal communication, written P must be specially taught. A structural feature of written P is its contextuality (the entire content of the statement must be clear from the context). The style of written P significantly depends on the nature of its content (the style of business correspondence differs from the style of letters to loved ones).
The division of P into audible, pronounced and visible is made depending on which of the analyzers is leading in a given speech act. Similarly, tactile P can be designated, i.e. P, perceived by the blind or deaf-blind when reading Braille or feeling the hand of another a person speaking using dactyl P. Visible P, in addition to the usual written one, should also include all methods of communication through visually perceived codes, incl. communication through various signals Special cases visible P - facial-gestural P. of the deaf, dactyl P and “lip reading” P. performing the functions of a special communication, acquires a certain specific internal. structure, accordingly, poetic, magical and other types of P. are distinguished.
Speech activity is studied by psychology, physiology, linguistics, psycholinguistics. P research in the field of applied psychology is widely represented in the psychological analysis of foreign learning. languages, coding and decoding of messages for computers, etc. (see also Speech development). For information on speech disorders, see the article Abnormal Children, section Children with Speech Impairments, Speech Therapy
Lit Rubinstein L, Psychology of speech, “Uch zap Leningrad State Pedagogical Institute named after A. I. Herzen”, 1941, volume 35, Vygotsky L S, Thinking and speech, in his book. Izbr psychol research, M, 1956, Akhmanova O S, On psycholinguistics, M, 1957, Zh i k i i H I, Mechanisms of speech, M, 1958, his own, Speech as a conductor of information, M 1982, L u p and I A R, Human brain and mental. processes, t 1, M, 1963, Miller J Speech and language, in the collection Experiment. psychology, composed by S. Stevens, translated from English. t 2, M 1963, Licklider J, Miller J, Speech perception, ibid., Fant G, Acoustic theory of speech education, translated from English. M, 1964, II with n-field V, Robert L, Speech and brain mechanisms translated from English. L, 1964, Bodals A A, Perception of a person by a person, L, 1965, Sokolova N, Inner speech and thinking, M 1968, Leontiev A A, Language, speech, speech activity, M, 1969, Fundamentals of theory speech activity, M, 1974, Ushakova T N, Pavlova N D, Zachesova I A Human speech in communication, M, 1989, G o l d s t e i n K, Language and language disturbances, No. Y, 1948, Yakobson R, Halle M, Fundamentals of language, s-Gravenhage, 1956, Ka i n z F, Psychologie der Sprache, Bd 2, Stuttg, I9602, Yakobson R, Lmguistics and poetics, in Style m language, No. V-L,
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Material from Wikipedia - the free encyclopedia
Speech- a historically established form of communication between people through language structures created on the basis of certain rules. The process of speech involves, on the one hand, the formation and formulation of thoughts by linguistic (speech) means, and on the other hand, the perception of language structures and their understanding.
Thus, speech is a psycholinguistic process, the oral form of existence of human languages.
Meaning
The most important achievement of man, which allowed him to use universal human experience, both past and present, was speech communication, which developed on the basis labor activity. Speech is language in action. Language is a system of signs, including words with their meanings plus syntax - a set of rules by which sentences are constructed. A word is a type of sign, since the latter are present in various kinds of formalized languages. The objective property of a verbal sign, which determines theoretical activity, is the meaning of the word, which is the relationship of the sign (the word in this case) to the object designated in reality, regardless (abstractly) of how it is represented in the individual consciousness.
In contrast to the meaning of a word, personal meaning is a reflection in the individual consciousness of the place that a given object (phenomenon) occupies in the system of activity of a particular person. If the meaning unites the socially significant features of a word, then the personal meaning is the subjective experience of its content.
The following main functions of the language are distinguished:
- a means of existence, transmission and assimilation of socio-historical experience
- means of communication
- a tool of intellectual activity (perception, memory, thinking, imagination)
Performing the first function, language serves as a means of encoding information about the studied properties of objects and phenomena. Through language, information about the world around us and man himself, received by previous generations, becomes the property of subsequent generations. Performing the function of a means of communication, language allows us to influence the interlocutor directly (if we directly indicate what needs to be done) or indirectly (if we inform him of information important for his activities, which he will focus on immediately or at another time in the appropriate situations).
Properties of speech:
- The content of speech is the number of thoughts, feelings and aspirations expressed in it, their significance and correspondence to reality;
- Clarity of speech is the syntactically correct construction of sentences, as well as the use of pauses in appropriate places or highlighting words using logical stress;
- The expressiveness of speech is its emotional richness, the richness of linguistic means, their diversity. In terms of its expressiveness, it can be bright, energetic and, conversely, sluggish and poor;
- The effectiveness of speech is the property of speech, which consists in its influence on the thoughts, feelings and will of other people, on their beliefs and behavior.
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Literature
- Vygotsky L. S. Thinking and speech.
- Zhinkin N. I. Speech as a conductor of information.
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Excerpt characterizing the Speech
Pierre realized that Boris wanted to change the conversation, and, agreeing with him, began to outline the advantages and disadvantages of the Boulogne enterprise.The footman came to summon Boris to the princess. The princess was leaving. Pierre promised to come for dinner in order to get closer to Boris, firmly shook his hand, looking affectionately into his eyes through his glasses... After he left, Pierre walked around the room for a long time, no longer piercing the invisible enemy with his sword, but smiling at the memory of this dear, smart and strong young man.
As happens in early youth and especially in a lonely situation, he felt an unreasonable tenderness for this young man and promised himself to make friends with him.
Prince Vasily saw off the princess. The princess held a handkerchief to her eyes, and her face was in tears.
- It's horrible! terrible! - she said, - but no matter what it costs me, I will do my duty. I'll come over for the night. He can't be left like that. Every minute is precious. I don’t understand why the princesses are delaying. Maybe God will help me find a way to prepare it!... Adieu, mon prince, que le bon Dieu vous soutienne... [Farewell, prince, may God support you.]
“Adieu, ma bonne, [Farewell, my dear,” answered Prince Vasily, turning away from her.
“Oh, he’s in a terrible situation,” the mother said to her son as they got back into the carriage. “He hardly recognizes anyone.”
“I don’t understand, mamma, what is his relationship with Pierre?” - asked the son.
“The will will say everything, my friend; Our fate depends on him...
- But why do you think that he will leave anything to us?
- Ah, my friend! He is so rich and we are so poor!
“Well, that’s not a good enough reason, mummy.”
- Oh my god! My God! How bad he is! - exclaimed the mother.
When Anna Mikhailovna left with her son to visit Count Kirill Vladimirovich Bezukhy, Countess Rostova sat alone for a long time, putting a handkerchief to her eyes. Finally, she called.
“What are you talking about, dear,” she said angrily to the girl, who made herself wait for several minutes. – Don’t you want to serve, or what? So I'll find a place for you.
The countess was upset by the grief and humiliating poverty of her friend and therefore was out of sorts, which she always expressed by calling the maid “dear” and “you.”
“It’s your fault,” said the maid.
- Ask the Count to come to me.
The Count, waddled, approached his wife with a somewhat guilty look, as always.
- Well, countess! What a saute au madere [sauté in Madeira] will be from hazel grouse, ma chere! I tried; It’s not for nothing that I gave a thousand rubles for Taraska. Costs!
He sat down next to his wife, resting his arms bravely on his knees and ruffling his gray hair.
- What do you order, Countess?
- So, my friend, what is it that you have dirty here? - she said, pointing to the vest. “It’s sote, that’s right,” she added, smiling. - That's it, Count: I need money.
Her face became sad.
- Oh, Countess!...
And the count began to fuss, taking out his wallet.
“I need a lot, Count, I need five hundred rubles.”
And she, taking out a cambric handkerchief, rubbed her husband’s vest with it.
- Now. Hey, who's there? - he shouted in a voice that only people shout when they are sure that those they are calling will rush headlong to their call. - Send Mitenka to me!
Mitenka, that noble son raised by the count, who was now in charge of all his affairs, entered the room with quiet steps.
“That’s it, my dear,” said the count to the respectful young man who entered. “Bring me…” he thought. - Yes, 700 rubles, yes. But look, don’t bring anything torn and dirty like that time, but good ones for the countess.
“Yes, Mitenka, please, keep them clean,” said the countess, sighing sadly.
- Your Excellency, when will you order it to be delivered? - said Mitenka. “If you please know that... However, please don’t worry,” he added, noticing how the count had already begun to breathe heavily and quickly, which was always a sign of beginning anger. - I forgot... Will you order it to be delivered this minute?
- Yes, yes, then, bring it. Give it to the countess.
“This Mitenka is such gold,” the count added, smiling, when the young man left. - No, it’s not possible. I can't stand this. Everything is possible.
- Oh, money, count, money, how much grief it causes in the world! - said the countess. - And I really need this money.
“You, countess, are a well-known reel,” said the count and, kissing his wife’s hand, he went back into the office.
When Anna Mikhailovna returned again from Bezukhoy, the countess already had money, all in brand new pieces of paper, under a scarf on the table, and Anna Mikhailovna noticed that the countess was disturbed by something.
- Well, what, my friend? – asked the Countess.
- Oh, what a terrible situation he is in! It is impossible to recognize him, he is so bad, so bad; I stayed for a minute and didn’t say two words...
“Annette, for God’s sake, don’t refuse me,” the countess suddenly said, blushing, which was so strange considering her middle-aged, thin and important face, taking money out from under her scarf.
Anna Mikhailovna instantly understood what was happening, and already bent down to deftly hug the countess at the right moment.
- Here's to Boris from me, to sew a uniform...
Anna Mikhailovna was already hugging her and crying. The Countess cried too. They cried that they were friends; and that they are good; and that they, friends of youth, are busy with such a low subject - money; and that their youth had passed... But the tears of both were pleasant...
Countess Rostova with her daughters and already a large number of guests was sitting in the living room. The Count led the male guests into his office, offering them his hunting collection of Turkish pipes. Occasionally he would go out and ask: has she arrived? They were waiting for Marya Dmitrievna Akhrosimova, nicknamed in society le terrible dragon, [a terrible dragon,] a lady famous not for wealth, not for honors, but for her directness of mind and frank simplicity of manner. Marya Dmitrievna was known by the royal family, all of Moscow and all of St. Petersburg knew her, and both cities, surprised by her, secretly laughed at her rudeness and told jokes about her; nevertheless, everyone without exception respected and feared her.
In the office, full of smoke, there was a conversation about the war, which was declared by the manifesto, about recruitment. No one had read the manifesto yet, but everyone knew about its appearance. The Count was sitting on an ottoman between two neighbors who were smoking and talking. The count himself did not smoke or speak, but tilting his head, now to one side, now to the other, looked with visible pleasure at those smoking and listened to the conversation of his two neighbors, whom he pitted against each other.
Language - sign system, Rto speak, the ability to speak.
Speech - historically established formcommunicationpeople throughlinguisticstructures created on the basis of certain rules.
The science of the Russian language is calledlinguistic Russian studies , or, for short, simplyRussian studies .
2.Tongue function.
COMMUNICATION FUNCTION The most important function of language is communicative. Communication means communication, exchange of information. In other words, language arose and exists, first of all, so that people can communicate.
A speaking person is a thinking person. And the second function of language, closely related to the communicative one, is the function mental(in another way – cognitive, from Latin cognitio – ‘cognition’). They often even ask: what is more important, what comes first – communication or thinking? The question cannot be posed this way: these two functions of language determine each other. To speak means to express one's thoughts. But, on the other hand, these thoughts themselves are formed in our heads with the help of language.
The third function of language iseducational(its other name is accumulative, that is, cumulative). Most of what an adult knows about the world came to him with language, through the medium of language.
Another extremely important function of the language– nominative, or denomination. The fact is that naming is an integral part of cognition. A person, generalizing a mass of specific phenomena, abstracting from their random features and highlighting the essential ones, feels the need to consolidate the acquired knowledge in words. This is how the name appears.
Consequently, the entire system of concepts that modern man possesses rests on the system of names. Names are not only proper names, but also common nouns. Regulatory
the function unites those cases of language use when the speaker aims to directly influence the addressee: to induce him to take some action or to prohibit him from doing something, to force him to answer a question, etc.Sometimes, along with the regulatory function, the function is also considered phatic*, or contact-establishing
This means that a person always needs to enter a conversation in a certain way (call out to the interlocutor, greet him, remind him of himself, etc.) and leave the conversation (say goodbye, thank him, etc.). But does establishing contact really boil down to exchanging phrases like “Hello” and “Goodbye”? The phatic function is much wider in its scope, and therefore it is not surprising that it is difficult to distinguish it from the regulatory function.SPECIAL FUNCTIONS OF THE LANGUAGEIn addition to the linguistic functions discussed above, we can distinguish other socially significant roles of language. 1. Magical - helps to create the necessary environment. Let us remember the funeral or holiday rites of different tribes. Various songs and dances different nations . The language of fortune tellers for communicating with otherworldly forces. Everywhere its own specific language is used.2. Auto-assistance - self-hypnosis.3.Instrumental – transmission of thoughts using images and sounds.A means of communication for artists and composers (using sounds and images to convey their feelings to the public).
4. Symbolic - indirect or hint. a form of communication that has historically developed in the course of the material transformative activity of people, mediated by language - through linguistic constructions created on the basis certain rules
. Language in action.
The rules of language construction have ethnospecific features, expressed in a system of phonetic, lexical, grammatical and stylistic means and rules of communication in a given language. Speech presents external, sensual, and internal. Each communication partner extracts their content from signals and signs. Otherwise, during speech communication, continuous encoding and decoding of information occurs. Speech contains the processes of generating and perceiving messages for the purposes of communication or, in a particular case, for the purposes of regulation and control of one’s own activity (internal speech, egocentric speech).
Most Russian psychologists consider speech as a speech activity, acting either as a holistic act of activity (if it has a specific motivation that is not realized by other types of activity), or as speech actions included in non-speech activity. The structure of speech activity or speech action, in principle, coincides with the structure of any action - it contains the phases of orientation, planning (in the form of “internal programming”), implementation and control.
Speech can be active, constructed anew each time, and reactive - a chain of dynamic speech stereotypes. In conditions of spontaneous oral speech, conscious choice and evaluation of the linguistic means used in it are reduced to a minimum, while in written speech and in prepared oral speech they occupy a significant place.
Different types of speech are structured according to specific patterns: for example, colloquial speech allows significant deviations from the grammatical system of the language; A special place is occupied by logical and especially artistic speech.
Almost all animal species have methods of transmitting information, through which they can communicate danger, attract the attention of a potential mate, or prohibit entry into their territory. But these signals are always associated with some momentary situation. Apparently, no animal other than humans is capable of transmitting information that is not relevant to the current moment.
SPEECH
Historically established form of communication between people through language. There is a complex dialectical relationship between speech and language: speech is carried out according to the rules of the language and, at the same time, under the influence of a number of factors (the requirements of social practice, the development of science, etc.) it changes and improves the language. R. is the main mechanism of thinking. Outside of R., the formation of consciousness is impossible. R. distinguishes between oral and written. The main functions of R. are communicative (carrying out the communication process); R. as a means of expression and education, development of thoughts; significative or nominative (designation of objects, phenomena, actions, living beings, etc.).
In oral speech, a distinction is also made between monologue and dialogic. Monologue speech is more developed and meets more semantically and grammatically complex requirements. Usually, in diseases that occur with the decay of R., monologue R. reveals its insufficiency earlier than dialogical R.
R. AUTOMATED. Reproduction of verbal blocks and series well-learned in past life experience (passport data, sequential listing of number series, days of the week, months, reproduction of poetic passages memorized in childhood or repeated many times, etc.). Remains intact for a relatively long time during the process of speech decay. To identify disorders of R.a. instructions to the patient must contain elements of its deautomation (listing of the indicated rows in reverse order and so on.).
R. INTERNAL. A form of speech involved in the processes of thinking and consciousness, but not intended for direct communication. R.v., according to S.L. Rubinstein, is “speech minus sound”, it is not accompanied by the utterance of sounds. R.v. is a direct expression of thinking processes; it is fragmentary and abstract in nature. It often leaves out taken-for-granted concepts. The idea is reproduced in R.v. “dotted line”, abstractly, but in oral R., intended for communication, it takes on a complete, verbally completed form. Experimental techniques have been developed to determine the degree of preservation of R.V., for example, counting silently the number of syllables in a given word.
R. ARTIOUS. It is characterized by the use of word usage that is not entirely adequate in a given semantic situation, deliberate intonation emphases on individual words and expressions, sometimes indicating their unusual meaning, ornate turns of phrase. Little-known and not entirely appropriate words are often used in speech. The selection of words for a statement is often carried out in accordance with their other meaning, which is not very suitable for the present situation (see Pathological polysemantism). Accompanied by pretentious, mannered facial expressions. It is observed in schizophrenia, sometimes in hysteria. See mannerism.
Syn.: mannered speech.
R. MIRROR. Pronunciation and reading of words and sentences in reverse order, from the end. It is observed in schizophrenia (for usually a short period), in the structure of obsessions, and in some organic brain lesions. Wed: mirror letter.
R. IMPRESSIVE (lat. impressio - expressive impression). One of the aspects of verbal communication is the perception and understanding of speech addressed to the patient, oral or written. Suffering from sensory aphasia and Alexia.
Syn.: R. sensory.
R. MIMICO-GESTICULATION. Communication between people based on a system of gestures and facial movements. Used by deaf and dumb people.
Syn.: R. gesture.
R. MONOTONE. A speech disorder characterized by insignificant intonation of words and syllables. Observed in organic brain lesions (parkinsonism). Sometimes observed in practically healthy people.
R. CIRCULAR. Impaired speech, manifested by a slowdown in its tempo, symptoms of bradylogy, excessive thoroughness, a tendency to detail, viscosity, and getting stuck on circumstances that are insignificant in meaning. The purpose of the utterance and the speech task are preserved, but the path to them is significantly slowed down. Characteristic of epilepsy.
R. OLIGOPHASIC (Greek oligos - small, phasis - speech). A speech disorder in which there is an impoverishment of speech reserve, impoverishment, reduced grammatical structure, and intonation monotony. It is most typical of epilepsy (See Oligophasia), its manifestations are observed in organic brain lesions with elements of amnestic aphasia (in some post-stroke conditions, in the initial stages of Pick's diseases and, especially, Alzheimer's).
R. PARADOXAL. A speech disorder in which statements with opposite meanings coexist. It is observed in schizophrenia, sometimes in severe manic states with a violation of the logical structure of thinking.
R. PERSEVERATORY (lat. persevero - stubbornly hold on, continue). A speech disorder in which the patient repeatedly repeats the same word or speech pattern, although the speech situation has already changed and does not correspond to speech manifestations. It differs from speech stereotypies, which do not originate from some adequate impulse of speech activity and exist on their own, while speech perseverations are stuck on initially, to some extent, conditioned speech production. After a break in speech activity, perseverations of a different content may appear, and speech stereotypies in this regard are characterized by autochthony. See Perseveration, Perseveratory thinking.
R. PUERILNAYA (lat. puerilis - childish) Reminiscent of a child's - burrs, lisps, childish distortions of words, often the patient speaks about himself in the third person. Combined with childishness of actions and behavioral reactions. It is most often observed in hysterical psychoses, sometimes with hysteriform reactions, and with organic brain lesions.
R. RHYMED. A speech disorder in which there is a predominant tendency to rhyme words. Most often these are rhymes low level, according to consonance, is used to the detriment of meaning. It is observed in states of manic and catatonic excitement, often in epilepsy in combination with sweetness.
R. SCANDED. A speech disorder characterized by bradyllia; words are clearly divided into syllables ("chopped"). R. is slow-moving, sometimes with sing-song intonations. Observed in cases of damage to the cerebellum (multiple sclerosis).
R. SWEET. Speech impairment, which is a manifestation of the defensive component of the epileptic proportion of temperament. Patients speak insinuatingly, flatteringly, sweetly, often use diminutive suffixes and cliche phrases of praise. Most typical of epilepsy, it is also sometimes observed in psychopathic individuals, mainly in epileptoids.
R. EXPLOSIVE (lat. explodo - to spew out with noise). Irrhythmic speech, in which, against the background of delays and prolongation of sounds and words, peculiar verbal “outbursts” occur, characterized by spasmodic acceleration, involuntarily forced volume of sounds (observed with damage to the cerebellar hemispheres).
R. EXPRESSIVE (lat. expressio - expressiveness). One of the aspects of verbal communication, manifested in the spontaneous expression of one’s thoughts, feelings, desires, in the utterance of words and phrases. Suffering from motor aphasia and agraphia.
Specificity. The rules of language construction have ethnospecific features, which are expressed in a system of phonetic, lexical, grammatical and stylistic means and rules of communication in a given language. Speech is closely integrated with all human mental processes.
SPEECH
1. Following Erickson, we believe that ordinary speech can be a subtle and effective working tool. In our approach this provides certain advantages:
Simple speech that is understandable to the patient, or, better yet, speech that is native to the patient himself, undoubtedly allows for the best psychological connection to be established with him (Watzlawick, 1978/1980);
According to our hypothesis, hypnosis and psychotherapy are a matter for the patient himself. We only give him the opportunity to do this work. The patient can function effectively only using his natural speech (Erickson, 1983/1986);
We notice that only a simple language can serve as a common denominator for the existing scientific languages. For us, this is an opportunity for a broad and somewhat multidisciplinary view of the problem, which does not exclude the possibility of continuing research within other schools that bring their own conceptual values.
2. Erickson uses predominantly vernacular or childhood language “to get to the depths of the wells hidden in the souls of patients.” He looks for “mythopoetic” techniques (not based on any concepts), such as analogy, metaphor, riddles, jokes and all kinds of games on the verbal and figurative levels. By interacting in this way, it provides the opportunity to overcome or complement habitual frames of reference (Erickson & Rossi, 1979).
3. Nonverbal language is an integral part of the therapist's toolkit (Erickson, 1983/1986).
Speech
The form of communication mediated by language (see) that has developed historically in the process of human activity reflects the principles of thinking. There is a distinction between expressive (oral and written) speech and impressive speech - understanding oral, written and any other form of speech. According to the proposal of the English neurologist Jackson (J. Jackson, 1835–1911), external and internal speech are distinguished. External serves communication between people through the reproduction of sounds, writing or gestures. Internal is unspoken and unwritten speech, speech to oneself. Inner speech can be abbreviated, compressed or expanded. Sometimes silent speech turns into voiced, external speech. This happens, in particular, in autistic children - so-called egocentric speech, and in some forms of mental illness: cerebral atherosclerosis, etc.
SPEECH
a means of communication mediated by language that has developed historically in the process of material transformative activity of people. R. production (speech activity) is ensured by coordinated movements of the organs of the speech apparatus
SPEECH
historically established form of communication between people through language. In a person’s life, R. performs several functions: 1) communicative (carrying out the process of communication between people); 2) significative (from Latin significatio - designation; designation of real objects and their properties, actions, connections); 3) generalizing (expression of the connection between speech and thinking), etc. In addition, speech also affects the processes occurring in the body of the speaker (regulation and control of one’s own activity) or the listener. In the activity of the operator, the signal function of R can also be distinguished: machine control signals, operator status signals, warning signals, etc. (see Speech signal). In psychology, two forms of speech are distinguished: external and internal. External, in turn, can be oral, written, or gestural. R. renders great attention on the course of various mental processes. Without R. thinking is impossible, especially highest form- abstract conceptual thinking. By being involved in the process of perception, it makes it more generalized and differentiated; verbalization of memorized material contributes to the meaningfulness of memorization and reproduction; representations and images of reality are evoked by the word and are closely connected with it; R. is one of the regulators of human activity, etc. In Russian psychology, R. is often considered as a special speech activity, acting either in the form of an integral act of activity (if it has a specific motivation that is not realized by other types of activity), or in the form of a speech act, included in non-speech activities. The structure of a speech act coincides with the structure of any other action and includes the phases of orientation, planning, implementation and control. Knowledge of the main characteristics of speech is necessary when creating a speech communication system, including technical systems communications. The most important task is to determine the necessary dynamic range. When determining it, it is necessary to take into account the main characteristics of R.: 1) root mean square sound pressure(55 - 57 dB with a normal voice and up to 110 dB with a scream); 2) changes in pressure level between different sounds (about 30 dB between the strongest and weakest sounds); 3) change in pressure level between the speech minimum and the peak instantaneous pressure (approximately 40 dB at a given level of vocal effort); 4) change in R. level different people(approximately 20 dB at normal vocal effort). In addition, for effective speech perception it is necessary proper organization voice message.
The word speech, before becoming a scientific term, was used in everyday communication for many years. Therefore, when starting to present the modern theory of speech, it is necessary to distinguish between the concepts denoted by this word.
As a rule, scientific terms should be unambiguous: this terminological requirement eliminates double, inaccurate understanding of the text. But this is how it happened in Russian: the word speech has three different meanings:
a) speech as an activity, speech as a process;
b) speech as a product of speech activity;
c) speech as an oratorical genre. Let's take a closer look at each value.
Speech in the first, procedural, meaning has synonyms: speech activity, speech act. Situations for using the term speech in the first meaning: mechanisms of speech - this is how they talk about the action of the pronunciation organs; a person’s speech in its relation to work activity; derivative words from the term speech - speech, speech, speech: speech error, speech ability, speech skill, speech process and much more. Denis has already mastered English quite well colloquial speech, he freely constructs a phrase. Speech - speaking, speech - listening, speech - writing, written expression of thoughts; speech - reading, internal, mental speech. It is to this meaning of the word speech that the definition of speech given by psychologists refers.
Speech is communication, contact between people, exchange of thoughts and feelings, information.
Communication occurs not only through speech, but also with the help of non-linguistic signs, which are studied by semiotics: thought is transmitted through action, through touch (tactile speech), through gestures and facial expressions, through indications of objects in the surrounding space. All this - non-verbal means communication.
Speech is verbal, linguistic communication using linguistic symbolic units: words, syntactic structures, text, intonation, often with the support of non-verbal means, gestures, facial expressions, etc. According to psychological researchers, communication between people who see each other is much more effective, than correspondence communication.
The communication of people included in the process of life studies modern theory discourse (“speech” - French).
Let us pay attention to another definition of speech in the first meaning of the term, it is given by the linguist O. S. Akhmanova: “The activity of a speaker who uses language to interact with other members of the linguistic community” (Akhmanova O. S. Dictionary linguistic terms. - M., 1966. - P. 386). If psychologists come to speech from communication, then linguists - from language, from the sign system, which is owned by people of a certain linguistic background.
Within the framework of the first, procedural, activity meaning of the term speech, the following are studied:
A) physiological basis speech, speech activity;
b) mechanisms of speech by its types: the mechanism of speaking, or oral speech, the mechanism of listening - the perception of oral speech and its understanding, writing as the expression of thought in a graphic code and reading as the perception of someone else's speech recorded in a graphic code;
c) code transitions - as far as accessible;
d) the relationship between thinking and speech;
e) implementation of language functions in speech;
f) interaction of languages in the speech activity of a bilingual;
g) the process of speech acquisition in a child, human speech development at various age stages;
h) the formation of a “linguistic sense” (intuition) at different age stages, etc.
This problem of research within the framework of the first meaning of the term speech is in the sphere of interests of psycholinguistics, general linguistics, speech act theories, theories speech development human, speech psychology.
The second meaning of the term speech is “speech as a result” and has a synonym: text. We are accustomed to the fact that text is recorded speech. This understanding of the text is of an everyday nature. In speech theory, a text can be not only written, but also oral and even mental (when internal speech is meant).
In Russian language textbooks, a text is usually defined as a certain sum or combination of several sentences. Indeed, most often the text consists of several or even many sentences.
But from the point of view of speech theory, such a definition of the text is incorrect. In speech theory, a text is defined as the linguistic fabric of a work - the result of the creative process, its generation; as “a captured moment of the linguistic creative process, presented in the form of a specific work” (I.R. Galperin). In this understanding of the text, it can be a separate sentence (for example, any proverb, and there are tens of thousands of them), or even a separate word. You can say: the text of a story, a poem, an article, a protocol, a legal document, a speaker’s speech, a letter to a friend, an oral dialogue, a radio speech, a combat order, a scientific monograph.
Examples of the use of the term speech in the second meaning: dialect speech, We study the speech of a child, rhythmic speech, scientific, strict, evidence-based speech, speech culture as compliance with language norms, speech standard (stamp), folk-poetic speech (folk-poetic style), straight and indirect speech, forms of its recording, etc.
Within the framework of the second meaning of the term speech, denoting the product of speech activity, the following are studied:
a) the structure of the text, its components, intratextual connections;
b) speech styles;
c) speech genres;
d) the use of linguistic means (lexical, grammatical, etc.) in the text space;
e) the use of stylistic figures, tropes, phraseology, means of sound writing, rhythm, etc. (what poetics studies);
f) language norm and its violations (errors) in the field of word usage, grammar, spelling, compatibility (valence) of words, etc., as well as methods of editing and improving the text;
g) means of oral expressiveness of speech (intonation, pauses, logical stress, timbre of voice, non-verbal means of oral speech; graphic means in written speech; punctuation marks, rules and traditions of their use, font selection, arrangement of text on the page, additional signs - symbols ( mathematical, graphic, etc.); means of recording spoken speech - phonograms, etc.;
h) funds long-term storage recordings of oral and writing, deciphering texts in forgotten, dead languages, etc.
This issue is the responsibility of text linguistics, stylistics, linguistics, poetics, spelling, theory of stage speech, graphics, paleography, hermeneutics and other sciences that in one way or another intersect with linguistics and linguistic pragmatics.
It is appropriate to note here that until the second half of the 20th century. the text and its components were not recognized as a linguistic category; the text was studied in literary criticism, logic, and textual criticism. Only in the second half of the 20th century. a new branch of the science of language was formed, which was called text linguistics (or the syntax of the whole text). The components of the text are described - super-phrase unities, complex syntactic wholes, their internal connections - logical, lexical, syntactic, morphological, intonation, for written speech - graphic. This topic will be discussed in more detail in a special chapter.
The third meaning of the term speech is speech as an oratorical genre or as a monologue in a work of art.
Examples of the use of the term speech in the third meaning: The lawyer at the trial delivered a brief but persuasive speech; book title: Demosthenes. Speeches. - In 3 volumes. (M., 1994); in the meaning of “monologue” or “replica”.
Oratorical speeches can be entertaining, informational, discussion (polemical), persuasive, stimulating to action, inspiring, laudatory, or pathetic, revealing, etc. This genre is studied in rhetoric and literary criticism.
The author considered it necessary to consider in such detail the three meanings of the word speech in order to avoid logical errors such as substitution of concepts, since each of the three meanings is an independent phenomenon - an object that can be divided and gives derivatives.