fr. Pierre de Ronsard
French poet XVI century
short biography
The famous French poet, who is considered the founder of lyrical national poetry. Thanks to him, French poetry received at its disposal great amount poetic sizes, has become more musical, harmonious, large-scale and deep. Ronsard introduced the theme of nature and love into poetry, which simultaneously combined Platonism and sensuality.
The future poet was born on September 11, 1524 in the province of Vendomois in the Loire Valley, where their castle of La Possonnière was located. Ronsard was a descendant of a noble family, his father was a courtier of Francis I. Pierre himself served as a page for the same monarch, then worked in the same capacity at the Scottish court, having completed the corresponding course at the College of Navarre.
Ronsard then served as secretary to one of the outstanding humanists of the time, the famous diplomat Lazare de Baif. On business, Ronsard had a chance to visit England, Scotland and the Alsatian city of Haguenau. The trip gave him acquaintance with a number of famous people, incl. scientists, but at the same time he was overtaken by a serious illness, due to which he subsequently developed deafness. Since a career as a military man or diplomat was out of the question in this regard, Pierre de Ronsard delved into the study of literature, in particular poetry. In Paris he received liberal arts education, at the capital's college Cocra under the leadership of J. Dora comprehended the intricacies of ancient languages and philosophy.
He undertook his own poetic experiments in 1542. The first publication dates back to 1547. In 1549, Ronsard, together with de Baif and du Bellay, created a plan for a large-scale reform of versification, which was reflected in du Bellay’s work “Defense and Glorification” French».
The proposed principles were first put into practice in 1550, when the public became acquainted with Ronsard's Odes. Published before 1552, they were a huge success and helped the author gain fame as a great poet. Ronsard was the head of a poetic school, which was called the “Pleiades” in honor of the ancient Alexandrian poets; all its members were famous for their great interest in learning and hard work. During 1552-1553 Ronsard writes love lyrics in the style of F. Petrarch.
Since 1554, he has been given the status of court poet of King Henry II. He remained there until 1574. After this time, he finally broke with the court, since after the death of Charles IX he found himself out of favor. After this event, his biography was connected with the abbeys of Croival (Vendomois) and Saint-Côme (Touraine).
Ronsard's creative heritage is quite extensive. This includes philosophical, religious and political poems, the unfinished and considered unsuccessful heroic-epic poem “Fronciade” (nevertheless, it allowed Ronsard to be considered the founder of a new genre), numerous sonnets, and the theoretical work “A Summary of Poetic Art.” However, it was the lyrics that made Ronsard a famous poet, allowed him to gain universal respect and surround himself with the honor that Hugo would later surround. The collections “Love Poems”, “Continuation of Love Poems”, “Sonnets to Helen” made him famous outside his homeland - in Holland, Germany, Sweden, Italy, Poland. His works significantly influenced the further development of not only French, but also European poetry, in particular, such poets as Herrick, Sidney, Shakespeare, Spenser. Pierre de Ronsard died on December 27, 1585 in Saint-Côme-sur-Loire.
Biography from Wikipedia
Pierre de Ronsard(French Pierre de Ronsard; between September 1 and September 11, 1524, La Possoniere castle, Vendomais - December 27, 1585, Saint-Côme Abbey, near Tours) - French poet of the 16th century. He headed the Pleiades association, which preached the enrichment of national poetry by studying Greek and Roman literature. The Pleiades group, which created a national poetry school. The first serious work of this group was its literary manifesto, The Defense and Glorification of the French Language (1549), traditionally attributed to Joachin Du Bellay (1522–1560), which clearly declared new ideas about national culture and literature. The author connected the rise and flourishing of culture with national growth and prosperity; The level of cultural development was thus determined by the level of development of the state and the people. At the same time, the manifesto traces the cult of antiquity characteristic of the Renaissance and declares the slogan of imitation of ancient authors. The artistic program of the Pleiades asserted the priority of the French language and its equality with Latin and Italian, and proclaimed the high purpose of the poet-creator. Language was proclaimed a kind of art, and poetry its highest form. They considered the ancient heritage a stimulus for the development of national literature. The composition of the group varied, but its leaders were Pierre Ronsard (1524–1585), Joachin Du Bellay and Jean Antoine Baif. To the greatest extent, the spirit of Renaissance culture and its ideals were expressed in the work of the leader of the Pleiades, Ronsard. A humanist, he praised the joy of life, man and human love as the pinnacle of his life. The cult of nature, the feeling and perception of the beauty of the world, characteristic of the poet’s worldview, were reflected in the affirmation of the idea of the organic unity of man and nature. Ronsard's legacy also reflected his critical perception of society (Hymn to Gold, poems protesting civil wars) and philosophical reflections on the fate of humanity. At the same time, he sought to glorify his homeland (Anthem of France). The themes of love and nature occupied a special place in his work; he left several books dedicated to love (Love for Cassandra, Love for Mary, etc.). He owns the epic poem Franciade. He was rightfully considered by his contemporaries to be the “prince of poets.”
Ronsard was born at the castle of La Possoniere near Vendôme into a noble family. He was the son of Louis de Ronsard, a courtier of King Francis I and a participant in the Battle of Pavia. He served as a page to Francis I, then at the Scottish court. Received a humanist education in Paris; studied philosophy and ancient languages under the guidance of Jean Dore. Since 1540, Ronsard began to lose his hearing (possibly due to syphilis).
From 1542 he composed poetry; Ronsard's first poem was published in 1547. He established himself as a major poet, creating in 1550-1552. work "Odes". At this time, he headed the Pleiades poetic school, formed in 1549 and named after a group of seven Alexandrian poets of the 3rd century. BC e., which bore the same name. The Pleiades, of which Ronsard became the leader, included seven more less famous poets who mastered the genres of ode, sonnet, elegy, eclogue, comedy and tragedy and developed these genres in the spirit of the Renaissance. In 1549 he developed - together with du Bellay and de Baif - a plan for an extensive poetic reform, set out in du Bellay's "Defense and Glorification of the French Language". In 1552-1553 Ronsard wrote "Love Poems" in the style of Petrarch. In the sonnets of 1555-1556. he sang the praises of the young peasant woman Maria Dupin, giving the poems simplicity and naturalness.
During these same years, he created a cycle of philosophical poems called “Hymns,” which touched on the basic issues of human existence. Adjacent to them are the religious and political poems “Discourses on the Disasters of Time,” written in 1560-1562. In 1565, Ronsard wrote a theoretical work, “A Brief Exposition of the Poetic Art,” and in 1571 he created the heroic-epic poem “Fronciade,” developing another literary genre.
From 1554 court poet of Henry II. After the death of Charles IX (1574), he fell out of favor and finally left the court.
His work had a strong influence on the further development of not only French, but almost all European poetry.
Creation
Major works
"Odes" (1550) was the first practical application Ronsard's doctrine. They were greeted with jubilation. Other works include: “Love Poems” and “Odes” (1552), “Hymns” (1555-1556), “Eclogues” and “Love of Mary” (1560), “Discourse on the Disasters of Our Time” (1562), “ A brief summary of the art of poetry" (1565), an unfinished poem "Franciade" (1572).
The Meaning of Creativity
During his lifetime, Ronsard was surrounded by the same fame and honor as V. Hugo was later. In the 17th century, Ronsard was denounced by Boileau in The Poetic Art and from then on was completely unknown until the beginning of the 19th century, when Sainte-Beuve and the Romantics restored the glory of his lyricism. Ronsard is primarily a lyricist. The conventionality of the doctrine he developed encouraged him to compose artificial “Pindaric odes” in which poetry is suppressed by learning; but his verse in this difficult school acquired greater flexibility. Discarding the antistrophe and epod, Ronsard introduced lyrical forms of high beauty and sonority. He introduced an endless variety of poetic meters into French poetry and created the harmony of verse. He did not borrow external forms from antiquity, but was imbued with the ancient spirit, which was reflected in all his work. A significant amount of Italian influence is also noticeable in his lyrics. In his songs and sonnets (about 600), Petrarchism is combined with sensuality and tender sadness, depicting love, death, and the life of nature. In some poems (for example, " Mignonne, allons voir si la rose», « Nous vivons, ma Panias», « Quand Vous serez vieille") Ronsard is the direct predecessor of 19th-century lyricism. Ronsard can be called a great poet, first of all, as the creator of a rich lyrical form, a variety of new meters (Ronsard's stanza in 6 verses aabccd, etc.). Ronsard's attempt to create an epic ("Franciade") was unsuccessful.
According to the level of scientific and technical developments Russian nuclear energy is one of the best in the world. Businesses have enormous opportunities to solve everyday or large-scale problems. Experts predict a promising future in this area, since the Russian Federation has large reserves of ores for energy production.
A brief history of the development of nuclear energy in Russia
The nuclear industry dates back to the times of the USSR, when it was planned to implement one of the author’s projects to create explosives from uranium substance. In the summer of 1945, atomic weapons were successfully tested in the United States, and in 1949, they were used for the first time at the Semipalatinsk test site. nuclear bomb RDS-1. Further development of nuclear energy in Russia was as follows:
Research and production teams have worked for many years to achieve a high level in atomic weapons, and they are not going to stop there. Later you will learn about the prospects in this area until 2035.
Operating nuclear power plants in Russia: brief description
Currently there are 10 operating nuclear power plants. The features of each of them will be discussed below.
- No. 1 and No. 2 with an AMB reactor;
- No. 3 with BN-600 reactor.
Produces up to 10% of the total volume electrical energy. Currently, many systems in Sverdlovsk are in long-term conservation mode, and only the BN-600 power unit is in operation. Beloyarsk NPP is located in Zarechny.
- Bilibino Nuclear Power Plant is the only source supplying heat to the city of Bilbino and has a capacity of 48 MW. The station generates about 80% of the energy and meets all the requirements for equipment installation:
- maximum ease of operation;
- increased operational reliability;
- protection from mechanical damage;
- minimum amount of installation work.
The system has important advantage: If the unit is interrupted unexpectedly, it will not be harmed. The station is located in Chukotka Autonomous Okrug, at 4.5, the distance to Anadyr is 610 km.
What is the state of nuclear energy today?
Today there are more than 200 enterprises whose specialists work tirelessly on perfection nuclear energy in Russia. Therefore, we are confidently moving forward in this direction: we are developing new reactor models and gradually expanding production. According to members of the World Nuclear Association, strong point Russia - development of technologies based on fast neurons. 
Russian technologies, many of which were developed by Rosatom, are highly valued abroad for their relatively low cost and safety. Consequently, we have quite a high potential in the nuclear industry.
The Russian Federation provides many services related to the activities in question to its foreign partners. These include:
- construction of nuclear power units taking into account safety rules;
- supply of nuclear fuel;
- output of used objects;
- training of international personnel;
- development assistance scientific works and nuclear medicine.
Russia is building a large number of power units abroad. Projects such as Bushehr or Kudankulam, created for Iranian and Indian nuclear power plants, were successful. They have enabled the creation of clean, safe and efficient energy sources. 
What problems related to the nuclear industry have arisen in Russia?
In 2011, a collapse occurred at the Leningrad NPP-2 under construction metal structures(weight about 1200 tons). During the course of the supervisory commission, the supply of uncertified fittings was discovered, and therefore the following measures were taken:
- imposition of a fine on JSC GMZ-Khimmash in the amount of 30 thousand rubles;
- performing calculations and carrying out work aimed at strengthening reinforcement.
According to Rostechnadzor, the main reason for the violation is the insufficient level of qualifications of GMZ-Khimmash specialists. Poor knowledge of the requirements of federal regulations, manufacturing technologies for such equipment and design documentation has led to the fact that many such organizations have lost their licenses.
At the Kalinin NPP, the thermal power level of the reactors has increased. Such an event is extremely undesirable, as there is a possibility of an accident with serious radiation consequences.
Long-term research conducted in foreign countries, showed that proximity to nuclear power plants leads to an increase in leukemia. For this reason, in Russia there were many refusals of effective, but very dangerous projects.
Prospects for nuclear power plants in Russia
Forecasts for the future use of nuclear energy are contradictory and ambiguous. Most of them agree that by the middle of the 21st century the need will increase due to the inevitable increase in population.
The Ministry of Energy of the Russian Federation announced the energy strategy of Russia for the period until 2035 (information received in 2014). The strategic goal of nuclear energy includes:
Taking into account the established strategy, it is planned to solve the following tasks in the future:
- improve the scheme of production, circulation and disposal of fuel and raw materials;
- develop targeted programs to ensure renewal, sustainability and increased efficiency of the existing fuel base;
- implement the most effective projects with high level safety and reliability;
- increase the export of nuclear technologies.
State support for the mass production of nuclear power units is the basis for the successful promotion of goods abroad and Russia’s high reputation in the international market.
What hinders the development of nuclear energy in Russia?
The development of nuclear energy in the Russian Federation faces certain difficulties. Here are the main ones:
In Russia, nuclear energy is one of the important sectors of the economy. The successful implementation of the projects under development can help develop other industries, but this requires a lot of effort.
The article was written based on materials from the IAEA and the World Nuclear Association
Some facts:
The first industrial nuclear power plants came into operation in the 1950s.
Today there are more than 430 industrial nuclear reactors in 31 countries of the world, which have a total capacity of 370,000 MW. About 70 nuclear reactors are under construction.
They provide more than 11% of the world's electricity without carbon emissions.
There are a total of about 240 research reactors and another 180 nuclear power reactors operating in 56 countries, along with about 150 ships and submarines.
From the history
Nuclear technology uses the energy released by splitting atoms of certain elements. This technology was first developed in the 1940s during World War II, with research focused on bomb production using isotopes of uranium or plutonium for fission.
In the 1950s, attention turned to the peaceful purposes of nuclear fission, particularly to produce electricity. Many countries have built research reactors to provide a source for scientific research and production of medical and industrial isotopes.Today, only eight countries in the world are known to have nuclear weapons.
State of nuclear energy in the world
There are about 240 research reactors operating in 56 developing countries. Some 70 new nuclear reactors are under construction, equivalent to 20% of existing capacity, and another 160 reactors are planned, equivalent to half current capacity.
Sixteen countries get a quarter of their electricity from nuclear power plants.France gets about three-quarters of its electricity from nuclear.While in Belgium, the Czech Republic, Hungary, Slovakia, Sweden, Switzerland, Slovenia and Ukraine they receive one third or more.
South Korea, Bulgaria and Finland receive about 30% of nuclear energy.In the US, UK, Spain and Russia, almost a fifth of energy is nuclear.
Italy and Denmark depend the least on nuclear energy, where the share of nuclear energy is 10%.
In addition to the fact that nuclear energy is cheaper than energy from minerals, there are other advantages. Nuclear power plants can quickly respond to changes in electricity consumption and do not depend directly on fuel supplies. In addition, nuclear power plants do not emit CO 2 and therefore do not contribute to global warming. Thanks to the above advantages, the share of nuclear energy is growing every year.
Every year, existing power plants are modernized, thanks to which they produce more electricity. And the introduction of 4th generation reactors will not only improve energy efficiency but also reduce the amount of radioactive waste.
From 1990 to 2010, nuclear power capacity worldwide grew by 57 GW, an increase of approximately 17%. Approximately 36% was obtained through the construction of new nuclear power plants, 57% through the expansion of existing power plants, and 7% through modernization.
How is nuclear energy developing in the world?
China
The Chinese government plans to increase nuclear generating capacity from 30 GW to 58 GW by 2020.
From 2002 to 2013, China completed construction and began operating 17 new nuclear reactors,about 30 new reactors are under construction.
These include four modern Westinghouse AP1000 high-temperature gas-cooled reactors.
India
India plans to have 14.5 GW of nuclear power by 2020 as part of its national energy policy. Seven reactors are under construction
Russia
Russia plans to increase its nuclear capacity to 30.5 GW by 2020 using its world-class light water reactors. Russia is actively involved in the construction and financing of new nuclear power plants in a number of countries.
Europe
A number of countries in Eastern Europe currently have programs to build new nuclear power plants (Bulgaria, Czech Republic, Hungary, Romania, Slovakia, Slovenia and Turkey).
The UK government approved replacing the country's aging nuclear reactor fleet in mid-2006.
Sweden has abandoned its plans to decommission its reactors early and is now actively investing in their modernization. Hungary, Slovakia and Spain do not plan to build new nuclear power plants, but only modernize old ones. Germany has agreed to extend the life of its nuclear plants, reversing previous plans to close them.
Poland is developing a nuclear program, planning to obtain 6000 MW of energy. Belarus has begun construction of its first reactor.
USA
In the US, there are five reactors under construction, four of them new AP1000 designs.
South America
Argentina and Brazil have nuclear reactors that generate electricity and reactors that are under construction. Chile has a research reactor and plans to build industrial reactors.
South Korea
South Korea plans to build nuclear reactors. The country is also involved in intensive research into reactor designs.
Southeast Asia
Vietnam intends to build its first nuclear reactor in cooperation with Russia. Indonesia and Thailand are planning nuclear power programs.
South Asia
Bangladesh approved the Russian proposal to build the first nuclear power plant. Pakistan, with Chinese help, is building three small reactors and is preparing to build two larger ones near Karachi.
central Asia
Kazakhstan, with its abundance of uranium, works in close cooperation with Russia in planning the development of the construction of new reactors for domestic consumption and export.
Near East
United United Arab Emirates building the first two of four reactors with a capacity of 1,450 MW. The investment amount is about $20 billion.
The first reactor in Iran is in operation; no further construction is planned.
Saudi Arabia, Jordan and Egypt are also moving towards nuclear energy.
Africa
Nigeria has sought support from the International Atomic Energy Agency in developing plans to build two 1,000 MW nuclear reactors.
New countries
In September 2012, the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) expects the launch of nuclear programs in 7 countries in the near future. The most likely candidates: Lithuania, UAE, Turkey, Belarus, Vietnam, Poland.
The twentieth century was marked by the development of a new type of energy contained in the nuclei of atoms, and became the century of nuclear physics. This energy is many times greater than the fuel energy used by humanity throughout its history.
Already by mid-1939, scientists around the world had important theoretical and experimental discoveries in the field of nuclear physics, which made it possible to put forward an extensive research program in this direction. It turned out that the uranium atom can be split into two parts. This releases a huge amount of energy. In addition, the fission process releases neutrons, which in turn can split other uranium atoms and cause a nuclear chain reaction. The nuclear fission reaction of uranium is very effective and far exceeds the most violent chemical reactions. Let's compare an atom of uranium and a molecule of an explosive - trinitrotoluene (TNT). The decay of a TNT molecule releases 10 electron volts of energy, and the decay of a uranium nucleus releases 200 million electron volts, i.e. 20 million times more.
These discoveries created a sensation in the scientific world: in the history of mankind there was no scientific event more significant in its consequences than the penetration of the atom into the world and the mastery of its energy. Scientists understood that its main purpose was to produce electricity and use it in other peaceful areas. With the commissioning of the world's first industrial nuclear power plant with a capacity of 5 MW in the USSR in 1954 in Obninsk, the era of nuclear energy began. The source of electricity production was the fission of uranium nuclei.
The operating experience of the first nuclear power plants showed the reality and reliability of nuclear energy technology for industrial electricity production. Developed industrial countries have begun the design and construction of nuclear power plants with reactors different types. By 1964, the total capacity of nuclear power plants in the world increased to 5 million kW.
Since that time, the rapid development of nuclear energy began, which, making an increasingly significant contribution to total production electricity in the world has become a new promising energy alternative. A boom in orders for the construction of nuclear power plants began in the USA, and later in Western Europe, Japan, and the USSR. The growth rate of nuclear energy has reached about 30% per year. Already by 1986, 365 power units with a total installed capacity of 253 million kW were operating at nuclear power plants in the world. In almost 20 years, the power of nuclear power plants has increased 50 times. The construction of nuclear power plants was carried out in 30 countries (Fig. 1.1).
By that time, the research of the Club of Rome, an authoritative community of world-famous scientists, had become widely known. The conclusions of the authors of the studies boiled down to the inevitability of a fairly close depletion of natural reserves of organic energy resources, including oil, key to the global economy, and their sharp rise in price in the near future. With this in mind, nuclear power could not have come at a better time. Potential nuclear fuel reserves (2 8 U, 2 5 U, 2 2 Th) for the long term were vitally important important problem fuel supply under various scenarios for the development of nuclear energy.
The conditions for the development of nuclear energy were extremely favorable, and the economic indicators of nuclear power plants also inspired optimism; nuclear power plants could already successfully compete with thermal power plants.
Nuclear energy made it possible to reduce the consumption of fossil fuels and sharply reduce emissions of pollutants in environment from TPP.
The development of nuclear energy was based on the established energy sector of the military-industrial complex - fairly well-developed industrial reactors and reactors for submarines using the nuclear fuel cycle (NFC) already created for these purposes, acquired knowledge and significant experience. Nuclear energy, which had enormous government support, successfully fit into the existing energy system, taking into account the rules and requirements inherent in this system.
The problem of energy security, which became aggravated in the 70s of the twentieth century. In connection with the energy crisis caused by a sharp increase in oil prices, the dependence of its supply on the political situation forced many countries to reconsider their energy programs. The development of nuclear energy, by reducing the consumption of fossil fuels, reduces the energy dependence of countries that do not have or have limited their own fuel and energy
tical resources from their import and strengthens the energy security of these countries.
In the process of rapid development of nuclear energy, of the two main types of nuclear power reactors - thermal and fast neutrons - thermal neutron reactors have become the most widespread in the world.
Developed different countries types and designs of reactors with different moderators and coolants became the basis of national nuclear energy. Thus, in the USA, pressurized water reactors and boiling water reactors became the main ones, in Canada - heavy water reactors using natural uranium, in former USSR– pressurized water reactors (VVER) and uranographite boiling water reactors (RBMK), the unit power of the reactors increased. Thus, the RBMK-1000 reactor electrical power 1000 MW was installed at the Leningrad Nuclear Power Plant in 1973. The capacity of large nuclear power plants, for example the Zaporozhye Nuclear Power Plant (Ukraine), reached 6000 MW.
Considering that nuclear power plant units operate with almost constant power, covering
Three Mile Island Nuclear Power Plant (USA)
the basic part of the daily load schedule of integrated energy systems; in parallel with nuclear power plants, highly maneuverable pumped storage power plants were built around the world to cover the variable part of the schedule and close the night gap in the load schedule.
The high pace of development of nuclear energy did not correspond to the level of its safety. Based on the experience of operating nuclear power facilities, increasing scientific and technical understanding of the processes and possible consequences, there was a need to revise the technical requirements, which caused an increase in capital investments and operating costs.
A serious blow to the development of nuclear energy was dealt by a severe accident at the Three Mile Island nuclear power plant in the USA in 1979, as well as at a number of other facilities, which led to a radical revision of safety requirements, tightening of existing regulations and a revision of nuclear power plant development programs around the world. caused enormous moral and material damage to the nuclear energy industry. In the United States, which was the leader in nuclear energy, orders for the construction of nuclear power plants stopped in 1979, and their construction in other countries also decreased.
The severe accident at the Chernobyl nuclear power plant in Ukraine in 1986, qualified on the international scale of nuclear incidents as an accident of the highest seventh level and causing an environmental disaster over a vast territory, loss of life, displacement of hundreds of thousands of people, undermined the confidence of the world community in nuclear energy.
“The tragedy in Chernobyl is a warning. And not only in nuclear energy,” said Academician V.A. Legasov, member of the government commission, first deputy academician A.P. Alexandrov, who headed the Institute of Atomic Energy named after I.V. Kurchatova.
In many countries, nuclear energy development programs were suspended, and in a number of countries, previously planned plans for its development were completely abandoned.
Despite this, by 2000, nuclear power plants operating in 37 countries produced 16% of global electricity production.
Unprecedented efforts to ensure the safety of operating nuclear power plants made it possible at the beginning of the 21st century. restore public confidence in nuclear energy. The time is coming for a “renaissance” in its development.
In addition to high economic efficiency and competitiveness, availability of fuel resources, reliability, safety, one of the important factors is that nuclear energy is one of the most environmentally friendly clean sources electricity, although the problem of spent fuel disposal remains.
The need for reproduction (breeding) of nuclear fuel has become obvious, i.e. construction of fast neutron reactors (breeders), introduction of processing of the resulting fuel. The development of this area had serious economic incentives and prospects and was carried out in many countries.
In the USSR, the first experimental work on the industrial use of fast neutron reactors began in
1949, and from the mid-1950s the commissioning of a series of experimental reactors BR-1, BR-5, BOR-60 began (1969), in 1973 a dual-purpose nuclear power plant with a reactor power 350 MW for electricity production and seawater desalination; in 1980, the BN-600 industrial reactor with a capacity of 600 MW was launched.
An extensive development program in this area was implemented in the USA. In 1966–1972 The experimental reactor Enrico Fermi l was built, and in 1980 the world's largest research reactor, the FFTF with a capacity of 400 MW, was put into operation. In Germany, the first reactor began operating in 1974, but the high-power reactor SNR-2, which was built, was never put into operation. In France, the Phenix reactor with a capacity of 250 MW was launched in 1973, and in 1986 the Superphenix reactor with a capacity of 1242 MW was launched. Japan commissioned the experimental Joyo reactor in 1977, and the 280 MW Monju reactor in 1994.
In the context of the environmental crisis with which the world community entered the 21st century, nuclear energy can make a significant contribution to ensuring reliable power supply and reducing emissions of greenhouse gases and pollutants into the environment.
Nuclear energy best meets the internationally accepted principles of sustainable development, one of the most important requirements of which is the availability of sufficient fuel and energy resources with their stable consumption in long term.
In accordance with forecasts based on calculations and modeling of the development of society and the world economy in the 21st century, the dominant role of the electric power industry will remain. By 2030, according to the forecast of the International Energy Agency (IEA), global electricity production will more than double and exceed 30 trillion. kWh, and according to forecasts of the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA), in the context of the “renaissance” of nuclear energy, its share will increase to 25% of global electricity production, and over 100 new reactors will be built in the world over the next 15 years, and the power Nuclear power plants will increase from 370 million kW in 2006 to 679 million kW in 2030.
Currently, countries with a high share of the total volume of electricity generated are actively developing nuclear energy, including the USA, Japan, South Korea, and Finland. France, by reorienting the country's electric power industry to nuclear power and continuing to develop it, successfully solved the energy problem for many decades. The share of nuclear power plants in electricity production in this country reaches 80%. Developing countries with a still insignificant share of nuclear power generation are building nuclear power plants at a high rate. Thus, India announced its intention in the long term to build a nuclear power plant with a capacity of 40 million kW, and China - more than 100 million kW.
Of the 29 nuclear power plant units under construction in 2006, 15 were located in Asia. Turkey, Egypt, Jordan, Chile, Thailand, Vietnam, Azerbaijan, Poland, Georgia, Belarus and other countries are planning to commission nuclear power plants for the first time.
Further development of nuclear energy is planned by Russia, which envisages building a nuclear power plant with a capacity of 40 million kW by 2030. In Ukraine, in accordance with the Energy Strategy of Ukraine for the period until 2030, it is planned to increase nuclear power plant output to 219 billion kWh, maintaining it at the level of 50% of total output, and increase nuclear power plant capacity by almost 2 times, bringing it to 29.5 million kW, with an installed capacity utilization factor (IUR) of 85%, including through the commissioning of new units with a capacity of 1–1.5 million kW and extension of the operating life of existing nuclear power plant units (in 2006 in Ukraine, the capacity of nuclear power plants amounted to 13 .8 million kW with the production of 90.2 billion kWh of electricity, or about 48.7% of total production).
Work ongoing in many countries to further improve thermal and fast neutron reactors will further improve their reliability, economic efficiency and environmental safety. In this regard, international cooperation becomes important. Thus, with the implementation in the future of the international project GT MSR (gas turbine modular solar-cooled reactor), which is characterized by a high level of safety and competitiveness, minimization of radioactive waste, efficiency may increase. up to 50%.
The widespread use in the future of a two-component structure of nuclear energy, including nuclear power plants with thermal neutron reactors and fast neutron reactors that reproduce nuclear fuel, will increase the efficiency of the use of natural uranium and reduce the level of accumulation of radioactive waste.
It should be noted vital role in the development of nuclear energy of the nuclear fuel cycle (NFC), which is actually its system-forming factor. This is caused by the following circumstances:
- The nuclear fuel cycle must be provided with all necessary structural, technological and constructive solutions for safe and efficient operation;
- The nuclear fuel cycle is a condition for the social acceptability and economic efficiency of nuclear energy and its widespread use;
- the development of the nuclear fuel cycle will lead to the need to combine the tasks of ensuring the required level of safety of nuclear power plants generating electricity and minimizing the risks associated with the production of nuclear fuel, including uranium mining, transportation, reprocessing of spent nuclear fuel (SNF) and disposal of radioactive waste (a unified system of safety requirements) ;
- a sharp increase in the production and use of uranium (the initial stage of the nuclear fuel cycle) leads to an increase in the danger of natural long-lived radionuclides entering the environment, which requires increasing the efficiency of fuel use, reducing the amount of waste and closing the fuel cycle.
The economic efficiency of a nuclear power plant depends directly on the fuel cycle, including reducing the time for fuel refueling and increasing the performance characteristics of fuel assemblies (FA). Therefore, it is important to further develop and improve the nuclear fuel cycle with a high utilization rate of nuclear fuel and the creation of a low-waste closed fuel cycle.
The energy strategy of Ukraine provides for the development of the national fuel cycle. Thus, uranium production should increase from 0.8 thousand tons to 6.4 thousand tons in 2030, domestic production of zirconium, zirconium alloys and components for fuel assemblies will be further developed, and in the future the creation of a closed fuel cycle, as well as participation V international cooperation for the production of nuclear fuel. Ukraine's corporate participation is envisaged in the creation of facilities for the production of fuel assemblies for VVER reactors and in the creation of the International Center for Uranium Enrichment in Russia, and Ukraine's entry into the International Nuclear Fuel Bank proposed by the United States.
The supply of fuel to nuclear energy is of utmost importance for the prospects for its development. The current demand for natural uranium in the world is about 60 thousand tons, with total reserves of about 16 million tons.
In the 21st century The role of nuclear energy will sharply increase in ensuring the increasing production of electricity in the world using more advanced technologies. Nuclear energy does not yet have a serious competitor in the long term. In order to realize its development on a large scale, it, as already indicated, must have the following properties: high efficiency, resource availability, energy redundancy, safety, acceptability environmental impact. The first three requirements can be met using a two-component structure of nuclear power, consisting of thermal and fast reactors. With such a structure, it is possible to significantly increase the efficiency of using natural uranium, reduce its production and limit the level of radon entry into the biosphere. Ways to achieve the required level of safety and reduce capital costs for both types of reactors are already known; time and money are needed to implement them. By the time society realizes the need for further development of nuclear energy, the technology of a two-component structure will actually be prepared, although much still needs to be done in terms of optimizing nuclear power plants and the structure of the industry, including fuel cycle enterprises.
The level of environmental impact is mainly determined by the amount of radionuclides in the fuel cycle (uranium, plutonium) and in storage facilities (Np, Am, Cm, fission products).
The risk from exposure to short-lived isotopes, such as 1 1 I and 9 0 Sr, l 7 Cs, can be reduced to permissible level by improving the safety of nuclear power plants, storage facilities, and fuel cycle enterprises. The acceptability of such a risk can be proven in practice. But it is difficult to prove and impossible to demonstrate the reliability of disposal of long-lived actinides and fission products over millions of years.
Undoubtedly, we cannot abandon the search for ways to reliably dispose of radioactive waste, but it is necessary to develop the possibility of using actinides to generate energy, i.e. closing the fuel cycle not only for uranium and plutonium, but also for actinides (Np, Am, Cm, etc.). Transmutation of dangerous long-lived fission products in a system of thermal neutron reactors will complicate the structure of nuclear energy due to additional technological processes for the production and processing of nuclear fuel or will increase the number of types of nuclear power plants. The introduction of Np, Am, Cm, other actinides and fission products into reactor fuel will complicate their design, require the development of new types of nuclear fuel, and will negatively affect safety.
In this regard, the possibility of creating a three-component structure of nuclear energy, consisting of thermal and fast reactors and reactors for burning Np, Am, Cm and other actinides and transmutation of some fission products, is being considered.
The most important problems are the processing and disposal of radioactive waste, which can be converted into nuclear fuel.
In the first half of the 21st century, humanity will have to make a scientific and technical breakthrough towards the development of new types of energy, including electronuclear using charged particle accelerators, and in the future thermonuclear, which requires joining forces and international cooperation.
Tianwan NPP is the largest in terms of unit capacity of power units among all nuclear power plants currently under construction in China. Its master plan provides for the possibility of building four power units with a capacity of 1000 MW each. The station is located between Beijing and Shanghai on the shores of the Yellow Sea. Construction works began on site in 1998. The first power unit of the nuclear power plant with the water-cooled water reactor VVER-1000/428 and the K-1000-60/3000 turbine, launched in May 2006, was put into operation on June 2, 2007, and the second unit of the same type was commissioned on September 12, 2007. Currently, both power units of the nuclear plant operate stably at 100% power and supply electricity to the Chinese province of Jiangsu. It is planned to build the third and fourth power units of the Tianwan NPP.
Over the next 50 years, humanity will consume more energy than was consumed in all previous history. Previously made forecasts about the growth rate of energy consumption and the development of new energy technologies did not come true: the level of consumption is growing much faster, and new energy sources will become operational in industrial scale and at competitive prices no earlier than 2030. The problem of shortage of fossil energy resources is becoming increasingly acute. The possibilities for building new hydroelectric power plants are also very limited. We should not forget about the fight against the “greenhouse effect”, which imposes restrictions on the combustion of oil, gas and coal at thermal power plants (TPPs).
The solution to the problem could be the active development of nuclear energy, one of the youngest and most dynamically developing sectors of the global economy. An increasing number of countries today are coming to the conclusion of the need to begin developing the peaceful atom.
What are the advantages of nuclear power?
Huge energy intensity
1 kilogram of uranium enriched to 4%, used in nuclear fuel, when completely burned, releases energy equivalent to burning approximately 100 tons of high-quality coal or 60 tons of oil.
Reuse
The fissile material (uranium-235) does not burn completely in nuclear fuel and can be used again after regeneration (unlike ash and slag of organic fuel). In the future, a complete transition to a closed fuel cycle is possible, which means a complete absence of waste.
Reducing the greenhouse effect
Intensive development of nuclear energy can be considered one of the means to combat global warming. Every year, nuclear power plants in Europe avoid the emission of 700 million tons of CO2, and in Japan - 270 million tons of CO2. Operating nuclear power plants in Russia annually prevent the release of 210 million tons of carbon dioxide into the atmosphere. According to this indicator, Russia is in fourth place in the world.
Economic development
The construction of nuclear power plants ensures economic growth and the creation of new jobs: 1 workplace during the construction of a nuclear power plant, more than 10 jobs are created in related industries. The development of nuclear energy contributes to the growth of scientific research and the country's intellectual potential.
Interactive application "Comparison of electricity generation sources"
“For example, you want to increase the energy capacity of your country. Which source of electricity generation should I choose? Let's compare coal generation, hydroelectric power, wind and solar power plant, and also determine the main advantages of nuclear energy. Launch the application and determine for yourself the optimal energy source for construction.”
Play a video demonstrating the main features of the interactive application "Comparison of Electricity Generation Sources":
To work with the application:
1. Download the application from the link below.
2. Using a file manager on your computer, find the executable file “ros-atom.exe” and run it.
3. To display the image correctly, set the screen extension to 1920 x 1080.
4. Click "Play!" to launch the application.
Important! For the application to work correctly, please use a computer based on an i7 processor, with operating system Windows 7 or 10x64, RAM of at least 8 Gb, video card of at least GTX77 and 128 Gb SSD.