Pyotr Karlovich Uslar, a Russian linguist, researcher of the languages and culture of the peoples of the Caucasus, was born in 1816 in the family estate of Kurovo (Tver province), which was granted by Alexander I to his grandfather for military merits. He received his initial education from his home teacher Mindendoror, who instilled in him a love of languages. Then he entered the III St. Petersburg Gymnasium, which he successfully graduated from in 1833. Until 1836 he studied at the Main Engineering School. In 1837, he was sent to the Separate Caucasian Corps, where he began serving as a military engineer in a sapper battalion. In 1839, P. Uslar participated in Golovin’s expedition to Southern Dagestan.
He was a graduate of an engineering school, a cadet at the General Staff Academy, a student at the Faculty of History and Philology at St. Petersburg University and several foreign universities, and became a bearer of enormous erudition. Uslar knew ancient and modern European languages, Turkish and Persian. It combines a lot of information from various branches of science. He could express his thoughts extremely easily and clearly, and this made him a talented writer and a wonderful editor.
After serving in the Caucasus, Uslar returned home to Russia and married Sophia Grabbe. Unfortunately, their marriage did not last long: in 1843, he suffered a double misfortune - his wife died along with Julia, their eldest daughter. Pyotr Karlovich stayed with his youngest daughter Nina. In order to take care of her, he settled on the estate and only in 1850 returned to the Caucasus, where he stayed for 25 years until his death, sometimes going to visit his daughter on his native estate.
He was sent to the Caucasus to provide a military-statistical description of the Erivan province. During the Crimean War, in 1853-1856, he was the chief of staff of the Gurian detachment of the separate Caucasian corps. Then, with the rank of colonel in 1956, he was appointed chief of staff under Kutaisi Governor-General A.I. Gagarin. In 1862 he received the rank of major general.
In 1851, Uslar became one of the first 16 full members of the Caucasian Department of the Imperial Russian Geographical Society. Then in 1868 he became a corresponding member in the category of linguistics of the historical and philological department of the Academy.
Peter Uslar’s first Caucasian work was “Military Statistical Review of the Erivan Province,” written in 1850. In 1858, he was entrusted with compiling the history of the languages of the Caucasus (the work was published after his death). In this regard, he had to study Caucasian languages. He began his study of Iberian-Caucasian languages with the Western Caucasian family - Circassian, Ubykh and Abkhazian. In 1861 he developed the “Caucasian alphabet”. To record the unwritten mountain languages, he took as a basis the principle of the Georgian alphabet, but with Russian letters, partly from the Ossetian alphabet.
In 1862, Uslar came to Nalchik, where he created the Kabardian alphabet on a Russian basis. That same year he began studying the Chechen language. In 1863, Uslar was awarded the Demidov Prize for these works.
Afterwards, Pyotr Karlovich began studying the Avar, Lak, Dargin, Lezgin and Tabasaran languages. In the process of studying them, he published grammars, monographs, dictionaries and alphabet books. In 1863, Peter moved to Temir-Khan-Shura and began to study and research the Avar language, the most common language in Dagestan. They took the Khunzakh dialect as the basis. Uslar was helped and advised by Aydemir Chirkeevsky.
In the autumn of the same year, research began on the Lak (Kazikumukh) language. In a letter to academician A. Shifner, Uslar wrote: “Now I’m starting the Kazikumukh language, then in 4 weeks I’ll start the Archie language. Next I will study the Dargya language, of which the purest is Uraklinsky.”
In 1864, the Lak grammar was ready, and in 1865 it was lithographed. Following Lak, he began to study one of the dialects of the Dargin group - “Khyurkilinsky” (Uraklinsky), the grammar of which was lithographed by him in 1867. In 1871, the study of the Lezgin (“Kyurin”) language was already completed.
The last language that the linguist began to study in 1871 was Tabasaran, which caused the greatest difficulties. In the 1880s Uslar's monographs on Caucasian languages, with the exception of the grammar of the Tabasaran language, were published typographically by the Administration of the Caucasian Educational District.
P. Uslar lived in Dagestan for about 20 years and was engaged in studying Dagestan languages and educating Dagestanis. Life away from home undermined the scientist’s health. In the spring of 1874, Peter Uslar, already seriously ill, returned to his homeland, where he died in the summer of the same year.
His daughter, Nina Petrovna, recalls that the monograph on the Tabasaran language remained unfinished. The material about this language was sent to Academician Shidnet, but he also died in 1879. The monograph remained unpublished for more than 100 years. Only in 1953-1954. it was prepared for printing in Tbilisi by Alexander Magomedov.
Thus, Pyotr Karlovich Uslar not only made a huge contribution to the study and compilation of the grammar of unwritten Caucasian languages, but was also the founder of the field research methodology.
He laid the foundation for the scientific study of the languages of the Caucasian peoples. Uslar is also the founder of the education system in mountain schools, emphasizing that the native and Russian languages “should be the basis for teaching Gentiles in general and Caucasian highlanders in particular.” He went down in history as the largest Caucasian scholar, linguist and educator of the 19th century.
He also did a lot for the practical spread of literacy among the mountain people - speakers of unwritten languages; he was the initiator of the creation of secular schools in mountain villages, where education would be conducted in native language since the creation of writing. Based on the Uslar alphabet, several primers of the Nakh-Dagestan languages (Chechen, Lak, Avar) were published, although in general the curriculum local residents literacy in the native language was not implemented. He paid attention to the problems of studying the history of the Caucasian peoples and their culture. His linguistic work influenced N.F. Yakovlev and other scientists.
Pyotr Karlovich noted that in almost all populated areas In Dagestan there were mosques, mektebs and madrassas in which the population studied. He wrote: “If education were determined by the proportionality of schools, then Dagestan would be ahead of Europe.”
The ideas of Peter Uslar, the didactic principles of teaching in two languages, developed by him more than 150 years ago, are used in Russia today in the system of bilingual (bilingual) education.
G. R. Rashidova
DAGESTAN IN P. K. USLAR'S PUBLICISTICS
The work was presented by the Department of Russian Literature of the Dagestan State University.
Scientific supervisor - Doctor of Philology, Professor Sh. A. Mazanaev
The article is the first to examine the scientific and educational journalism of the major Russian linguist of the 19th century, Pyotr Karlovich Uslar. His articles, reports and letters are analyzed, and the place of Dagestan is determined.
The article is devoted to the scientific and educational works of Petr Karlovich Uslar, the great Russian linguist of the 19th century. The author analyzes his articles, reports and letters and defines the role of Dagestan there.
Life and scientific activity The major Russian linguist Pyotr Karlovich Uslar (1816-1875) was studied by linguists, historians and writers: L. Zagursky, A. Chikobava, Dm. Trunov, A. Magometov, A. Gadzhiev, B. Gadzhiev and others. However, the scientist’s journalism still remains unexplored.
P.K. Uslar was not only a linguist, a researcher of Caucasian, including Dagestan languages, but also a historian, ethnographer, educator and talented publicist.
Since 1837, he served in the Caucasus, closely followed military and other events, read periodicals, corresponded with scientists, poets and public figures, and shared the views of democrats. He proposed to introduce the mountaineers of the Caucasus to the Russian people and Russian culture through their education in their native languages. For this purpose, the scientist studied the history, ethnography and languages of the mountain peoples.
Articles, travel notes, reports and other works of a journalistic nature by P. K. Uslar were published during the author’s lifetime in the newspaper “Caucasus”, “Collections of information about the Caucasian highlanders” (SSKG)1 and other publications in Russian and German. Only in the 1887 issue of the SSKG were published 6 articles and the monograph “Abkhazian language”. The most famous
The most significant and problematic articles are: “Development of literacy among the highlanders”, “Spreading literacy among the highlanders”, “Proposal for the establishment of mountain schools”, “On the compilation of the alphabet of the Caucasian languages”, etc.
The journalism of P. K Uslar includes works of various genre characteristics: newspaper articles, magazine articles, prefaces to books, reports, reports and letters. The scientist’s personal letters are also closely related to his educational and linguistic activities.
An analysis of these and other articles shows that Pyotr Karlovich advocated secular education, the compilation and publication of alphabet books, primers, textbooks in native languages, for the education of highlanders in the spirit of friendship with the Russian people and other peoples of the region, for the study and preservation of languages, folklore, and culture and the history of aboriginal peoples, for translating Russian books into mountain languages, for solving other socio-political, socio-economic and moral-ethnic problems.
The scientist's journalism is predominantly scientific and educational in nature, but it also contains elements of such scientific fields as history, ethnography, folklore, ecology and everyday life, etc. Therefore, it can be noted that it is also characterized by syncretism.
In his journalistic works P.K. Uslar puts such actual problems, such as educating the peoples of the Caucasus, creating schools in their native language, etc. He persistently addresses officials, scientists, writers and the public with the same questions regarding the important, in his opinion, problem of educating the peoples of the Caucasus, including Dagestan.
The journalism of P.K. Uslar expresses human pain for the oppressed, powerless and God-forgotten people - mountaineers deprived of literacy in their native language; their development prospects have been identified if they accept the system of training and education offered to them.
Articles and reports of a scientist are characterized by argumentation, scientific character, persuasiveness and persistence. Bearing in mind these and other features of journalism, it is not difficult to imagine how its author wanted to influence the tsarist officials, on whom a positive solution to the problem of educating the highlanders depended. They clearly demonstrate the educational, pedagogical, linguistic and philosophical views of the scientist.
Here we have to note the functional role of journalism in a certain society. As V. Uchenova notes, “the meaning of journalism has been and remains primarily to influence social practice, the actions of people and public institutions. The path to this often lies through the formation of opinions.”2 So, one can assume, P.K. Uslar, who tried to create public opinion, understood the functional role of journalism.
P. K. Uslar's journalism is primarily analytical; it contains a lot of valuable information about Dagestan: about its languages, people, about the state of their enlightenment. He developed and published by lithographic method works that are valuable to this day: “Avar language”, “Lak language”, “Khyurkilin (Dargin) language”, “Kyurinsky (les-
Ginsky) language”, and “Tabasaran language” remained unfinished; wrote dozens of articles, reports and letters directly related to Dagestan.
The Dagestan writer Dmitry Trunov called his essay about P.K. Uslar “Pioneer of Caucasian linguistics.” The author relies on events and facts taken from the life of a scientist, recreates a portrait of a scientist in love with Dagestan and the Dagestan people: “The mountainous country attracted him irresistibly, attracted him for many years, the joys of knowledge and the joys of the rapid flight of scientific thought are associated with it . It was in this country that he matured as a scientist...”3.
The scientist highly valued the folklore and musical culture of the peoples of Dagestan and noted that the mountaineers have an extensive reserve of melodies. Mountain melodies are a highly interesting phenomenon. I don’t think there is a European who could get used to them the first time, but the further you go, the more you get used to their wild charm.
The creation of the image of Dagestan in the journalism of P. K. Uslar occurs in stages: historical events and the facts in the scientist’s articles are supported by ethnographic material; characterizing the languages of local peoples (Avars, Laks, Dargins, Lezgins and Tabasarans), a collective image of speakers of a particular language is created; by describing the life, folklore, customs and traditions of local peoples and their specific representatives, including their assistants and translators, living images are created real people- historical figures.
The images of Dagestan and the Dagestanis in the works of P.K. Uslar were created not only on the images of Shamil, Hadji Murad and other legendary personalities, but also on the examples of living people surrounding the scientist. Such people worthy of respect, love and trust were his assistants and translators.
Dagestanis. In her memoirs, the scientist’s daughter Nina Petrovna writes: “On June 5, my father began to talk incessantly, constantly calling on his mountaineer colleagues, especially some Kazanfer”4.
A lot of space in Pyotr Karlovich’s work is occupied by business, official and personal letters to members of the Russian Geographical Society, scientists, publishers, family members and friends.
Most of all, Pyotr Karlovich addressed letters to A. Berger, Chairman of the Caucasian Archaeological Commission, and A. Schiffner, Academician Russian Academy sciences, K. Kessler - rector of St. Petersburg University, V. Frankini - head of the Gorsky Department, D. Kovalevsky - head of affairs of the Caucasian department of the Russian Geographical Society, V. Shertsl - professor of Kharkov University, etc.
In the letters of Pyotr Karlovich Uslar, as noted by A. A. Magometov, one of the researchers of the scientist’s work, a variety of materials are presented, but mostly they are businesslike and scientific character: the author reports on the progress of work on the languages he is studying, on difficulties, on the sequence of work, etc. P. K. Uslar’s letters are of great historical and linguistic interest, they express the author’s views on the languages under study, on general linguistic, ethnographic, cultural , educational and other problems of Dagestan5.
Letters of P.K. Uslar - chronology, the most striking moments of the life of a linguist.
In the articles and letters of P.K. Uslar there are brief descriptions of nature, epithets, metaphors and comparisons that express deep feelings and emotions. Thus, in a letter of 1863 to A. Berger we read: “I am eager to go to Dagestan, and even more so only summer time and is conducive to studies in the mountains... I spent the summer in Guniba, in the central point of Middle Dagestan, where I had the opportunity to talk with representatives of all the numerous Maarul (mountain) tribes... The cold drove me out of the mountains, and I settled for the whole winter in Derbent. As I continued my travels, I found capable translators for each language, whom I will call here one by one... Thanks great helpers, I found, the Avar grammar came out very complete...”
The articles and letters of P.K. Uslar are informative, problematic, delicate and highly literate. The author, despite his baronial title and general rank, addresses the addressee with great respect, for example: “Dear Sir!” to the director of affairs of the Caucasian department of the Russian Geographical Society, D.I. Kovalevsky, etc. And each letter ends with the expressions: “Accept the assurances of my complete respect and devotion to you” and “Your humble servant.”
Articles and letters of P.K. Uslar are a great contribution to Russian journalism of the 19th century. They have not lost their significance even today.
NOTES
1 SSKG - Tiflis, 1987.
2 Uchenova V. Journalism and politics. M., 1979. P. 13.
3 Trunov D. Light from Russia. Makhachkala, 1956. pp. 151-152.
5 Magomedov A. Uslar P.K. - researcher of Dagestan languages. Makhachkala, 1979. P. 81.
Member of the Caucasian Department of the Imperial Russian Geographical Society (1851), corresponding member in the category of linguistics of the Historical and Philological Department of the Academy of Sciences (1868).
Origin and family
Born in 1816 into the family of barons Uslar (Uzlar), whose estate was located in the village of Kurovo, Vyshnevolotsk district, Tver province (now Staroe Kurovo, Vyshnevolotsk district); in addition to Kurov, the Uslars also owned the villages of Gorbovo and Naumovo.
Grandfather - Major Karl Uslar, a native of Hanover, came to Russia and entered the military service in 1765; the Kurovo estate was granted to him by Alexander I. Father - captain Karl Karlovich Uslar, participant Patriotic War 1812 (died 1840). Mother - daughter of a collegiate assessor Vera Vasilievna Chikhacheva.
There were seven children in the family: in addition to Peter, these were the elder sister Alexandra (1815) and the younger ones Sergei (1819), Elizaveta (1820), Elena (1822), Maria (?) and Nikolai (1830).. Sergei Karlovich was killed at the age of 22 While serving in the Caucasus, Nikolai Karlovich studied to be a lawyer, but died at the age of 30, having lost his sight. Elena Karlovna, married to Frolov, then Bogdanova, was a friend of E. A. Denisyeva, the common-law wife of F. I. Tyutchev.
P.K. Uslar was married to Sofya Karlovna Krabbe, daughter of General K.K. Krabbe. They married in 1839 in Shusha; in 1843, Sofya Karlovna died almost simultaneously with their eldest daughter Yulia.
Their youngest daughter Nina Petrovna was married to D. D. Blagovo, a titular adviser and famous writer and theologian; their children are Varvara (1859) and Peter (1861), who died in infancy. In 1862, Nina Petrovna left her family, D. D. Blagovo accepted monasticism with the name Pimen. Subsequently, Archimandrite Pimen was rector of the Russian Embassy Church in Rome, where he died. From her second marriage, Nina Petrovna had two more children. Varvara Blagovo became the wife of historian, professor at Kazan University D. A. Korsakov.
Education and military career
P. K. Uslar was first brought up at home under the guidance of teacher G. Middendorf, then graduated from the 3rd St. Petersburg Gymnasium (1833) and the Main Engineering School (1836) (now the Military Engineering and Technical University). By profession - military engineer.
In 1837 he was sent to the Separate Caucasian Corps, where during Caucasian War began service in the sapper battalion. In 1839 he participated in Golovin’s expedition to Southern Dagestan, including taking part in the capture of Akhta. Then, after his marriage, he left the Caucasus for almost 10 years.
In 1840, Uslar entered the Imperial Military Academy in St. Petersburg, after which he was assigned to the Siberian Corps. In 1843-44. serves in the Siberian Corps, takes part in the expedition against Kenesary Kasymov. He sets out his impressions in the essay “Four Months in the Kyrgyz Steppe.”
Then Uslar was sent to compile a military-statistical description of the Tver and Vologda provinces, which continued in 1845-49. Participated in the Hungarian campaign of 1849.
Since 1850, Uslar again served in the Caucasus, where he stayed for 25 years until his death, only traveling briefly to his native estate (usually for the summer). At first he was sent for a military-statistical description of the Erivan province. During the Crimean War of 1853-56. Chief of Staff of the Gurian detachment of the Separate Caucasian Corps. Then he served in Kutaisi with the rank of colonel. Since 1862 - Major General.
Awarded the Order of St. Anne, 3rd class. with bow (1849) and 1st art. with swords (1867), St. Vladimir 4th Art. with bow (1854) and 3rd art. with swords (1857), St. George 4th Art. for 25 years of service (1855), St. Stanislaus 1st Art. (1865).
Back in 1865, Uslar complained to A.P. Berger about “extreme impairment of health and especially vision,” and in 1871 he wrote: “My health is completely destroyed - not by my studies, but by the climate of the Caspian coast, which is very harmful to me.” In the spring of 1874, Uslar, already seriously ill, finally returned from Dagestan to his estate, where he died in the summer of 1875. According to his daughter’s recollections, several days before his death he was delirious and “speaking loudly, constantly calling on the mountaineers with whom he worked in Shura, especially Kazanfer.”
He was buried in the village of Osechno, where the parish Trinity Church and cemetery were located.
Studying the languages and peoples of the Caucasus
P. K. Uslar’s first Caucasian work was “Military Statistical Review of the Erivan Province” (compiled in 1850). In 1851, he became one of the first 16 full members of the Caucasian department of the Imperial Russian Geographical Society, created at the request of the governor of the Caucasus M. S. Vorontsov. In 1856, he was appointed chief of staff under Kutaisi Governor-General A.I. Gagarin, who was soon killed by the local prince Dadishkiliani.
In 1858, Uslar was entrusted with compiling the history of the Caucasus. He begins the essay ancient history Caucasus, which was finalized in subsequent years (published after his death). Seeing in language the most reliable source of the history of the people, Uslar turns to the study of languages. He began his study of mountain languages with the West Caucasian family - Circassian, Ubykh and Abkhazian. Little material was collected on the first two, and brief notes on Circassian and Ubykh were published only after Uslar’s death (along with his sketch of Svan grammar, also small in volume). The Abkhaz language was studied in more detail, work on the grammar of which began in 1861 in Sukhumi and continued in 1862 in Tiflis; for comparatively a short time the researcher managed to understand the structure of one of the most complex Caucasian languages and develop its alphabet (based on the Bzyb dialect).
Already in 1861, Uslar developed the “Caucasian alphabet” for recording unwritten mountain languages - he took the principle of the Georgian alphabet as a basis, but with Russian letters and additions, partially using letters from the Ossetian Sjögren alphabet.
In 1862, Uslar also visited Nalchik together with the Kabardian writer Umar Berseev. They create the Kabardian alphabet on a Russian basis (this work was completed by the local educator Kazi Atazhukin, who compiled and published a Kabardian alphabet book in 1865).
In the same year, Uslar began to study the Chechen language: he turned to the main headquarters of the Caucasian army with a request to call two Chechens to Tiflis, if possible familiar with Russian literacy, and in March police ensign Kedi Dosov and mullah Yangulbai Khasanov arrived there. Then classes are transferred to the Grozny fortress, where a temporary school was opened in June, where for six weeks Mullah Yangulbai taught Chechen literacy classes to 25 students who did not speak Russian. After this time, all students learned to write and read Chechen, and Uslar was able to complete Chechen grammar; Subsequently, Kedi Dosov compiled a Chechen primer based on the recording method proposed by Uslar.
The monographs “Abkhazian Language” and “Chechen Language” lithographed by the author were sent to Academician A. A. Shifner, who submitted them to a competition at the Academy of Sciences, and in 1863 Uslar was awarded the Demidov Prize (in half the amount) for these works. In the first two grammars, a general plan of description had already been formed, which was used by the author in subsequent works: first, after general information about language, the alphabet was considered (based on the Russian alphabet with the addition of special characters), then there was a description of parts of speech, separate sections included samples of texts (proverbs, songs, fairy tales) and the monograph ended with a collection of words (indicating the main grammatical forms and examples of combinations and sentences ).
Since 1863, Uslar settled in Temir-Khan-Shura and began studying Dagestan languages, starting with Avar, the most common language in Dagestan. The basis was the Khunzakh dialect as more accessible for research; Uslar spends the entire summer in the village of Gunib. The scientist’s consultant was Aidemir Chirkeevsky, who was described by Uslar as “not only a diligent, but also an extremely gifted employee,” from whose activities “in the field of Dagestan linguistic studies, science has the right to expect precious contributions in the future.” Indeed, in 1867, a collection “Avar tales and songs collected by Aidemir Chirkeevsky” was published in Temir-Khan-Shura; however, in 1871, Aydemir fled to Turkey and, apparently, never returned to Dagestan.
In the autumn of the same 1863, having not yet lithographed the Avar grammar, Uslar began to study the Lak (“Kazikumukh”) language. In a letter to academician A. Schiffner, he says: “Now I’m starting to speak the Kazykumukh language, then I’ll spend four weeks on the Archie language. Next I will study the Dargya languages, of which the purest is Uraklinsky.” In the same letter, Uslar encloses notes on the grammatical structure of the Archin language, which he made “during one morning spent with the Archin people.” In 1864, the Lak grammar was ready, and in 1865 it was lithographed. Following the Lak language, P. Uslar studies one of the dialects of the Dargin group - “Khyurkilinsky” (Urklinsky), the grammar of which was lithographed by him in 1867. The name of the language was chosen according to the local name of one of the most populous villages (Khyurkila; now the village of Urahi, Sergokalinsky district).
On December 13, 1868, Uslar became a corresponding member in the category of linguistics of the Historical and Philological Department of the Academy of Sciences. In 1871, he completed his study of the Lezgin (“Kyurin”) language; the role of consultant was “a natural Kyurinian named Ganazfer, from the village of Mamrachar, a gifted and hardworking man”; in February 1872, a lithographed Lezgin grammar was sent to Academician Schiffner.
The last language that Uslar explored was the Tabasaran language, which he began studying in 1870, noting that “of all the Dagestan languages, Tabasaran presented the most difficulties.” These difficulties lay primarily in the fact that the researcher for a long time could not find a suitable informant: “It’s been almost a year since I started researching the Tabasaran language,” Uslar writes to Schifner in September 1871, “but I’m forced to constantly change leaders... I haven’t been able to develop any grammatical understanding in them.” The collection of material in Tabasaran was carried out in Ersi (a village with an Azerbaijani population, but with the residence of the district chief), where informants from Tabasaran villages were called. Uslar partially processed the Tabasaran material in Temir-Khan-Shura, administrative center Dagestan region, mainly on the family estate, where he usually went for the summer with the accumulated material.
The fate of the scientific heritage
P.K. Uslar made a huge contribution to the documentation of unwritten Caucasian languages and was the spontaneous founder of the field research methodology.
Uslar conceived descriptions of the Caucasian languages in the form of a series of monographs “Caucase polyglotte”, covering all the main languages of the “Caucasian family”. Academician A. A. Shifner, one of the first researchers of Caucasian languages, greatly contributed to the acquaintance of the scientific world and specialists with Uslar’s works. Having lithographed his next grammar, Uslar sent it to Schiffner, who made reports about Uslar’s work at the St. Petersburg Academy of Sciences. Uslar's grammars were re-stated by Schiffner in German and published in the Bulletins (M?moires) of the Academy of Sciences.
At the end of the 1880s. Uslar's monographs on Caucasian languages, with the exception of the grammar of the Tabasaran language, were published in printing by the Administration of the Caucasian Educational District. Some monographs are accompanied by separate articles and letters, which present material about the progress of work on the languages being studied and the difficulties that Uslar encountered in the study of languages.
The monograph on the Tabasaran language remained unfinished, although the title page and alphabet had already been lithographed. The daughter of the deceased sent the manuscript of the Tabasaran grammar, as well as all the linguistic and non-linguistic notes and even her father’s draft papers to Academician Schiffner. However, before his death in 1879, he did not have time to work on Uslar’s last monograph, and it remained unpublished for more than 100 years. Only in 1953-54. Tabasaran grammar was prepared for publication in Tbilisi by Dagestan scholar A. A. Magometov (the entire text of Uslar’s grammar was rewritten by him by hand) and published in 1979 with his comments and additions. In the same year, A. A. Magometov also published a monograph on the life and work of Uslar.
Uslar also did a lot for the practical spread of literacy among the mountaineers, speakers of unwritten languages. Work on any grammar began with the compilation of the alphabet in the native language. Taking into account that “most of the mountain peoples are in almost continuous relations with the Russians” and, at the same time, in order to make it easier for the mountain people to master Russian literacy, Uslar comes to the conclusion that it is necessary to base the mountain alphabets on the styles of Russian letters with the corresponding additions. (The Russian letters ъ, ь, и, й, е, ю, я, ы were excluded from the alphabet, but the Latin j, h and q were added.) At the same time, Uslar believed that the combination of two letters to express one sound constitutes a clear imperfection alphabet, therefore, to denote special sounds, he used Georgian letters or letters invented by himself.
Uslar was the initiator of the creation of secular schools in mountain villages, where education would be conducted in the native language. Based on the Uslar alphabet, several primers of the Nakh-Dagestan languages (Chechen, Lak, Avar) were published, although in general the program for teaching local residents to read and write in their native language at that time, unfortunately, was never implemented.
- Uslar P.K. The most ancient legends about the Caucasus // Collection of information about the Caucasian highlanders. Vol. X. Tiflis, 1886. - LXXXIII p. + 581 pp.
“Ethnography of the Caucasus. Linguistics"
- Uslar P.K. Ethnography of the Caucasus. Linguistics. Abkhazian language, Tiflis, 1887. - XV p. + 193 pp. + 120 s. (Reprint: Sukhum, 2002.)
- Uslar P.K. Ethnography of the Caucasus. Linguistics. II. Chechen language, Tiflis, 1888. - 52 p. + 246 s. + 117 pp.
- Uslar P.K. Ethnography of the Caucasus. Linguistics. III. Avar language, Tiflis, 1889. - 242 p. + 275 s. + 20 s.
- Uslar P.K. Ethnography of the Caucasus. Linguistics. IV. Lak language, Tiflis, 1890. - 42 p. + 422 s. + 14 s.
- Uslar P.K. Ethnography of the Caucasus. Linguistics. V. Khyurkilin language, Tiflis, 1892. - 497 p.
- Uslar P.K. Ethnography of the Caucasus. Linguistics. VI. Kyurin language, Tiflis, 1896. - 639 p.
- Uslar P.K. Ethnography of the Caucasus. Linguistics. VII. Tabasaran language. Tbilisi, 1979. - 1072 p.
Military statistical review
- Military statistical review Russian Empire. T. 4. Part 1: Tver province / Comp. Gene. Headquarters headquarters: Uslar and von Minster. St. Petersburg, 1848.
- Military statistical review of the Russian Empire. T. 2. Part 3: Vologda province / Comp. Gene. headquarters cap. Uslar. St. Petersburg, 1850.
- Military statistical review of the Russian Empire. T. 16. Part 6: Erivan province / Comp. Gene. headquarters cap. Uslar. St. Petersburg, 1853.
Articles and notes
- Uslar P.K. Plains of Erivan province; A look at the Erivan province in hydrographic terms and an overview of the Araks River // Notes of the Caucasian Department of the Russian Geographical Society. Book I. Tiflis, 1852.
- <Без подписи.>On the study of Caucasian languages // Caucasus. 1862. No. 49, No. 50.
- <Без подписи.>Something about the alphabet of the Caucasian highlanders // Caucasus. 1863. No. 20.
- Uslar P.K. Something about the verbal works of the highlanders // Collection of information about the Caucasian highlanders. Vol. I. Tiflis, 1868.
- Uslar P.K.<Заметка об изучении убыхского языка>// Caucasus. 1868. No. 113.
- Uslar P.K. The beginning of Christianity in Transcaucasia and the Caucasus // Collection of information about the Caucasian highlanders. Vol. II. Tiflis, 1869.
- Uslar P.K. On the spread of literacy among the highlanders // Collection of information about the Caucasian highlanders. Vol. III. Tiflis, 1870.
- Uslar P.K. Characteristic features of the Caucasian languages // Collection of information about the Caucasian highlanders. Vol. IX. Tiflis, 1876.
- Uslar P.K. Gurian detachment in 1855 // Caucasian collection. T. 5. Tiflis, 1880. (Text)
- Uslar P.K. About the Colchians // Notes of the Caucasian Department of the Russian Geographical Society. Book XIV, no. 2. Kazan, 1891.
Letters
- Letters of P.K. Uslar // Uslar P.K. Ethnography of the Caucasus. Linguistics. II. Chechen language, Tiflis, 1888.
- Letters from P.K. Uslar to A.A. Shifner // Uslar P.K. Ethnography of the Caucasus. Linguistics. IV. Lak language, Tiflis, 1890.
- Unpublished letters of P.K. Uslar (Publication by A.A. Magometov) // Matsne (Bulletin. Organ of the department of social sciences of the Academy of Sciences of the Georgian SSR). 1968. No. 5. pp. 193-210.
About him
- Bekoeva T. A. The role of P. K. Uslar in the development of schools and education of mountain peoples North Caucasus. Diss. ...cand. teacher Sci. Vladikavkaz, 1998.
- Bekoeva T. A. P. K. Uslar on the problems of education and upbringing of the mountain peoples of the North Caucasus: Textbook and method. allowance. Vladikavkaz, 1999. - 53 p.
- Bekoeva T. A. Educational and pedagogical ideas of P. K. Uslar. Vladikavkaz, 2000. - 159 p.
- Bekoeva T. A. The second prominent educator of the North Caucasus half of the 19th century century P.K. Uslar. Vladikavkaz, 2008. - 155 p.
- Bunkova Yu. V. Problems of studying and enlightening the peoples of the North Caucasus in the views and activities of P. K. Uslar and N. I. Voronov. Diss. ...cand. ist. Sci. Nalchik, 2007.
- Gadzhiev A.-G. S. Pyotr Karlovich Uslar - an outstanding Caucasus expert: On the 150th anniversary of his birth. Makhachkala, 1966. - 25 p.
- Gyulmagomedov A. G., Gyulmagomedov G. A. Works of P. K. Uslar on Dagestan languages and modern linguistics // Bulletin of Dagestan scientific center. 2008. No. 32. P. 70-73. (pdf)
- Zagursky L.P. Pyotr Karlovich Uslar and his activities in the Caucasus // Collection of information about the Caucasian highlanders. Vol. X. Tiflis, 1881.
- Magometov A. A. Unpublished monograph by P. K. Uslar on the Tabasaran language // Questions of linguistics. 1954. No. 3.
- Magometov A. A. P. K. Uslar as the largest Caucasian scholar and linguist (on the 150th anniversary of his birth) // Proceedings of the USSR Academy of Sciences. SLY. 1966. Vol. 5. pp. 377-385.
- Magometov A. A. P. K. Uslar - researcher of Dagestan languages. Makhachkala, 1979. - 100 p.
- Rashidova G. R. Dagestan in the artistic journalism of P. K. Uslar. Diss. ...cand. Philol. Sci. Makhachkala, 2007.
- Chikobava A. S. P. Uslar and issues of scientific study of mountain Iberian-Caucasian languages // Iberian-Caucasian linguistics. VII. Tbilisi, 1955.
- Gabunia Z. M. Russian linguistic science in the formation and development of Caucasian linguistics, Vladikavkaz, 2011. - 518 p. section Uslar P.K. p.10-101.
- Gabunia Z. M. Scientific portraits of Caucasian linguists (on the history of linguistics), Nalchik, 1991.
Industrialization fundamentally changed the world. New sources of energy enabled mechanization; communications and means of transportation were developed.
Reasons for Industrialization
Many factors contributed to the accelerated development of industrialization in Europe in the 19th century. Due to the development of large empires, especially the British Empire, powerful trade opportunities emerged in Europe. Growing export markets contributed to increased productivity, and modern factories gradually began to be built. Acceleration industrial development in Great Britain contributed to the significant expansion of the empire in the 18th century. By the end of the 18th and early XIX century, states such as Belgium and Germany also began to create industrial production. Industrialization captured more and more new areas, from England to Northern and Western Europe, later she crossed the Atlantic and reached the east coast of the United States.
This process was facilitated by the intensive development natural sciences and technology. Probably one of the most important inventions of the time was the use of steam power, which drove machines in factories. Coal was required to generate steam, and some of Europe's strongest industrial regions were located near vast coal deposits. Great Britain and benefited from coal mines in South Wales, the Midlands and Northern England. In Germany, the coal industry was developed primarily with its deep coal seams extending widely to the north.
In addition, industrial regions benefited from proximity to important transport routes and trade routes such as rivers, canals or the sea. For example, in France, the Moselle and Marne rivers were ideal for transporting coal, and Marseille, located in Provence, provided access to the Mediterranean Sea.
First photograph of the site (circa 1850) where it was later built Big City Salt Lake City. Left: An 1883 engraving shows a female worker (and foreman) in an English cotton mill.
The advantage of Great Britain was that on a relatively narrow island, all cities were located close to the sea. In addition, the network of waterways, consisting of rivers and canals, provided an easy way to transport oil and finished products. The same great importance had rivers in Northern Germany and Belgium. Along with convenient geographical location, provision played an important role labor force, which was used in factories.
As a result of years of privatization of common lands, many people living in rural areas of Great Britain have been forced to move to cities in search of work. On the European continent, the flight from villages to big cities began a little later. Major port cities such as Liverpool, Marseille, Hamburg and Rotterdam quickly developed into major industrial centers.
Impact of industrialization
The emergence of industrial society completely changed the world. At the beginning of the 20th century, countries with high degree industrialization were not only economically, but also politically strong states. The dominant nations of Germany, France, Great Britain, Japan and the USA relied on developed economy their countries. Industrialization, combined with the capitalist structure of the economy, has created an extremely effective and productive instrument for supporting and financing the state. As the 20th century progressed, capitalist democracies focused on market trade, have become the richest countries in the world.
In the 19th century, the direct impact of the industrial revolution did not always have positive consequences. Due to the urbanization of cities and the influx of poor people, many felt their living conditions deteriorating. Hunger and disease appeared. The distance between factory owners (capitalists), who wanted to reduce costs as much as possible in order to gain profit, and low-paid and oppressed workers (the proletariat) gave rise to class conflicts. Poor living conditions throughout 19th-century Europe influenced philosophers such as Karl Marx, who published The Communist Manifesto in 1848. Industrialization determined not only social, but also political changes. The emergence of communism as an opposition to capitalism led to fundamental changes in some countries. The coup in Russia was especially significant - the Great October Revolution.
English physicist Michael Faraday, who discovered electromagnetism and thereby laid the foundations of the dynamo and electric generator.
Steam engine
Steam engines contributed greatly to industrialization as they generated power to drive pumps, locomotives, and steamships.
The steam produced in the machine under pressure enters a turbine or piston and sets it in motion. This movement is transmitted to the wheels of the car. Although the date of this invention is considered to be 1698, many improvements were required before the steamship was first equipped with a steam engine in 1802. We owe the improvement of the steam engine to the Scotsman James Watt. Watt was born in 1732 and devoted his entire life to improving the steam engine, as a result of which it began to be used as a source of energy and drive during the era of the industrial revolution. Watt invented a separate chamber for steam condensation and thereby increased the efficiency of the machine. The barometer, centrifugal governor and flywheel are also his inventions. One of the steam engines built by Watt was installed on the first experimental steamship, the Claremont, built in 1807 on the Hudson.
Railway
The creation of railways with steam locomotives was a significant contribution to industrialization. Simple types Railways operated in Great Britain back in the 19th century. Horses pulled trolleys along primitive tracks made of stone and iron to quarries and mines. The steam engine radically changed the situation. Miner Richard Trevithick from Cornwall coupled a steam engine and a tipping trolley in 1804. Inspired by this result, George Stephenson created the first working steam locomotive that could pull carriages. The first railway opened in 1830 between London and Liverpool created a real sensation in the construction of railways. Finally, the British state intervened and in 1850 standardized the gauge, which by then had up to ten widths. Thus, Britain became the first country to have a properly functioning national railway network at its disposal. Railways were now being built everywhere in Europe, connecting remote areas and facilitating the integration of the economy.
Textile industry
Factories equipped with machines became the production centers of national industry. In parallel with the increasing mechanization of production processes and rapid growth labor productivity, gigantic factories arose everywhere in Europe, equipped with machines that were serviced by countless workers. Revolutionary advances in textile production were achieved through the use of the first water-powered spinning machine, invented by Arkwright in 1769, and the invention of the steam-powered power loom, invented by Cartwright in 1792. In America, Eli Whitney developed a linter in 1793 to automatically separate cotton fiber from the seed. The associated increase in the volume of raw cotton produced caused a drop in prices and an increase in demand. In the mid-19th century, America produced three-quarters of the world's cotton textiles. A large number of This product came from the southern states and further to England and New England for further processing. The factories produced not only cheap clothes, but also dishes, glassware, watches - everything that was in demand.
Telegraph
Prosperous economies depended on communications, and postal systems emerged throughout Europe in the 19th century. Around 1875, the Universal Postal Union was organized to carry out postal correspondence with other countries. However, only with the creation of the telegraph did it become possible to carry out direct and instant communication with remote objects. In 1837, the electric telegraph was first tested in London, and in 1838, Samuel Morse patented the telegraph he invented in America.
After successfully laying the first submarine cable between North America and Europe in 1866, transatlantic telephone communication became possible.
Electricity
In 1831, Michael Faraday demonstrated the conversion effect electrical energy to mechanical. The electromagnetism he discovered served as the basis for the development of a dynamo and an electric generator. In 1837 he created a dynamo with increased electrical power, and the technique, which at first was almost inaccessible and very expensive, gradually gained popularity. Until the beginning of the 20th century, people learned to generate relatively cheap electricity only from the energy of water movement. In the mountainous regions of Italy, where there was no coal, most factories ran on electricity generated by generators powered by the movement of water. In Florence, the first electric trams were put into operation in 1890. In the 1930s, almost all of Europe was electrified, and states such as Russia, where industrialization in the 19th century was slower rather than faster, began to develop rapidly.
The factory floor of one of the Krupp steel factories in Essen, the largest weapons forges in the German Empire.
Weapon
Firearms began to be created in the 16th century, and their role gradually increased. A consequence of the technological innovations of the 19th century was the rapid change in military weapons. The invention of the machine gun led to subsequent changes in weapon production. In 1862, the Gatling gun was invented, which quickly fired pellets and was the first self-loading firearm. For the first time such weapons found use in Civil War in America and later began to be used in the US Navy. Mitrailleuses made in France consisted of 37 rifle barrels connected in bundles. In 1883, the Maxim machine gun, invented by an American, was the first to use recoil energy after a shot to reload cartridges, which made it possible to fire a whole series of shots. One of greatest inventors weapons is considered to be Alfred Krupp from Essen, who turned a small family business into the largest and most successful manufacturing enterprise Europe. When Krupp took over the company, it had five employees. After his death in 1887, 20 thousand people were already employed in production - proof of the enormous need for weapons in the 19th century.